LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


Presented 


^:—  -M"' 

^ 


TL.T. 


, 

.Entered,  accorduxfi  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  y«ar  J857 

SjrE.B,  and  EC  KELLOGG,      ' 
K«  Clerk's  Offic*  of  (he District  Court  oF  -dieDittrict  of  Connechcat.  o 


ZOOLOGICAL  SCIENCE 


NATURE  II  LIYIJTG  FORMS, 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  PLATES. 


ADAPTED   TO   ELUCIDATE   THE 


CHART  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM, 
BY  A.  M.   HEDFIELD, 


AND 


DESIGNED    FOR    THE    HIGHER    SEMINARIES,    COMMON    SCHOOLS,    LIBRARIES, 
AND    THE   FAMILY   CIRCLE. 


Ask  now  the  beasts,  and  they  shall  teach  thee ;  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  they  ehall 

tell  thee ;  or  speak  to  the  earth,  and  it  shall  tench  thee  ;  and  the  fishes  of  the 

sea  shall  declare  unto  thee.     Who  knoweth  riot  in  all  these  that 

the  haud  of  the  Lord  hath  wrought  this  ?  "  (Job  xii.  7.) 


UNIVERSITY 
E.  B.  &  E.  0. 

87  FULTON  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 
FREDERICK    COHOON,   COLUMBUS,    OHIO. 

1858, 


l> 


DEDICATION. 

THE  following  work  has  with  my  aid  been  prepared  by  an  esteemed  and 
highly  competent  friend,  to  whom  I  am  also  much  indebted  for  valuable 
assistance  rendered  in  connection  with  the  publication  of  the  Chart  which 
it  is  adapted  to  elucidate. 

Prepared,  as  it  has  been,  with  the  utmost  care  and  exactness ;  with  un~ 
usual  regard  to  order,  and  fullness  of  explanation  as  to  the  terms  employed, 
I  am  sanguine  in  the  belief  it  will  every  where  meet  with  a  cordial  welcome 
as  a  suitable  accompaniment  of  the  Chart.  Though  both  are  capable  of 
being  used  separately,  each  will  be  found  to  shed  light  upon  the  other. 

To  Teachers,  to  Parents  and  Heads  of  Families,  to  all  who  are  lovers  of 
Natural  History  and  desire  its  advancement,  I  humbly  but  respectfully  ded 
icate  this  volume  and  the  Chart  it  is  intended  to  explain  and  illustrate. 

ANN  M.  REDFIELD. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1858,  by 

B.   B.   &   K.    C.    KELLOGG, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  work  has  been  prepared  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  "  GEN 
ERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM  " — a  CHART  which,  in  the  beautiful  and 
harmonious  arrangement  of  its  several  parts  ;  its  lucid  and  orderly  classifica 
tion  ;  its  brief  but  comprehensive  statements  and  explanations, — presents  the 
subject  in  an  outline  so  full  and  consistent  as  to  make  it  valuable  even  to  the 
most  scientific  naturalist,  both  for  convenient  private  reference,  and  as  a 
help  or  guide  in  public  lectures ;  while  the  more  uninitiated,  and  such  as  are 
just  setting  out  in  the  study  of  Natural  History,  becoming  familiar  with  the 
details  of  the  Chart,  will,  it  is  believed,  desire  and  be  prepared  the  better 
to  appreciate  additional  information  in  relation  to  the  subject ;  such  infor 
mation  it  is  the  aim  of  this  work  to  impart. 

The  possessor  of  the  Chart  might  have  recourse  to  works  of  two 
kinds — one  purely  scientific,  like  those  of  Cuvier  and  others,  or  the  works 
on  Natural  History  published  by  State  authority  ;  the  other,  of  a  strictly 
popular  character,  in  which  not  a  single  scientific  or  technical  term  is  em 
ployed.  The  array  of  unexplained  technical  language  in  the  former  class 
of  works,  he  would,  perhaps,  deem  repulsive  and  discouraging;  the  descrip 
tions  of  the  latter  class,  he  might,  as  related  to  the  Chart,  be  often  at  a  loss 
to  apply  correctly,  though  presenting  to  him  the  appearance  of  more  inter 
esting  details  than  those  which  are  found  in  works  strictly  scientific.  The 
present  volume,  being  a  sort  of  medium  between  these  two  kinds  of  works, 
is  adapted  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  such  a  case.  It  does  not  give  the 
"characters"  and  "descriptions"  with  the  technicality  and  minuteness  of 
the  purely  scientific  treatise ;  to  do  this  was  found  to  be  incompatible 
with  the  desired  limits,  as  well  as  the  general  design  of  this  publication ; 
at  the  same  time,  it  is  far  from  ignoring  these  things,  after  the  manner  of 
some  popular  treatises.  The  "characters"  of  the  Classes,  Orders,  and 
Families  will  here  be  found  given  with  considerable  fullness ;  the  main  or 
prominent  ones  of  the  genera  and  species  are  also  usually  given :  not  in  all 
cases  in  a  separate  and  formal  manner,  but  occasionally  are  blended  with 
other  particulars  relating  to  the  general  habits  of  animals,  or  interspersed 

111911 


IV  PREFACE. 

with  illustrative  anecdote.  In  most,  if  not  all  cases,  the  reader  will,  from 
the  statements  made,  be  able  to  form  some  correct  and  consistent  ideas  as 
to  the  genera  and  species  noticed.  When  more  full  discriminations  are  de 
sired,  reference  can  be  had  to  other  and  larger  works. 

The  medium  character  of  this  volume,  and  its  relation  to  the  extremely 
wide  range  of  topics  presented  on  the  Chart,  have  increased  the  difficulty 
of  preparing  it  within  limits  so  restricted.  To  have  furnished  an  amusing 
work  composed  chiefly  or  entirely  of  anecdotes  or  kindred  material,  would 
have  been,  comparatively,  an  easy  task.  In  its  present  form,  this  work  will 
perhaps  not  be  unacceptable  to  such  as  are  already  somewhat  acquainted 
with  Natural  History  in  its  scientific  aspects  and  relations ;  while  others, 
the  young  especially,  may,  from  the  use  of  this  volume,  pass,  by  an  easy 
transition,  to  the  study  of  larger  works  and  those  more  purely  scientific. 
To  TEACHERS  in  particular,  is  this  volume  respectfully  commended.  Ques 
tions  are  added  to  each  section  with  special  reference  to  its  use  in  Acade 
mies  and  Common  Schools. 

It  is  proper  to  remark  that  this  work  is  not  published  as  containing  the 
results  of  original  observation,  excepting  to  a  limited  extent :  mainly  it  em 
bodies  materials  newly  moulded  and  arranged,  but  derived  from  approved 
standards,  and  some  of  the  latest  issues  relating  to  the  subjects  of  which 
it  treats.  The  range  of  reference  and  comparison  has  been  extensive  ; 
the  results  of  protracted  investigation  are  sometimes  condensed  into  a 
single  brief  paragraph  or  sentence.  This  work  will  be  found  orderly  and 
harmonious  in  several  respects  in  which  some  other  publications  betray 
confusion  and  inconsistency ;  in  the  explanation  of  scientific  terms,  also,  it 
is  unusually  full.  Neither  on  the  Chart,  nor  in  this  volume  has  the  aim 
been  to  give  all  the  different  names  which  may  have  been  applied  by  nat 
uralists  to  a  particular  object ;  for  this  there  was  not  room ;  and  besides, 
in  the  case  of  some,  such  a  course  might  have  tended  to  confuse  rather 
than  really  enlighten.  Many  of  the  pictorial  illustrations  are  original,  and 
with  the  accompanying  explanations,  will  be  found  to  add  much  to  the  in 
terest  and  intrinsic  value  of  the  work. 

It  is  confidently  trusted  that  the  CHART,  with  this  explanatory  vol 
ume,  will  be  welcomed  in  Seminaries  generally ;  and  be  accepted  as  valu 
able  auxiliaries  by  all  lovers  of  physical  science.  May  they  tend  to 
create  and  foster  widely  a  taste  for  the  study  of  nature ;  and  by  the 
developments  which  they  make,  and  the  researches  and  meditations  to 
which  they  lead,  awaken  loftier  and  more  worthy  thoughts  of  the  Infi 
nite  Creator.  M. 

SYRACUSE,  March  1,  1858. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


SUB-KINGDOMS,  four  :  VERTEBRATES,  ARTICULATES,  MOL- 
LUSKS,  RADIATES. 

VERTEBRATES  :  Grand  Divisions  :  WARM  and  COLD  BLOODED  : 
The  WARM  BLOODED  Division  includes  MAMMALS  and  BIRDS. 

1.  MAMMALS,  three  sub-classes,  nine  orders. 

FIRST  SUE-CLASS,  UNGUICULATA,    (with  nails*  or  claws.) 

(1.)  BIMANA,  (Two-handed)  Man. 

(2.)  QUADRUMANA  (Four-handed).     Three  families. 

Simiadce,  Apes,  Baboons,  Monkeys  of  the  Old  World. 
Cebidce,  Monkeys  (American). 
Lemuridai,  Lemurs. 

(3.)  CARNIVORA  (Flesh-eating  Quadrupeds). 

Sub-order,  CHEIROPTERA  (Hand-winged)  Bats. 

'DIGITIGRADA  (walking  on  the  toes).     Three  families. 

Felidce,  Cats,  Lions,  Tigers,  &c. 

Canidce,  Dogs,  Wolves,  &c. 

Mustelidce,  Weasels,  &c. 
PLANTIGRADA  (walking  on  the  soles  of  the  feet).  Two  families. 

Ursida,  Bears,  Racoons. 

Phocidce,  Seals,  Walruses,  &c. 
TRUE  INSECTIVORA  (Insect-eaters).     Four  families. 

Talpida,  Moles. 

SoreciddE,  Shrews. 

Erinaccadce,  Hedge-hogs. 

TupaiadcR,  Banxrings  (of  the  Indian  Archipelago). 

(4.)  MARSUPIALIA  (Pouched  Quadrupeds).     Four  sections. 
Sarcophacja  (Flesh-eaters).     Dasyuri. 


Ovo-viviparous.  ^nophuga  (Insect-eaters).     Opossums. 
Carpophaga  (Fruit-eaters).     Phalangers. 
Poephaga  (Grass-eaters).     Kangaroos. 
j      Sub-order    Rhizophaga  (Root-eaters).     Wombats. 
(  MONOTREMATA  (Monotremes).     Echidna  and  Ornithorhyncus  or 

Water-Mole. 


VI  CLASSIFICATION. 

(5.)  EDENTATA  (Toothless  or  without  front  teeth).     Four  families. 
Brady  podida  (Slow-footed)  or  Tardigrada,  Sloths. 
MegatheriadcK  (Great-beasts).     Fossil  Sloths. 
Myrmecophagadce  (Ant-eaters). 
ArmadiliidcE  (Armadillos). 

(6.)  RODENTIA  (Gnawing  Quadrupeds).     Seven  families. 
SciuridcE  (Squirrels). 
MuridcE  (Mice  &  Rats). 
Castoridce  (Beavers). 
Hystricida  (Porcupines). 
Cavid(£(CsiVies  or  Guinea  Pigs). 
ChinchillidcE  (Chinchillas). 
LeporidcB  (Hares). 

SECOND  SUB-CLASS,  UNGULATA  (with  hoofs). 

(7.)  PACHYDERMATA  (Thick-skinned  Quadrupeds).     Three  families. 
Elephantida  (or  Proboscideans,)  Elephants,  &c. 
Suidce,  Swine,  Rhinoceros,  &c. 

»     -j-    TT  n  u         s      (  Solipedes  or  Solidungula 

Equidu,  Horses,  Zebras,  Ac.  -j        »    Solid-hoofed. 

(8.)  RUMINANTIA  (Cud-chewing  Quadrupeds).     Eight  Families. 
Camelida^  Camels,  Llamas. 
Camelopardce,  Camelopards  or  Giraffes. 
Moschidtz,  Musk-Deer. 
Cervida,  Deer  or  Stags. 
Bovida,  Oxen,  Bison,  (Buffalo,)  &C. 
Ovidce,  Sheep. 
Capridce,  Goats. 
Antilopidce,  Antelopes. 

THIRD  SUB-CLASS,  MARINE  MAMMALS. 
(9.)  CETACEA  (Whale-tribe).     Four  families. 

BalanidcE,  Baleen  or  Whale-bone  Whales. 


, 

Delphinidce,  Dolphins,  Porpoises,  &c. 
\ 


I.  DIVISION  of  WARM  BLOODED  VERTEBRATES. 

BIRDS  :  Land  Birds,  five  orders  ;    Water  Birds,  two  orders. 
(1.)  RAPTORES  (Raveners  or  Birds  of  Prey).     Three  families. 
Falconida,  Falcon  tribe.     Three  families. 
Sub-families,  Aguilince,  Eagles. 
Milvince,  Kites. 
Buteonince,  Buzzards. 
Falconina,  Falcons. 
Accipitrince,  Hawks. 
Vulturida,  Vultures. 
Strigida,  Owls. 

(2.)  INSESSORES  (Perchers).     Four  sub-orders.     FISSIROSTRES,  DEN- 

TIROSTRES,  CONIROSTRES,  TENUJROSTRES. 


CLASSIFICATION.  VI  i 

1.  FISSIROSTRES  (Cleft-bills).     Seven  families. 

Caprimulgidee,  Night-jars. 
Hirundinida,  Swallows. 
Meropidce,  Bee-eaters. 
Todidat,  Todies. 
Trogonida,  Trogons. 
Halcyonida  or  )  Ki      fishera. 
AlcedimclcB,        ) 
Trogonida,  Trogons. 

2.  DENTIROSTRES  (Toothed-bills). 

Silviadte,  Warblers. 

Mcrulida  or  )  Thrughes> 

1  urdimdeB,     ) 

MuscicapidcK,  Fly-catchers. 

Ajnpelidce,  Chatterers. 

Laniada,  Shrikes  or  Butcher  Birds. 
8.  CONIROSTRES  (  Cone-billed).     Seven  families. 

Corvidae,  Crows,  sub-fam.  :  Paradiseadce,  Birds  of  Paradise. 

Sturnidiz,  Starlings. 

Fringillidce,  Finches. 

Loxiada,  Cross-bills. 

Bucerotidce,  Hornbills. 

Musophagida>,  Plaintain-eaters. 
4.  TENUIROSTRES  (Thin-billed).     Five  families. 

Promeropida  or  Upupadce,  Hoopoes. 

Sun-birds>  Honey-suckers  or  Nectar  Birds. 


Trochilidce,  Humming-birds. 
Mellphagidce,  Honey-eaters. 
CerthiadcE,  Creepers. 

(3.)  SCANSORES,  Climbers.     Four  families. 
Rhamphastida,  Toucans. 
Psittacida,  Parrots. 
Picida,  Wood-peckers. 
Cuculidce,  Cuckoos. 

(4.)  RASORES  or  GALLING,  (Scratchers,  Poultry  Birds.)    Seven  families. 
ColumbidfB,  Pigeons. 
Cracidce,  Curassows. 
MegapodidfR,  Megapodes  or  Great-foots. 
Phasianidce,  Pheasants,  &c. 
jTetraonida,  Grouse. 
Chionida;,  Sheath-bills. 
Tinamidoe,  Tinamous. 

(5.)  CdRSORES  (Runners).    One  family.   Struthionida,  Ostriches,  &c. 
(6.)  GRALLATORES,  (Waders.)     Six  families.  Aquatic  Bird*. 

Charadriadce,  Plovers. 

ArdeidtE,  Herons. 

Rostridf?,  Spoon-bills. 

Tantalida,  Ibises. 

Scolopacida;,  Snipes, 

Rattida,  Rails. 


CLASSIFICATION. 


(T.)  NATATORES,  (Swimmers).     Six  families. 
Anatidce,  Ducks. 
Colymbida,  Divers. 
Alcidce,  Auks. 
Procellarida,  Petrels. 
Larida,  Gulls. 
Pelecanida,  Pelicans. 

The  COLD  BLOODED  Division  includes  REPTILES  and  FISHES. 
I.  REPTILES,  four  orders,  viz.  CHELONIANS  (Turtles). 

SAURIANS  (Lizards,  Crocodiles). 
OPHIDIANS  (Snakes). 
AMPHIBIANS  (Frogs,  Toads,  &c.) 

1st.  CHELONIANS,   (CHELONIA,)  arranged  by  Agassiz  in  his  late  work,  as 
follows : 

Sub-orders. 


ORDER,  TESTUDLNATA. 


2d.  SAURIANS. 


ORDER,  SAURIA. 


1.  Amy  da,    - 


2.  Chelonii, 


Fam.  Crocodilidce. 


Land  Tortoises. 

Marsh  and 
River  Tor 
toises. 

Sea  Turtles. 


Families. 
Testudinina, 
Emydoida, 
Cinostcrnoidfe, 
ChelydroidtB, 
Hydraspida, 
Chelyoida, 
Trionychidce, 
(  Chelonidte, 
(  Sphargidce, 

(  Alligators  or  Caimans  of  America. 
J  Crocodiles  of  the  Nile, 
j  Gavials  of  the  Ganges. 
[  Enaliosauria,  (Fossil  Fish-Lizards). 
ChamceleonidcE,  Chamaeleons. 
Geckotida,  Geckos. 
Iguanida,  Iguanas. 
Varanida,  Varans. 
TeidfE,  Teguixans. 
Lcnertidce,  True  Lizards. 
Chalcidce,  Snakelike  do. 
Scincidce,  Scinks. 

Family  Colubridce,  (mostly)  harmless  Snakes. 
Boida,  Boas  and  Pythons. 
Hydridtp,  Water  (Venomous)  Snakes. 
Viperidte,  Vipers,          do. 
Crotalidce,  Rattle  Snakes  (all  kinds.) 
4th.  AMPHIBIANS,  sub-order.     Caducibranchiata,  (Gills  perishable  in  the 

tadpole  state.) 
'Family  Cteciliidce,  (Caecilia.)     Apodous  or  without  feet. 


8d.  OPHIDIANS. 
ORDER  OPHIDIA. 


ORDER  AMPHIBIA. 


tailless- 


aer-e 
ma      ) 
a  or   >• 
il. 


with 
tails 


Salamanders 
Land-Newts 
Tritons,  Water-Xewts. 
[      Amphiuma 
Amphiumidce,     •<    Menopoma 

(      Mud-devil.  f  gills.) 

Sub-order  PERENNIBRANCHIATA,  (with  enduring 
Proteidee,  (Proteus,  Axolotl,  Siren.) 


CLASSIFICATION. 


*IT.  FISHES.    THREE  GROUPS  or  DIVISIONS  based  upon  the  distinctive 

character  of  the  fins,  viz. 
ACANTHOPTERYGII,  (Spine-rayed  fins.) 
MALACOPTERYGII,  (Soft-rayed  fins.) 
CHONDROPTERYGII,  (Cartilage-fins. ) 

Agassiz  bases  the  orders  upon  the  scales  and  makes  them  four. 
Ctenoids,  (Comb-like.) 
Cycloids,  (Circle-like.) 
Ganoids,  (Splendor-like.) 
Placoids,  (Plate-like.) 


1st  ORDER. 

ACANTHOPTERYGJI, 

(Spine-rayed,) 

or 
CTENOIDS. 


Family  Percidcs,  (Perch.) 


2d  ORDER. 
MALACOPTERYGII, 
(Soft-rayed) 
or 
CYCLOIDS. 

Abdominales, 
(Ventral  fins 
behind  the 
pectoral.) 

Sub-brach- 
ials.    (Ventral  ^ 
fins  under  the 
pectoral.) 

Triglidce,  (Gurnards.) 

Scienidce,  (Maigres,  Sheep's-heads,  Drum-fish,  &c.) 

Sparidce,  (Sea-Breams.) 

Chcetontidee,  (Chsetodons,  Moon-fish,  Razor-fish.) 

Scombridce,  (Mackerel.) 

Anabassidce.  (Climbing-Perches.) 
.    Cepolid*  or  >  (Ribbon.fish>) 
I  Tamada;,      )  v 

Teuthida,  (Surgeon-fish.) 

Atherinidoe,  (Silver-sides.) 

Mugilida,  (Mullets.) 

Gobidce,  (Gobias.) 

Lophidce,  (Crested  or  Toad-fish.) 

Lubridce,  (Wrasses  or  Rock-fish.) 

Silurida,  (Cat-fish.) 
Cyprinidce,  (Carps.) 
EsocidcE,  (Pikes.) 
Fistularidce,  (Pipe-fish.) 
Salmonidce,  (Salmon.) 
Clupeidce,  (Herring.) 
Gadida,  (Codfish.) 


Echeneidce,  (Sucking-fish.) 
Cyclopteridce,  (Lump-fish.) 
j  Apodes,  without  )  Murcenidce  or  )  ,p  ,    v 
|      ventral  fins.       J  AnguWda-,      $^GiS-J 

{Lophobranchia  or  ) 
Lophobranchii,       [•  Syngnathida,  (Sea-horse,  &c.) 
(Tufted-gills.)         ) 

C  Plectognathi,    )  Gyrnnodontid^ ,  Balloon-fish.) 
!  (Plaited  iaws^i  f  B(lhst*da;>  (File-fish.) 
(  (1-laiteu  jaws)  J  Ostracionid(K)  (Trunk-fish.) 


See  Page  660. 


CLASSIFICATION, 


CHONDROPTERIGII. 


ARTICULATES. 
I.  INSECTS. 

Twelve  ORDERS 
Of  TRUE  INSECTS. 


With  biting 
mouths. 


PLACOIDS 


GANOIDS.  Saurida,  (Gar-fish,  &c.) 

"Eleutheropomi,  (gills  free.) 

Chimceridte,  (Sea  Monsters.) 
Sturionidce,  (Sturgeons.) 
Plagiostomi,  (transverse  mouths.) 

(  SgualidcB,  (Sharks.) 
(  RaiidfB,  (Rays.) 

Cyclostomi,  (Round  fleshy  mouth  or  lip.) 
[Petromyzonidce,  (Lampreys.) 

IBranchiostoma,  (Gill-mouth,  i.  e.,  having 
cirri,  or  curled  filaments  in  the  mouth.) 
[Amphioxidce,  (Lancelets.) 
Very  anomalous,  and  sometimes  included 
with  the  Cyclostomi. 
hree  classes.     INSECTS. 

CRUSTACEANS. 

WORMS  or  ANNELIDANS. 

1.  COLEOPTERA  (Sheath-wings),  Beetles,  Hornbugs. 

2.  STREPSIPTERA  (Twisted-wings),  Wasp-flies. 

3.  DERMAPTERA  (Skin-wings),  Ear-wigs. 

4.  ORTHOPTERA  (Strait-wings). 

Sub-orders,  CURSORIA  (Runners),  Cockroaches. 
RAPTORIA  (Graspers),  Mantises. 
AMBULATORIA  (Walkers),  Walking 

Sticks. 
SALTATORIA  (Leapers),  Grasshoppers, 

Crickets,  &c. 
6.  TRICHOPTERA  (Hair-wings),  Caddice-flies,  &c. 

6.  NEUROPTERA  (Nerve-wings),  White  Ants,  Dragon- 

flies,  &c.  [&c. 

7.  HYMENOPTERA  (Membranous-wings),  Bees,  Wasps, 

8.  LEPIDOPTERA  (Scale-wings),  Moths,  Butterflies,  &c. 

9.  HEMIPTERA  (Half-wings),  Fruit-bugs,  Bed-bugs,  &c. 

10.  DIPTERA  (Two-wings),  Flies,  Musquitoes,  &c. 

11.  APHANIPTERA  (Invisible  or  rudimental  wings), 

Fleas,  Jiggers. 

x  12.  APTERA  (No  wings),  Lice,  Lepismas. 
11    ,  (13.  MYRIAPODA  (with  innumerable  feet),  Thousand-leg- 
ed  J  ged  Worms,  Centipedes. 

(  14.  ARACHNIDA,  Spiders,  Scorpions,  Ticks,  Mites. 

2d.  CRUSTACEANS.     Five  orders  (or  sub-classes,)  (Dana). 

1.  Decapoda  (Ten-footed),  Crabs,  Lobsters,  Shrimps. 

2.  Tetradecapoda  (Fourteen-footed),  Sow-bugs,  Sand-fleas,  &c. 

3.  Entomostraca  (Shell  insects),    Cyclops,  Daphnia,  Cypris, 

Limulus,  (Sea-Spiders),  and  possibly  also  the  TRILOBITES. 

4.  Cirripedes  (curled  jointed-feet),  Barnacles. 
6.  Rotatoria  or  Rotifera — Wheel  Animalcules. 

3d.  WORMS  or  ANNELIDANS.     Four  orders. 

1.  Tubulibranchiata  (Gills  in  tubes),  Serpula,  Vermilia,  &c. 

2.  Dorsibranchiata  (Gills  on  the  back),  Sea-Centipedes. 
8.  Abranchiata  (without  gills),  Leeches  &  Earth-worms. 
4.  Entozoa,  (Internal  worms,)  or  White  blooded  Worms. 


With  sucking 
mouths. 


CLASSIFICATION.  v;1 

These  sometimes  resemble  worms  found  in  the  other 

classes  or  orders,  while  differing  from  them  as  to  their 

locality.     They  have  been  arranged  into  the  following 

sub-orders  : 

(1).  Nematoidea  or  Nematoids,  Round  Worms,  Thread  Worms, 

Pin  Worms,  Guinea  Worms. 

(2).  Acanthocephala,  (Spine-headed,)  Hooked  Worms. 
(3).  Trematoda,  (from  Gr.   trema,  hole,   having  Sucker-like 

openings,)  Fluke  Worms,  &c. 
(4).   Cestoidea,  (Gr.  Kestos,  girdle,)  Tape  Worms. 
(5).  Cystica,  (Gr.  Kustis,  a  bladder,)  Hytatids  or  Bladder- 
like  Worms. 

MOLLUSKS.    Two  GRAND  DIVISIONS: 

CepHALATA  (with  heads)  or  UNIVALVES. 
ACEPHALA  (without  heads)  or  BIVALVES. 
I.  CEPHALATA  :  Three  classes  or  Sub-divisions,  viz. 


(1).  (tauiOPO*,  suihhead.     Two  section,. 

Dibranchiata,  (Two  branchiae,)  Cuttle-fish. 
Tetrabranchiata,  (Four  branchia?,)  Nautilus,  Ammonites,  &c. 

i  Wing-footed,  i.  e.,  ) 
wing-like  arms     >•  Three  families, 
for  swimming.      j 
HyalaidcE,  Hyalaea,  Cleodora. 
Limacinida,  Limacina,  Spiralis. 
Clionidce,  Clio. 

(3).  G.ST.BOPOOS, 

(1).  Pulmobranchia  (Lung-like  Gills).     (Four  families.) 

Limacidee,  (from  Limax,}  Slugs. 

HelicidcB,  (from  Helix,)  Snails. 

Auriculidce,  (from  Auricula,}  Ear-shaped  Shells. 

Limntzidce,  (     "      Limncca,   Aquatic-Snails. 
(2).  Pectinibranchia,  (Comb-like  gills.)     (Nine  families.) 

Trochida,  (from  Trockus,)  Trochi. 

Turbinidce,  (from  Turbo,}  Turbines,  Periwinkles. 

Muricidce,    (  "      Murex,)  Murices. 

Strombidce,  (  "      Strombus,)  Conch-Shells. 

Buccinidce,  (  "      Buccinum,}  Harp-Shells,  Whelkfl. 

Cyprceida,  (   "       Cyprcea,}  Cowries. 

Conidce,  (from  Conus,)  Cones. 

Volutidce,  (from  Valuta,)  Volutes,  Olives,  Mitres. 

Capuloidea,  (from  Capula,)  Cup-shaped  Shells. 


Tubulibranchia,  (Tubular-gills,)  Vermetus,  Siliquaria. 
Scutibranchia  or  j  Gills   shielded,    by  )  Trni:nf:a 
Aspidobranchia,  \        the  Shell. 

f    Gills  circular,  i.  e., 
Cyclobranchia,  •<   around  the  body  of 

(         the  animal. 


Xll 


CLASSIFICATION. 


Tectlbranchia, 


Infer  obranchia, 
Nudibranclria, 


Heteropoda, 


Covered-gills,       )  Bulk  or 
i.  e.,  by  the  mantle,  j  Bubble. 
Under-gills,  i.  e.,  )          ... , 
under  the  edge    I  ff  ffj^ 
of  the  mantle.    )  Diphylhdia. 
j  Naked-gills,  i.  e.,  1  Glaucus, 
(    without  Shells.     )  Doris. 
Other-footed,  i.  e.,  feet    )  Carinaria, 
different  from  the  others.  (  Firola. 


II.  ACEPHALA.     HEADLESS  MOLLUSKS.     Four  orders.  [like  gills.) 

(1).  CONCHIFERA  (Shell  bearing)    or  LAMELLIBRANCHIA,  (Plate  or  leaf- 
(Oyster  Family)  Ostracece-  f  sub-families-^norauWa?,  Anomia.  1  ,, 

I  P/acunt^,Placuna.|Monomy- 


OttreidtB,  Ostrea.        J. 


«a<>r 


Aviculide,  Avicula.  j  muscle« 

(Fresh  Water  Mussels)  4  Naiades  or  t/rnomW#,  Unio,  Anodon, 

Alasmodon. 
(Salt-water          do.    )  4  Mytilacece,  Mytilus,  Modiola,  Pinna, 

Crenella. 
4  C/iamaccff-sub-families, 

Tridacnidce,  Tridacna. 
Chamidce,  Chama. 
4  Cardiacecet.(  do.  Carditidee,  Cardita. 

Mantle  closed  behind. 

Siphons  united  ]        Lucinidtx,  Lucina. 

or  distinct.     I         Veneridce,  Venus.  Dimyaria 

[        Crassitcllidce,  Crassitella,        (or  having 

Sub-order  INCLUSA  (inclosed,  i.  e.,  within  the  j         two 

mantle,  which  has  but  one  opening  for  the       muscles.) 

passage  of  the  foot.) 

Families  Madridce,  Hactra. 

Myidce,  Mya. 

SolemyidfB,  Solemya. 

Saxicavida,  Saxicava. 

Pandoridce,  Pandora. 

Solenidce,  Solon  (Razor  Shell). 

Pholadidce,  Pholas. 

Teredinidce,  Teredo  (Wood  or  Ship  Worm. 
Enclosed  in  a  tube  (  Tubicolidce,  Aspergillum  )  or  Watering- 
but  not  attached.  \  Gastrochaena.  j  pot. 

C  Arm-footed,  i.  e.,  having  two  long  spiral  ^  Terebratula, 
(2).  BRACHIOPODA,  ^  arms  each  side  of  the  mouth  capable    >     Lingula, 
(  of  protrusion.  )     Orbicula. 

(8).  TUNICATA,    \  Coated<  l  e"'  bod-^  enveloped  in  an  elastic  i  __including 
'     |  tunic  or  coa-t,  J 

the  Ascidi&ns  (or  Mollusks  of  a  Leathern  bottle-shape). 
Gr.  Moss-animals,  i.  e.,  largely  aggregated  like  ) 
corallagineous  Zoophytes.  ) 


CLASSIFICATION.  Xlll 

(Agassiz  proposes  the  following  classification,  Contributions  to  Nat. 
Hist.,  Vol.  1,  page  185.) 

1st  Class.     Acephala,  (orders  as  already  given.) 

2d     do.        Gasteropoda,  with  three  orders,  Pteropoda,  Heteropoda, 

and  Gasteropoda  proper. 
3d     do.        Cephalopoda,  with  two  orders,  Tetrabranchiata  and 

Dibranchiata. 
RADIATES.     Four  Classes. 

I.  ECHINODERMS,  (Gr.  Echinos,  the  Sea-urchin ;  derma  skin.)  Four  orders. 
(1).  HOLOTHURIDEA,  (Gr.  Holothourion,)  Sea-slugs  or  Sea-cucumbers. 
(2).  ECHINIDEA,  (Gr.  echinos).     Sea-urchins. 
(3).  ASTERIDEA,  (Gr.  aster,  a  Star.)     Star-fish. 
(4).  CRINOIDEA.  (Gr.  krinon,  a  lily,  lily-like).     Encrinites. 

II.  ACALEPHS.,  (Gr.  akalephe,  a  nettle).     Three  orders. 

(1).  PCJLMONIGRADES,  (pulmo,  lungs ;  gradior,  to  advance,  i.  e.,  con 
tracting  or  expanding  their  umbrella-shaped  disk,  thus  showing 
a  resemblance  to  the  motion  of  the  lungs  in  breathing. 
(2.)  PHYSOGRADA,  (Gr.  phusao,  to  inflate ;  gradior,  i.  e.,  supported  and 
moving  in  the  water  by  means  of  one  or  more  bladders,  capable 
of  being  filled  with  air  at  the  will  of  the  animal).  Hydrostatic 
Acalephs  of  Cuvier. 

(3).  CILIOGRADA,    (cilia,   vibratile    hairs ;    gradior,   i.    e.,   moving  by 

means  of  vibratile  cilia  disposed  on  the  surface  of  the  body.) 
The  orders  are  otherwise  named  thus : 

DISCOPHORA,  (Disk-bearing)  Medusae  or  Jelly-fish. 
SIPHONOPHORA,  (Siphon  or  Sucker-bearing,  i.  e., 

having  aerial  vesicles.) 

CTENOPHORA,  (Comb-bearing,  i.  e.',  moving  by  vibrating 
hairs  resembling    the  teeth  of  a  comb.) 

III.  PHYTOZOA  or  (  (phuton,  a  plant;  zoon,  animal,')  Plant-like  animals. 
ZOOPHYTA,      "j  Two  orders. 

pi         j  ACTINOIDS,  (aktin,  a  ray,)  Ray-like  animals.  [animals. 

yp  '  "j  Hydroids,  (hudra,  a  hydra  or  water-snake,)  Hydra-like 

IY.  PROTOZOA,  (proton,  first ;  zoon,  animal :  i.  e.,  the  lowest  form  of  or 
ganized  bodies.) 

[The  last  is  a  very  numerous,  but  a  very  uncertain  class.  Linnaeus  placed 
them  all  at  the  end  of  Worms,  and  called  them  Chaos.  So  great  is  the 
number  of  the  INFUSORIES  that  they  have  sometimes  been  arranged  into 
Legions.  Some  have  been  transferred  to  the  Articulates  ;  others  have 
been  removed  to  the  Vegetable  Kingdom.  Prof.  Agassiz  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  entire  class  will  soon  be  dispensed  with. 


NOTE. 

An  interesting  and  instructive  use  of  the  "  Chart  of  the  Animal  King- 
dom  "  will  be  to  employ  the  method  of  CLASSIFICATION,  which  it  embodies, 
in  tracing  an  individual  of  any  species,  through  the  successive  gradations, 
to  the  Sub-Kingdom  to  which  it  belongs. 

1.  In  the  VERTEBRATES,  take,  for  example,  the  Common  Dog,  Canisfamil- 

iaris;  and  it  maybe  traced  as  follows:  The  generic  term  (which  is 
always  placed  before  the  specific,  or  stands  alone  when  the  specific 
term  is  omitted)  is  Canis;  familiaris  is  the  specific  term.  ."Genera 
are  formed  into  families;  the  family  name  is  Canidce ;  families  are 
formed  into  sub-orders  or  orders  (the  orders  are  in  larger  or  capital 
letters) ;  Canidce  belongs  to  the  sub-order  DIGITIGRADA  ;  to  the  order 
Carnivora.  Orders  are  formed  into  classes.  CARNIVORA  belongs  to 
the  sub-class  UNGUICULATA  ;  to  the  class  MAMMALS.  Classes  (denoted 
by  larger  letters)  are  formed  into  SUB-KINGDOMS.  The  MAMMALS 
belong  to  the  Sub-Kingdom  VERTEBRATES,  denoted  by  letters  next  in 
size  to  those  of  the  "ANIMAL  KINGDOM." 

2.  In  the  ARTICULATES,  take  the  Lobster,  Astacus  marinus.     Marinus  de 

notes  the  species;  Astacus,  the  genus — of  the  order  (or  sub-class) 
MALACOSTRACA,  of  the  class  CRUSTACEA,  of  the  Sub-Kingdom  ARTICU 
LATES. 

3.  In  the  MOLLUSKS,  take  the  Shell,  Mitra  episcopalis.     Episcopalis  is  the 

name  of  thue  species :  Mitra,  of  the  genus.  This  genus  belongs  to  the  fam 
ily  Volutidce.  The  family  Volutidce  belongs  to  the  order  PECTINIBRAN- 
CHIA;  this  order  to  the  class  GASTEROPODS  ;  this  class  to  the  UNI 
VALVES,  the  first  grand  division  of  the  Sub-Kingdom  MOLLUSKS. 

4.  In  the  RADIATES,  take  the  Portugese  Man   of  War,  Physalis  pelagica. 

The  generic  term  is  Physalis ;  the  specific  term,  pelagica;  Physalis 
belongs  to  the  order  SIPHONOPHORI,  to  the  class  ACALEPHS,  to  the  Sub- 
Kingdom  RADIATES. 

The  above  are  given  as  specimens  in  the  several  sub-kingdoms,  showing 
the  manner  in  which  the  species  named  in  the  Chart,  may  in  conformity 
with  the  system  of  Classification,  be  followed  up  to  their  respective  places. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


SECTION  I. 

THE  science  of  Natural  History  is  truly  vast  in  its  extent, 
including  all  bodies  found  on  the  earth,  or  of  which  its  mass  is 
composed.  Its  most  general  divisions  are  MINERALOGY,  BOTANY 
and  ZOOLOGY.  These  divisions  are  founded  upon  the  different 
and  distinguishing  characters  and  states  of  the  various  objects 
which  they  respectively  include.  Minerals  are  inorganic  bodies  • 
they  are  without  life,  and  incapable  of  increase  or  diminution 
except  by  means  of  some  force  outwardly  applied.  These  are 
earth,  rock,  metals,  &c.  ORGANIC  bodies  are  divided  into  ANI 
MATE  and  INANIMATE.  The  former  comprehend  substances  en- 
dowed  with  sense  and  motion  and  belong  to  the  department  of 
ZOOLOGY  ;  the  latter  are  without  the  faculties  of  sense  and  mo 
tion,  and  included  in  BOTANY.  Organized  beings,  whether  ani 
mate  or  inanimate,  differ  from  inorganic  ones  in  having  the  power 
of  reproduction,  or  continuing  the  existence  of  beings  like  them 
selves.  Animals  derive  their  nourishment  either  directly  or  in 
directly  from  vegetables,  of  which  hydrogen  and  carbon  are 
the  principal  ingredients.  The  latter  derive  their  nourishment 
from  the  soils  of  the  earth  and  from  the  atmosphere. 

In  the  survey  of  objects  so  numerous  and  possessing  such  varied 
characteristics  as  those  of  Natural  History,  classification  is  obvi 
ously  of  high  importance.  A  union  of  several  traits  is  almost 
always  required  to  distinguish  a  single  being  from  others 
around  it  which  have  some,  but  not  all  of  the  same  traits,  or 
have  them  in  combination  with  others  of  which  that  single 
being  is  destitute.  In  the  work  of  classification  a  number  of 
neighboring  beings  are  compared  with  each  other ;  and  their 
differences,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  least  part  of  their  for 
mation,  are  made  indexes  of  their  character.  The  union  formed 
by  the  comparison  of  objects  which  agree,  but  with  certain 
differences,  is  called  a  genus ;  a  union  with  fewer  differences 


10  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

is  called  a  species.  Genera  are  formed  into  orders,  and  orders 
into  classes. 

The  CHART  of  which  this  volume  is  explanatory,  exhibits  the 
"Animal  Kingdom  "  by  means  of  a  Tree  having  four  branches, 
each  representing  one  of  the  four  sub-kingdoms  into  which  it  is 
divided,  viz.,  VERTEBRATES,  ARTICULATES,  MOLLUSKS  and  RADI 
ATES.  Each  branch  puts  forth  other  branches  bearing  subdivis 
ions — classes,  orders,  families,  genera,  &c.,  illustrated  by  nu 
merous  and  appropriate  figures,  and  so  variously  lettered  and 
marked  as  to  be  easily  distinguished.  It  was  prepared  with 
great  labor,  and  in  the  use  of  much  research,  in  order  to  facil 
itate  acquisitions  in  the  department  of  physical  science  which  it  de 
lineates  and  with  the  hope  of  thus  encouraging  a  more  general  in 
troduction  of  the  Study  of  Natural  History  into  our  Seminaries  ol 
learning,  from  the  Common  School  to  the  College  and  University. 
"  Man,"  said  Lord  Bacon,  "  is  the  minister  and  interpreter  of  NA 
TURE." 

More  attention  should  be  given  in  the  domestic  circle,  and  in  the 
various  schools  of  instruction  to  the  business  of  training  the  young 
to  be  observersof  nature.  A  fondness  for  the  lessons  and  resear 
ches  of  natural  history,  implanted  in  the  mind  during  the  period 
of  youth,  will,  in  all  probability,  last  through  life,  affecting  fa 
vorably  the  entire  mental  development. 

None  should  neglect  the  investigations  to  which  by  the  "  View 
of  the  Animal  Kingdom, "they  are  invited.  Such  investigations, 
it  should  be  remembered,  pertain  neither  to  fiction  nor  hypothe 
sis — but  to  realities.  They  seem  specially  adapted  to  man's 
endowments  in  his  present  state  of  existence  ;  but  the  facts  and 
impressions  which  he  derived  from  an  earnest  contemplation  of 
the  works  of  God,  memory  will  embalm  and  render  immortal, 
"And  as  now  the  memory  of  home  is  pleasurable  in  proportion 
to  the  vividness  and  distinctness  of  its  image;  as  we  now  attach 
importance  to  the  most  insignificant  object  around  the  place  of 
our  birth  ;  as  we  regard  with  intense  interest  the  old  elm,  the 
green  lawn,  the  hawthorn  bush,  the  rivulet  because  they  are  in 
separably  connected  with  our  developments  of  mind,  even  so 
perhaps  may  we  then,  after  millions  of  ages  shall  have  elapsed, 
recall  with  increasing  pleasure  the  physical  scenery  of  this 
birth-place  of  our  existence." 

QUESTIONS  ON  SECTION  I. 

What  does  the  science  of  Natural  History  include?  What  are  its  gen 
eral  divisions  ?  What  are  minerals  ?  How  are  organic  bodies  divided  ? 
Which  belong  to  Zoology  ?  Which  to  Botany  ?  How  do  organic  bodies 


THE    ANIMAL    KINGDOM.  1  1 

differ  from  inorganic  ?  From  what  do  animals  derive  their  nourishment  ? 
Of  what  do  vegetables  principally  consist?  From  what  do  they  derive  their 
nourishment  ?  What  is  necessary  to  distinguish  one  being  from  another  ? 
How  do  you  proceed  in  classifying  objects?  What  is  a  genus?  What 
is  a  species  ?  Of  what  are  orders  and  classes  formed  ?  What  is  the  defi 
nition  of  genus  and  species  at  the  bottom  of  the  chart  on  the  left  hand  ? 
What  are  minuter  differences  called  ?  Answer.  Varieties.  What  does  a 
generic  name  signify  or  comprehend  ?  Ans.  It  comprehends  all  the  species ; 
Canis,  for  example,  is  the  generic  name  of  animals  of  the  Dog  kind,  includ 
ing  the  Fox  (Canis  Vulpes,}  the  Wolf  (C.  Lupus,)  the  Jackal  (C.  aureus,) 
and  the  domestic  Dog  (6Y.  familiaris.)  How  are  generic  terms  printed  on 
the  chart  ?  Ans.  Always  larger  than  the  common  name  by  which  the  ani 
mal  is  known,  and  commencing  with  a  capital  letter.  How  do  you  distin 
guish  the  specific  from  the  generic  name  ?  Ans.  It  follows  the  generic 
term  in  letters  of  the  same  size,  and  should  not  commence  with  a  capital, 
unless  it  is  derived  from  some  person  or  place,  or  is  sometimes  used  in  a 
generic  sense.  Why  is  the  name  of  the  species  often  omitted  on  the  chart  ? 
Ans.  For  want  of  room,  and  fear  of  confusing  the  student  by  crowding  too 
much  in  a  small  space.  How  are  the  families  distinguished  on  the  chart  ? 
Ans.  By  their  terminating  in  idae,  as  mustelidae  for  the  Weasel  Tribe,  or 
Family.  How  can  you  distinguish  the  orders  ?  Ans.  They  are  printed  in 
CAPITALS,  and  the  number  of  orders  is  mentioned  on  the  branch,  as  in 
the  Ungulata,  or  hoofed  Mammals.  Are  there  any  other  divisions  or  dis 
tinctions  on  the  chart  ?  Ans.  Several,  as  among  the  cud  chewing  some 
have  solid  horns,  some  are  hollow,  and  some  are  entirely  without  horns ; 
some  shed  them  annually  as  in  the  deer,  in  others  they  are  permanent,  as 
in  the  ox  or  sheep.  Some  birds  are  terrestrial,  others  aquatic ;  some 
insects  and  reptiles  are  venomous  (poisonous ;)  others  are  non-venomous,  or 
harmless.  Wherever  there  is  room,  you  will  find  these  things  noticed 
on  the  branches,  or  as  near  the  classes,  orders  or  figures  as  practicable. 
Dots  are  often  added  to  make  the  connection  or  relation  still  plainer ;  and 
where  there  is  but  small  space  allotted  to  explanation  or  figures,  the  defi 
ciency  will  be  remedied  as  we  proceed.  How  many  ranks,  or  grades  of 
groups  does  Swainson  enumerate  ?  Ans.  Nine,  commencing  with  the  high 
est,  and  terminating  with  the  lowest  assemblages.  1.  Kingdom;  2.  Sub- 
kingdom;  3.  Class;  4.  Order;  5.  Tribe;  6.  Family;  7.  Sub-family;  8. 
Genus;  9.  Sub-genus.  Name  the  four  great  Classes,  or  Sub-Kingdoms 
from  the  chart. 

SECTION  II. 

THE    ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

THE  system  of  Zoology  places  MAN  at  the  head  of  this  King, 
dom.  As  he  is  endowed  with  intellectual  and  moral  faculties, 
and  fitted  for  responsible  action,  there  is  room  for  doubt  whether, 
in  his  pre-eminence,  he  should  have  a  place  among  the  tribes  of 
animals.  But  as  his  being  is  compound,  he  becomes  the  con 
necting  link  between  them  and  beings  purely  spiritual.  To  the 
former  he  is  allied  by  his  bodily  frame  with  its  appetites  and 
passions;  to  the  latter  by  his  reason  and  mental  susceptibilities. 
INSTINCT  distinguishes  the  lower  animals — truly  wonderful  in 


12  ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

some  of  its  actings  as  will  be  shown  hereafter ;  but  yet  only  a 
mere  internal  impulse,  and  incapable  of  improvement.  The 
bird  shows  it  in  building  its  nest;  the  bee  in  constructing  its  cells; 
but  both  the  nest  and  comb  are  made  as  skillfully  at  the  first  as 
in  any  subsequent  trial. 

There  seems  no  occasion  to  mistake  by  referring  to  mineralogy 
or  botany  what  properly  belongs  to  the  Animal  Kingdom  ;  and 
yet  in  such  animals  as  the  oyster  we  discern  but  little  of  the  sen 
sibility  and  capacity  for  voluntary  motion  which  are  usually  ad 
duced  as  characteristics  of  the  animal  tribes. 

Chemistry  has  ascertained  that  the  substances  found  both  in  ani 
mals  and  vegetables  are  chiefly  formed  of  four  elements,  viz.,  car 
bon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  These  have,  therefore, 
been  called  organic  elements.  The  opposite  and  distinctive 
natures  of  plants  and  animals  may  be  seen  in  the  functions 
which  they  perform  dependency  one  on  another.  In  animal 
respiration,  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  is  combined  with  the 
blood,  forming  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  thrown  off  from  the 
entire  surface  of  the  body  in  some  animals ;  from  the  gills  of 
those  that  live  in  water,  and  the  lungs  of  those  that  live  in  air. 
Animals  thus  consume  oxygen — to  them  it  is  pabulum  vitae — 
the  food  of  life.  Plants,  on  the  contrary,  consume  carbonic  acid 
and  give  off  oxygen.  They  thus  become  able  to  furnish  animals 
with  carbon.  Animals,  in  their  turn  furnish  food  to  plants.  The 
excretions  which  they  throw  off,  yield  ammonia  (consisting  of 
hydrogen  and  nitrogen,)  from  which  substance  vegetables  princi 
pally  derive  their  nitrogen.  The  animal  derives  the  constitu 
ents  of  its  body  from  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  the  plant  obtains 
its  elements  from  the  mineral  kingdom.  The  tissues  of  the  plant 
change  mineral  into  organic  substances  ;  those  of  the  animal 
change  organic  substances  into  mineral. 

A  further  contrast  between  plants  and  animals  is  presented  in 
the  effects  produced  upon  them,  respectively,  by  light  and  heat. 
Both  of  these  are  indispensable  to  the  proper  growth  of  plants. 
The  productions  found  in  their  tissues  are  but  the  expression  of 
the  light  and  heat  they  have,  as  it  were,  appropriated.  Many  of 
the  substances  in  this  way  formed,  are  taken  as  food  into  the 
systems  of  animals  ;  but  in  them  are  again  set  free  in  the  form 
of  "  vital  animal  forces." 

Differences  of  structure  also  constitute  an  important  ground  of 
distinction  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms ;  yet, 
sometimes,  as  in  the  sponge,  it  is  only  by  considering  to  which 
there  is  the  greatest  general  resemblance,  it  can  be  decided 


ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

whether  a  particular  being  should  be  classed  as  an 
vegetable. 

The  different  methods  by  which  they  receive  food,  and  assim 
ilate  it  or  convert  it  into  their  own  substance,  form  another  dis 
tinction  between  animals  and  plants.  Vegetables  imbibe  their 
nourishment  through  their  outward  surface,  or  through  their 
roots  and  leaves ;  but  animals,  for  the  most  part,  have  a  stomach, 
or  internal  cavity,  into  which  the  food  is  received,  where  it  is 
digested,  and  by  appropriate  vessels,  absorbed  into  the  body. 

The  food  of  animals  is  generally  in  a  solid  state,  and  must  be 
rendered  fluid  before  it  can  be  formed  into  the  tissues.  Taken 
at  intervals,  and  stored  in  the  stomach,  it  does  not  hinder  their 
movements  from  place  to  place.  During  the  intervals  of  its  re 
ception,  it  is  kept  in  contact  with  the  absorbent  vessels.  Hence, 
animals  are  said  to  "bear  their  soil  about  with  them."  The 
earth  is  called  "the  stomach  of  plants." 

The  habits  and  instincts  of  animals  must  also  be  considered 
by  the  zoologist  in  making  up  the  account  of  the  differences  be 
tween  them  and  plants.  This  is  a  field  which  affords  a  wide 
scope  for  comparison  and  research  in  tracing  analogies  between 
objects  in  many  respects  diverse,  and  one  which  teaches  many 
lessons  concerning  the  Divine  wisdom  and  benevolence. 

The  chart  of  "the  Animal  Kingdom"  presents  a  view  of  that 
branch  of  Natural  History  which  is  called  ZOOLOGY,  a  term  de 
rived  from  the  Greek  Zoon,  an  animal,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 
This  includes  nine  divisions,  viz.  ;  I.  Mammalogy,  which  treats 
of  the  Mammalia,  or  animals  that  nurse  their  young  ;  II.  Orni 
thology,  which  relates  to  Birds  ;  III.  Erpetology,  which  includes 
the  Natural  History  of  Reptiles  ;  IV.  Ichthyology,  which  gives 
the  Natural  History  of  Fishes ;  V.  Entomology,  which  gives 
the  Natural  History  of  Insects  ;  VI.  Crustaceology,  which  treats 
of  Crabs,  Lobsters,  &c. ;  VII.  Helminthology,  which  treats  of 
Worms;  VIII.  Malacology,  which  includes  Conchology,  and 
describes  soft-bodied  animals,  with  and  without  shells;  IX.*  Ac- 
tinology,  which  treats  of  radiate  animals,  as  the  Star-fish,  Sea- 
Anemone,  &c.  The  Animal  Kingdom  is  divided,  as  on  the 
chart,  into  four  sub-kingdoms,  viz. :  Vertebrates,  Articulates, 
Mollusks,  and  Radiates. 

*  We  have  ventured  to  introduce  this  new  term,  formed  from  the  Greek 
word  aktin,  a  ray,  (corresponding  with  the  Latin  radius,)  and  logos,  a  dis 
course,  in  order  to  have  the  names  of  the  several  branches  alike  as  to  their 
termination  and  Greek  derivation,  though  the  terms  actinia  and  actiniadae, 
(generic  and  family,)  refer  distinctively  to  the  Sea- Anemones. 


14  ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

The  VERTEBRATES,  (from  the  Latin  vertebra,  a  joint,  which 
comes  from  vertere,  to  turn,)  have  a  jointed  backbone,  or  inter 
nal  bony  skeleton.  They  are  divided  into  WARM  and  COLD 
BLOODED;  the  former,  including  Mammals,  (Mammalia.)  and 
Birds,  (Aves  ;)  the  latter,  Reptiles,  (Reptilia,)  and  Fishes,  Pisces.) 
The  Whale  tribe.  (Cetacea,)  inhabiting  the  sea,  form  one  order  of 
the  Mammalia. 

ARTICULATES,  (from  the  Latin  articulus,  a  ring  or  joint,)  are 
animals  in  which  the  body  and  legs  are  jointed,  and  the  hardest 
parts  are  outside.  These  are  arranged  into  three  classes,  viz.  : 
Insects,  Crustaceans,  and  Worms. 

MOLLUSKS,  (from  the  Latin  mollis,  soft.)  are  shell-fish  whose 
nervous  system  is  composed  of  several  scattered  masses,  or  gan 
glions,  united  by  means  of  nervous  threads,  and  whose  soft  bod 
ies  are  generally  protected  by  a  shell. 

RADIATES,  (from  the  Latin  radius,  a  ray,)  are  animals  whose 
parts  are  disposed  in  the  form  of  rays,  tending  to  a  common  cen 
ter,  where  the  mouth  is  placed,  as  in  the  Star-fish. 

QUESTIONS  ON  SECTION  2. 

Who  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Animal  Kingdom?  With  what  is  he 
endowed  ?  For  what  is  he  fitted  ?  What  does  his  compound  being  consti 
tute  him?  How  is  he  allied  to  animals  ?  How  to  spiritual  beings?  What 
guides  the  lower  animals  instead  of  reason  ?  Does  the  bird  or  bee  con 
struct  its  last  nest  or  comb  with  more  skill  than  the  first  ?  Is  there  any 
need  of  mistake  in  referring  to  Mineralogy  or  Botany,  what  properly  belongs 
to  the  Animal  Kingdom  ?  How  is  it  with  the  Oyster  ?  What  are  the  four 
elements  both  in  vegetables  and  animals?  What  name  is  given  to  these 
elements?  What  shows  the  opposite  natures  of  plants  and  animals? 
When  animals  breathe,  what  is  combined  with  the  blood?  What  gas  is 
thus  formed?  How  is  this  thrown  off  in  some  animals?  How  in  others? 
What  is  oxygen  called?  On  what  do  plants  live ?  What  do  they  give  off? 
What  do  they  furnish  to  animals?  What  do  animals  furnish  plants? 
What  is  obtained  from  animal  excretions?  What  do  vegetables  derive 
from  it  ?  Whence  does  an  animal  derive  the  constituents  of  its  body,  and 
whence  the  plant  its  elementary  ingredients  ?  What  is  a  further  source  of 
contrast  between  plants  and  animals  ?  -What  additional  ground  of  distinc 
tion  is  there  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms?  In  some  cases, 
how  is  it  determined  to  which  of  the  two  a  particular  being  belongs? 
What  further  distinction  between  plants  and  animals  is  referred  to?  How 
do  vegetables  take  in  their  nourishment?  How  animals?  What  is  said 
about  the  food  of  animals  ?  What  are  animals  said  to  do  ?  What  has  the 
earth  been  called  ?  What  is  said  of  the  habits  and  instincts  of  animals  as 
relates  to  the  differences  between  them  and  plants  ?  What  benefits  flow 
from  tracing  the  analogies  between  animals  and  plants  ?  Is  this  a  wide  field 
and  what  does  it  teach  ? 

What  does  the  Chart  present  ?  From  what  is  the  term  ZOOLOGY  derived  ? 
Of  which  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature  is  this  Chart  a  general  view  ? 


PL.H, 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  II. 
VERTEBRATES,  ARTICULATES,  MOLLUSKS  AND  KADIATES. 

VERTEBRATES. 

1.  Homo  sapiens,  Man. 

'2.  Ccbus,  Monkey. 

3.  Camclus  Drornedarius,  Dromedary. 

4.  Avis,  Bird. 

5.  Ciconia  Alba,  White  Stork. 

6.  Pisces,  Fishes. 

7.  Oplns,  Snake. 

8.  Rana  pipiens,  Bull-frog. 

9.  AUigator  Lucius,  Alligator. 

ARTICULATES. 

1.  Astacus  marinus,  Lobster. 

2.  Papilio,  Butterfly. 

3.  Cu'ex  plpiens,  Mosquitoe. 

4.  Mti«ca  dornestica,  Common  House  Fly. 

5.  Larva,  or  Caterpillar  of  a  Moth  or  Butterfly. 

6.  Tettiyonia  verrucivora,  Spotted  Grasshopper  of  Europe. 

7.  Clerus  apiarius,  Hive  Beetle. 

8.  Lucanus  cervus,  Stag  Beetle. 

MOLLUSKS. 

1.  Buccinum,  Whelk. 

2.  Mitra  Episcopalis,  Bishop's  Mitre. 

3.  Tridacna  gic/as,  Giant  Tridacna. 

4.  Planorbis,  Coil-shell. 

5.  Siliquaria. 

6.  Nautilus    umbiculatus,  Umbilicated  Nautilus. 

7.  Loligo  vulgaris,  Common  Calamary. 

8.  Triton  variegatus,  Variegated  Triton. 

9.  Physa  fontinalis,  Bubble-shell. 

RADIATES. 

Fig.  1.   Corallum  rubrum,  Red  Coral. 

2.  Apiocrinites  rotundus. 

3.  jEdwardsia  vestita. 

4.  Diancea,  a  Jelly-fish,  or  Medusa. 

5.  Tima  flavilabris,  Jelly-fish. 

6.  Aster'ias,  Star-fish. 

7.  Zoanthus  Sol'anderi,  Animal  Flower,  or  Zoophyte. 

8.  Astrcea  ananas,  Pine-apple  Coral. 


13  ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

How  many  divisions  does  it  include  ?  Of  what  does  Mammalogy  treat  ? 
To  what  does  Ornithology  relate?  What  does  Erpetology  include? 
What  does  Ichthyology  give?  What  science  treats  of  Insects?  What 
of  Crabs,  Lobsters,  and  Barnacles?  Of  what  does  Helminthology 
treat?  What  does  Malacology  include  and  describe?  Of  what  does 
Actinology  treat  ? 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  CHART. 

How  is  the  Animal  Kingdom  divided  on  the  Chart  ?  To  which  of  these 
four  great  Classes,  or  Sub-kingdoms,  do  the  first  four  of  the  above  nine 
divisions  belong?  Point  out  each  division  of  this  right  hand  branch. 
Give  the  name  of  the  science  pertaining  to  or  describing  each.  In  what 
particular  do  they  all  agree?  Ans.  In  having  a  backbone,  or  spinal 
column.  Define  vertebra  and  give  its  derivation.  Which  are  warm  blooded  ? 
Which  are  cold  blooded  ?  How  cold  or  warm  are  they  ?  How  many  orders 
of  Reptiles?  How  many  of  Fishes?  How  many  of  Mammals?  AVhich 
order  ranks  first,  and  is  far  above  all  others?  What  is  said  of  man,  near 
the  bottom  on  the  right  hand  of  the  chart  ?  What  is  said  of  his  brain  ? 
What  of  his  birth?  What  of  his  wants?  How  does  he  compare  with 
others  in  regard  to  strength,  speed,  &c.  ?  Is  his  reason  an  improvable  gift  ? 
Does  it  supply  the  place  of  strength  ?  What  order  comes  next  to  man  ? 
How  do  the  Quadrupeds  differ  from  QUADRUMANA  ?  What  marine  animals 
belong  to  the  class  MAMMALIA  ?  In  what  element  do  they  live  ?  With  what 
organs  do  they  move  ?  Is  the  largest  living  animal  found  in  this  class  ? 
What  is  its  name  and  what  are  its  uses?  Which  of  the  VERTEBRATES  live 
in  the  water?  Which  on  land?  Which  in  the  trees?  Which  fly? 
Which  swim  ?  Which  crawl  ?  Which  are  covered  with  feathers  ?  Which 
with  hair?  Which  with  scales?  Which  are  born  alive,  (viviparous?) 
Which  hatched  from  eggs,  (oviparous?)  Which  are  entirely  without  limbs? 
Which  have  but  two  ? 

In  which  Sub-kingdom,  or  on  what  branch  do  you  find  Insects,  Crusta 
ceans,  and  Worms  or  Annelidans  ?  From  what  is  the  name  Crustaceans 
derived  ?  In  what  do  they  resemble  one  another  ?  Have  they  any  internal 
skeleton?  Where  are  the  hardest  parts?  Which  is  the  largest  of  all 
articulated  animals?  Ans.  Lobsters.  Name  some  of  the  worms  on  the 
chart.  Of  what  use  is  the  leech  ?  Of  what  use  is  the  earth  or  angle  worm, 
(Lumbricus  terrestris?)  Ans.  This  despised  creature  is  of  great  use  in 
loosening  the  earth,  so  that  air  and  water  can  pass  through  it  freely,  and  in 
covering  barren  tracts  of  land  with  their  worm  casts,  thus  rendering  them 
productive.  Mention  some  of  the  Insects  and  Crustaceans.  Name  the 
sciences  describing  them.  Are  Insects  a  numerous  class  ?  Ans.  They  out 
number  all  other  classes  together.  There  are  80,000  species  of  the  beetles 
alone,  (order  Coleoptera.)  Here  you  find  the  Curculio,  or  weevil,  death- 
watch,  lightning-bug,  horn -bugs,  &c.,  &c. 


From  what  is  the  name  of  the  third  branch,  (Mollusks,)  derived?  How- 
are  these  soft  bodies  protected  ?  How  are  Mollusks  divided  ?  Which  have 
heads  ?  Which  none  ?  To  which  division  do  snails  and  slugs  belong  ?  On 
which  branch  do  you  find  Oysters  and  Clams?  Which  move  about,  (are 
free  ?)  Which  are  fixed,  (stationary  ?)  Is  the  Oyster  always  attached  to 
other  substances?  Ans.  No.  Which  branch  of  the  Mollusks  are  entirely 
aquatic,  or  never  leave  the  water?  Are  the  TUNICATA,  or  ASCIDIANS  pro% 


VERTEBRATES.  19 

tected  by  shells  ?    Name  from  the  chart  the  largest  genus  of  known  shells. 
Is  it  a  bivalve,  (of  two  pieces,)  or  a  univalve,  (of  one  piece?) 

Which  is  the  fourth,  last  and  lowest  branch  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  ? 
Define  Radiate.  How  are  the  parts  disposed  ?  Where  is  the  mouth,?  From 
what  is  the  term  derived  ?  Are  they  aquatic  ?  What  is  said  of  these  ani 
mals  near  the  bottom  of  the  chart,  on  the  left  hand  ?  Are  they  less  per 
fect  of  their  kind  than  those  on  the  right  branch  ?  Why,  then,  are  they 
said  to  be  the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  animal  life?  Which  animals  are 
always  lowest  in  organization  in  the  class,  division,  or  order  to  which  they 
belong  ?  Which  rank  next  in  the  ascending  scale  ?  Which  rank  highest 
of  all  ?  Which  is  the  lowest  order  of  land  animals  which  nurse  their  young  ? 
Aus.  The,  MONOTREMATA  and  MARSUPIALS.  Why  are  the  branches  of  the 
orders  Marsupialia  and  Rodentia,  (gnawers,)  bent  and  carried  around  next 
the  marine  mammals  ?  Aus.  To  show  that  though  having  nails,  they  come 
next  the  order  Cetacea,  (Whales,  Dolphins,  &c.,)  in  organization.  Which 
is  the  lowest  or  most  simply  organized  class  of  animals?  ilow  many 
orders  does  it  contain?  What  does  proto  signify?  Is  it  a  well 
established  class  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  animals  are  found  on  the 
chart  among  the  RADIATES?  Which  are  microscopic?  Which  fossil? 
Which  used  as  food  ?  What  is  said  of  Sponge  ?  Where  does  Agassiz  class 
it?  Are  Animalcules,  Infusories,  and  Microscopic  or  very  minute  animals 
common  ?  Ans.  They  are  dispersed  like  seed  through  all  nature.  Are 
Animalcules  tenacious  of  life?  Ans.  It  is  so  difficult  to  kill  them  that 
they  can  be  repeatedly  dried  and  kept  for  a  long  time,  and  will  revive 
or  come  again  to  life,  as  soon  as  put  into  water. 

FIRST   BRANCH   OF   ZOOLOGY. 


MAMMALOGY,  (Gr.  ^a^a,  mamma,  a  breast;   Uyog,  logos, 
a  discourse.) 

[,  GRAND  DIVISION  OF  VERTEBRATES,  (Warm-Blooded  Animals,) 


SECTION  III. 

VERTEBRATES. 
(Lat.  Vertebrata,  possessing  Vertebrae,  or  joints  in  the  backbone.) 

The  first  class  of  the  Vertebrates  consists  of  the  Mammals,  or 
Mammalia,  (Gr.  Mamma,  a  breast.)  a  term  first  used  by  Linnaeus 
and  designating  all  animals  which  nurse  their  young.  The 
highest  position  in  the  Animal  Kingdom  is  given  to  this  class, 
composed  as  it  is  of  beings  whose  faculties  are  the  most  numer 
ous,  which  are  most  perfect  in  their  structure  and  capable  of  the 
most  varied  movements,  and  whose  intelligence  is  most  largely 
developed.  A  large  part  of  the  Mammals  are  formed  for  walk 
ing  ;  some  can  fly  in  the  air.  and  water  is  the  element  in 
which  others  live  and  move.  Their  skeletons  are  all  constructed 


23  VERTEBRATES. 

after  the  same  general  plan,  changed,  however,  and  modified  in 
certain  parts  or  organs,  to  fit  them  for  the  stations  which  they  are 
designed  to  occupy.  (See  Plates  III.  and  XII.)  All  of  them  are 
viviparous,  (horn  alive.)  The  young,  as  the  name  of  the  class 
dftMoi.es,  are,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  nourished  by  the  milk 
of  the  mother.  Sometimes  they  are  born  with  their  eyes  open, 
and  able  immediately  to  move  about  and  seek  their  own  food  ; 
but  not  a  few  of  them  are  born  with  their  eyes  closed,  and 
in  a  state  of  extreme  helplessness. 

The  leading  characters  of  the  Mammalia  are  founded  on  the 
number  and  kind  of  their  teeth,  (see  Plate  IV.)  and  the  construc 
tion  of  their  hands  and  feet.  (See  Plates  III.  and  VI.)  The 
expertness  of  these  animals  is  closely  connected  with  the  per 
fection  of  the  organs  of  touch.  The  nature  of  their  food  and 
their  digestive  functions  may,  in  great  part,  be  inferred  from  the 
number  and  structure  of  their  teeth.  (See  Plates  III.  and  VI.) 

They  are  divided  into  three  sub-classes,  viz. :  UNGULATA,  (lat. 
ungula,  a  hoof,)  animals  with  hoofs  ;  and  UNGUICULATA,  (lat. 
Unguiculus,  a  soft,  small  nail.)  animals  with  nails  or  claws  ;  and 
CETACEA,  with  fins,  (Gr.  Keios,)  a  whale,  or  sea  monster. 

The  Mammals  are,  (on  the  Chart.)  arranged  into  nine  orders, 
after  the  plan  of  Cuvier,  that  arrangement  being  deemed,  on  the 
whole,  the  most  satisfactory  The  number  of  well  established 
species,  according  to  Dr.  Hitchcock,  is  somewhat  more  than 
2000. 

The  names  of  the  nine  orders  are,  I.  BIMANA  ;  II.  QUAD- 
KUMANA;  III.  CARNIVORA;  IV.  MARSUPIALIA;  V.  EDENTATA; 
VI.  RODENTIA  ;  VII.  PACHYDERMATA  ;  VIII.  RUMINANTIA  ;  IX. 
CETACEA. 

Some  naturalists  have  elevated  the  CHEIROPTERA,  the  INSEC- 
TIVORA,  and  the  MONOTREMATA  to  the  rank  of  orders,  making  the 
number  XII  ;  but  the  first  two  of  these  are  flesh-eaters,  and 
therefore  properly  included  among  the  Carnivora,  (or  the  Carnas- 
siers  of  Cuvier ;)  and  the  MONOTREMES,  including  but  two  gen 
era,  have  such  points  of  resemblance  to  the  MARSUPIALIA,  as 
justify  referring  them  to  that  order. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE   VERTEBRATES. 

What  is  the  first  class  of  Vertebrates  ?  Who  first  used  the  term  ?  Who 
was  Linnreus  ?  Ans.  An  eminent  Swedish  naturalist.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  Linnaean,  or  artificial  system  of  Botany.  What  does  the  term 
Mammals,  or  Mammalia  designate?  What  position  in  the  ANIMAL 
KINGDOM  does  this  class  occupy?  Of  what  beings  is  it  composed? 
For  what  are  a  large  part  of  the  Mammals  formed?  How  do  others 
of  this  class  live  and  move  ?  What  is  said  of  their  skeletons  ?  Are 


BIMANA.  21 

all  able  at  first  to  move  about,  use  their  eyes,  and  seek  their  own  food  ? 
Upon  what  are  the  prominent  characters  of  the  MAMMALIA  founded  ?  What 
distinguishes  the  three  sub-classes  into  which  all  Mammals  are  divided  ? 
Spell,  define  and  give  the  derivation  of  these  words.  Which  have  nails  ? 
Which  hoofs?  Which  fins?  Which  have  hair?  Which  live  on  land? 
Which  in  the  water  ?  Under  how  many  orders  are  the  Mammals  on  the  chart 
arranged?  Whose  arrangement  is  tins,  and  why  adopted?  Who  was 
Cuvier?  Ans.  An  eminent  French  naturalist  who  could,  like  Prof.  Owen, 
of  England,  describe  an  animal  by  seeing  a  single  bone,  and  the  na 
ture  of  its  food,  by  looking  at  its  teeth,  or  examining  its  intestines. 
Name  the  nine*  orders  from  the  chart,  giving  examples  of  each.  Read 
the  explanations  along  the  sides  of  the  branches  and  limbs,  as  you  trace 
them  up  from  the  root  or  foundation  of  the  tree.  To  what  rank  have  some 
naturalists  elevated  the  CHEIROPTERA,  INSECTITORA,  and  MONOTREMATA? 
What  animals  on  the  chart  belong  to  these  sub-orders  ?  What  reason  is 
assigned  for  giving  them  this  rank  ? 

SECTION  IV. 
FIRST  SUB-CLASS.     UNGUICULATA. 

FIRST  ORDER.     BIMANA,  (Lat.  bis,  twice ;  manus,  hand ;  two -handed.) 

MAN  fills  the  first  place  in  the  animal  series.  In  reality,  he 
stands  alone,  sole  order,  genus  and  species.  His  full  zoological 
relations  are  :  class,  VERTEBRATA  ;  order,  MAMMALIA  ;  genus 
HOMO  ;  species,  SAPIENS.  The  position  at  the  head  of  the  Ani 
mal  Kingdom,  given  to  man  by  the  great  body  of  zoologists,  is, 
however,  objected  to  by  some  eminent  naturalists,  "who  are  not 
disposed  to  admit  that  because  he  possesses  certain  zoological 
characters  which  are  entirely  secondary  and  subordinate,  he 
should  be  classed  with  brutes,  when  his  noblest  attribute,  reason, 
destroys  every  vestige  of  affinity,  and  places  him  immeasurably 
above  them  all."* 

The  most  prominent  of  the  characters  by  which  man  is 
distinguished  from  the  lower  animals,  are  as  follows  : 

Rational ;  endowed  with  speech ;  able  to  walk  erect,  two 
handed  ;  having  a  prominent  chin ;  four  incisor  (cutting)  teeth 
above  and  below ;  and  all  the  teeth  side  by  side  ;  the  canine  (eye) 
teeth  of  the  same  length  as  the  others ;  the  lower  cutting  teeth 
erect;  a  peculiar  relative  proportion  of  the  thighs  and  arms,  and 
wide  soles  to  the  feet. 

Considering  him  in  his  higher  or  spiritual  nature,  we  may 
name  his  sentiments,  feelings,  sympathies,  internal  consciousness 
and  purposes ;  and  the  courses  of  action  thence  resulting  as 
among  his  proper  and  essential  characteristics.  Even  physically, 
he  is  first  of  all  the  living  creatures  on  earth ;  not,  however,  in 
size,  or  in  animal  strength,  in  which  respects  many  of  the  Ver- 

*  Zoology  of  New  York,  by  Dr.  De  Kay. 
2 


22 


BIMANA. 


tebrates  excel  him, — but  in  the  plan  or  model  after  which  he  is 
constructed 

The  eagle,  for  example,  has  a  more  powerful  vision  ;  the 
hare  is  more  keenly  sensible  to  sound  ;  the  dog  and  vulture  are 
more  ready  to  catch  the  scent  which  is  borne  upon  the  breeze ; 
but  in  man  is  found  a  nice  adjustment,  a  "peculiar  and  felicitous 
accuracy  "  of  the  senses,  which,  while  ministering  to  his  enjoy 
ment,  enables  him  to  cultivate  a  more  thorough  and  pleasing 
acquaintance  with  the  objects  by  which  he  is  surrounded.  In 
the  power  of  speech,  and  the  various  exercises  of  this  power  by 
which  he  makes  known  his  wants,  his  desires,  and  his  most  ab 
stract  mental  conceptions ;  in  his  processes  of  reasoning  and  in 
his  susceptibility  of  endlessly  progressive  improvement,  he  rises 
high  above  every  other  animal  existence. 

The  several  parts  of  the  living  human  frame  are  suited  to  the 
erect  attitude  for  which  it  is  distinguished.  (See  Plate  III.)  Man's 
structure  fits  him  for  moving  in  an  erect  posture,  and  unfits  him 
for  moving  with  ease  in  any  other.  He  has,  however,  the  ability 
to  imitate  almost  every  motion  but  that  of  flight.  As  aids  to  such 
imitation,  he  possesses,  when  in  maturity  and  health,  sixty  bones 
in  his  head,  sixty  in  his  thighs  and  legs,  sixty-two  in  his  arms  and 
hands,  and  sixty-seven  in  his  trunk,  and  he  has  also  four  hun 
dred  and  thirty-four  muscles.  His  foot  is,  in  proportion  to  his 
whole  body,  larger,  broader,  and  stronger  than  that  of  any  other 
animal.  The  muscle  called  "flexor  longus  policis  pedis"  (the 
muscle  of  the  great  toe,)  terminates  in  a  single  tendon,  and  its 
force  is  centered  in  the  great  toe,  the  chief  point  of  resistance  in 
raising  the  body  upon  the  heel.  In  the  Orang-outang,  the  cor 
responding  muscle  terminates  in  three  tendons,  separately  and 
exclusively  inserted  in  the  three  middle  toes,  to  enable  him  to 
grasp  an  object  more  forcibly  in  climbing,  and  thus  more  fully 
meeting  the  wants  of  an  animal  that  makes  its  home  in  the  trees. 
"Surely,"  says  Professor  Owen,  "it  is  asking  too  much  to  be 
lieve  that  in  the  course  of  time,  these  three  muscles  should,  un 
der  any  circumstances,  become  consolidated  into  owe,  and  that 
one  implanted  in  a  toe  to  which  none  of  the  three  tendons  were 
before  attached."  The  teeth,  bones  and  muscles  of  the  monkey 
decisively  forbid  the  conclusion  that  he  could  by  any  ordinary 
natural  process,  ever  be  expanded  into  a  MAN.  Man  alone  is 
two  handed ;  in  him  the  faculty  of  opposing  the  thumb  to  the 
other  fingers  is  carried  to  the  highest  perfection.  In  his  "Bridge- 
water  Treatise,"  Sir  Charles  Bell  says:  "The  structure  of 
the  human  hand  is  so  much  more  complicated,  and  suited  to  so 
many  different  offices,  we  ought  to  define  the  hand  as  belonging 


R  A 

OF  TH£ 

UNIVERSITY 


PL. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  III. 

Fig.  1.  The  HUMAN  SKELETON  divided  into  three  principal  parts;  the  Head 
(1,)  the  Trunk  (2,)  and  the  extremities  (3  and  4.)  Physiologists  enu 
merate  as  many  as  260  bones ;  but  some  of  these  bones,  which  are 
separated  in  early  life,  are  afterwards  united,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  fol 
lowing  enumeration :  Cranium,  8  ;  Face,  14 ;  Internal  ears,  8 ;  Verte 
bral  column,  24;  Chest, -26;  Pelvis,  11;  Upper  extremities,  68;  Lower 
extremities,  64 ;  in  the  whole,  223. 

1.  The  bones  of  the  Skull,  divided  into  two  sets,  viz.,  those  of  the  Cranium, 

or  case  for  the  brain,  and  those  of  the  Face. 

2.  The  Trunk,  composed  of  the  Spine,  or  Vertebral  column,  extending  from 

a  to  c?,  the  Chest,  including  the  Ribs,  and  Sternum  or  Breast-bone,  (e;) 
the  Pelvis ;  the  circle  of  bones  on  which  the  Spine  rests. 

The  Spine,  extending  from  a  to  c?,  in  the  erect  man,  supports  the  head  upon 
its  summit,  (a,)  while  its  base  rests  upon  the  sacrum  (d.)  It  consists 
of  24  bones,  called  Vertebrae,  (Lat.  verto,  to  turn,)  because  the  trunk 
is  turned  by  their  motion  upon  each  other.  It  is  the  center  about 
which  the  limbs  move,  and  the  chief  support  of  the  skeleton. 

The  Cervical  vertebrae,  (the  7  bones  of  the  neck,)  extend  from  a  to  b;  the 
middle,  dorsal  or  back  vertebras,  from  b  to  o,  and  the  5  lowest  or  lum 
bar  vertebras,  from  c  to  d. 

3.  and  4.  Are  the  last  main  divisions,  consisting  of  the  upper  and  lower 

extremities. 

3.  The  upper  extremities  (the  arms)  consist  of  the  scapula,  A,  or  shoulder- 

blade,  the  Clavicle  or  collar-bone,  B,  the  Humerus,  or  bone  of  the  upper 
arm,  (c,)  the  Ulna,  (D,)  situated  on  the  inner  side,  and  the  Radius,  (E,) 
on  the  outer  side  of  the  fore-arm,  the  Carpus,  (Car;)  the  8  small  bones 
of  the  wrist,  the  5  bones  of  the  metacarpus  between  the  wrist,  and  the 
bones  of  the  fingers,  (Met.,)  and  the  bones  of  the  fingers,  called  Pha 
langes,  (Pha  ,)  of  which  the  thumb  has  two,  and  the  fingers  three  each. 

4.  The  lower  extremities,  or  legs,  consist  of  the  Femur  or  thigh  bone,  (F,) 

which  is  the  largest  bone  of  the  body,  the  Tibia  or  shin-bone,  (G,)  on 
the  front  and  inner  part,  and  the  Fibula,  (H,)  at  the  outer  part  of  the 
leg,  the  Patella  or  knee-pan,  (i,)  the  Tarsus,  the  7  bones  forming  the 
heel  and  instep,  (Tar.,)  the  metatarsus  (Met.,)  between  the  instep  and  the 
toes,  and  Phalanges  of  the  toes  similar  in  number  and  arrangement  to 
those  of  the  fingers. 

Fig.  2.  SKELETON  OP  A  CHIMPANZEE.  The  ape  that  comes  nearest  to  man. 
3  and  4  show  how  the  extremities  terminating  with  long  fingers,  and  a 
small  feeble  thumb  set  far  back,  adapt  it  for  climbing  rather  than  walk 
ing,  thus  differing  from  those  organs  in  man. 

1.  The  Cranium, — showing  none  of  the  fine  sweep  of  the  forehead  seen  in 

man,  and  indicating  a  small  cerebral  development  as  compared  with 
him. 

2.  The  Vertebral  column,  without  the  pyramidal  form  seen  in  man,  and  not 

adapted  to  an  erect  posture. 

Pelvis,  narrow  as  compared  with  that  of  man.  (See  description  in  the 
text.) 


26  BIMANA. 

exclusively  to  man.  The  whole  frame  conforms  to  the  hand,  and 
acts  with  reference  to  it."  The  human  hand  is  not  only  power- 
ful,  but  exquisitely  susceptible  of  impressions,  and  possesses  the 
most  delicate  touch.  Every  finger,  except  the  one  called  the 
ring  finger,  is  capable  of  independent  movements, — a  power 
possessed  by  no  other  mammal.  The  thumb  is  lengthened  so  as 
to  meet  readily  the  tips  of  any  of  the  fingers ;  the  fingers  them 
selves,  and  especially  the  pulpy  tip  at  their  ends,  are  supplied 
with  a  nervous  tissue  endowed  with  a  discriminating  sensibility 
that  is  peculiar  to  man. 

"  The  difference  in  the  length  of  the  fingers  serves  a  thousand 
purposes,  adapting  the  hand  and  fingers,  as  in  holding  a  rod,  a 
switch,  a  sword,  a  hammer,  a  pen  or  pencil,  engraving  tool,  etc., 
in  all  which  a  secure  hold  and  freedom  of  motion  are  admirably 
combined.  Nothing  is  more  remarkable,  as  forming  a  part  of 
the  prospective  design  to  prepare  an  instrument  fitted  for  the 
various  uses  of  the  human  hand,  than  the  manner  in  which  the 
delicate  and  moving  apparatus  of  the  palm  and  fingers  is 
guarded.  The  power  with  which  the  hand  grasps,  as  when  a 
sailor  lays  hold  to  raise  his  body  to  the  rigging,  would  be  too 
great  for  the  texture  of  mere  tendons,  nerves  and  vessels  ;  they 
would  be  crusked  were  not  every  part  that  bears  the  pressure 
defended  with  a  cushion  of  fat  as  elastic  as  that  we  have  des 
cribed  in  the  foot  of  the  horse  and  camel.  To  add  to  this  purely 
passive  defence,  there  is  a  muscle  which  runs  across  the  palm, 
and  more  especially  supports  the  cushion  on  its  inner  edge.  It 
is  this  muscle  which,  raising  the  edge  of  the  palm,  adapts  it  to 
lave  water,  forming  the  cup  of  Diogenes."* 

The  brain  of  man,  in  proportion  to  the  residue  of  the  human 
system,  surpasses  in  volume  or  extent  that  of  every  other  mam 
mal,  as  is  shown  by  the  proportion  which  the  cavities  con 
taining  the  brain  and  face  bear  to  each  other.  The  size  of  the 
brain  is  sometimes  estimated  by  the  facial  angle, f  which,  in  the 
average  of  Europeans  and  their  descendants  on  this  continent, 
is  80o ;  but  in  the  adult  Chimpanzee  is  only  35o,  and  in  the 
Orang  or  Satyr  is,  according  to  Professor  Owen,  30o. 

The  blood  necessary  for  an  organ  so  developed  as  the  human 
brain,  is  carried  to  it  by  arteries  which  do  not  subdivide  as  in 

*  Sir  C.  Bell's  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  the  Hand. 

"  f  The  facial  angle  is  found  by  drawing  a  line  from  the  most  prominent 
part  of  the  forehead  to  that  of  the  upper  jaw  bone,  and  observing  the 
angle  which  it  forms  with  another  line  through  the  external  auditory  canal 
to  the  base  of  the  nose,  or,  (the  head  being  in  a  vertical  position,)  with  a 
horizontal  line." 


BIMANA.  27 

most  quadrupeds,  but  allow  of  the  full  and  free  circulation  which 
its  energies  require. 

The  fine  sweep  of  cranium  and  the  smooth  spherical  surface 
of  the  human  skull,  showing  the  volume  of  the  interior  brain,  are 
also  noticeable,  as  contrasting  strikingly  with  the  heavy  ridges, 
the  irregular  prominences  and  the  small  capacity  of  the  Mon 
key's  skull.  The  face  of  the  Monkey  is  an  aid  to  him  in  pro 
curing  food,  and  a  weapon  for  attack  and  defence;  Man's  face 
bespeaks  the  workings  of  the  inner  MIND.  He  uses  his  hands 
to  procure  his  food,  and  naturally  unarmed,  protects  himself 
with  weapons  which  he  has  manufactured.  His  jaws  and  teeth 
are  both  as  small  as  could  consist  with  the  preservation  of  life. 
Though  at  first  weak  and  defenceless,  he  becomes  able  not  only 
to  assert  his  dominion  over  animated  nature,  but  to  make  the 
very  elements  subserve  his  designs.  No  monkey  or  ape  has 
ever  been  able  to  make  weapons  of  either  attack  or  defence  ; 
nor  can  he  procure  fire  or  renew  it,  which  the  lowest  of  the  hu 
man  species  readily  does.  The  most  benighted  Hottentot  can 
form  weapons  with  which  he  is  able  to  destroy  the  ferocious 
lion,  the  swift  antelope,  and  the  wary  ostrich ;  "  he  constructs  for 
himself  a  hut  by  the  side  of  his  prey,  strikes  fire,  fetches  fuel, 
and  dresses  his  meat."  There  seems,  as  Buffon  has  intimated, 
no  anatomical  reason  why  an  ape  should  not  speak ;  but  it  has 
no  language,  and  cannot  by  the  most  patient  labor,  be  taught  to 
speak.  Articulate  language,  of  itself,  makes  a  difference,  vast 
in  extent,  between  man  and  every  other  tribe  of  the  Mammalia. 

His  physical  system  is  peculiar  in  the  readiness  with  which 
it  accommodates  itself  to  the  variations  of  climate,  and  in  modes 
of  living.  The  Arctic  explorations  of  Captains  Ross  and  Parry, 
of  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  of  our  own  lamented  Dr.  Kane,  have 
signally  evinced  the  capacity  of  the  human  constitution  for  en 
during  with  safety,  the  intensest  cold.  On  the  other  hand,  men 
long  accustomed  to  the  air  of  the  temperate  zones,  have  pene 
trated  far  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  traversed  other  equato 
rial  regions,  without  experiencing  any  serious  evils  from  the  heat. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  ORDER  BIMANA. 

What   is  the  first  order  ?     How  is  it  spelled,  defined,  and  from  what 
derived?     Who  is  at  the  head,  or  fills  the  first  place  in  the  animal  series? 
What  is  said  of  him,  and  to  what  class,  order,  genus,  and  species  docs  he  be- 1 
long  ?     Are  all  Zoologists  agreed  as  to  the  propriety  of  placing  man  with  ani-  * 
mals  ?     What  places  him  immeasurably  above  them  all  ?     What  are  his  most 
prominent  distinctions,  or  what  is  said  of  his  speech,  walk,  chin,  teeth,  &c.  ? 
Contrast  these  with  those  of  the  inferior  animals.     What  is  said  of  man, 
physically  ?     In  what  respect  does  he  surpass  all  other  created  beings  ? 


28  VARIETIES    OF    THE    HUMAN    RACE. 

In  what  senses  is  he  inferior,  or  in  what  way  does  the  eagle,  hare,  dog,  or 
vulture  surpass  him  ?  What  is  found  in  man  ?  What  does  this  enable  him 
to  cultivate  ?  What  elevates  him  so  highly  above  other  animal  existences  ? 
To  what  are  the  seve/al  parts  of  the  human  frame  suited  ?  For  what  does 
a  man's  structure  fit  him  ?  For  what  does  it  unfit  him  ?  Has  he  the  power 
of  imitation?  What  aids  this  power  or  faculty?  How  many  bones  and 
muscles  has  he  ?  What  is  said  of  his  foot  ?  What  is  said  of  the  muscle  of 
the  great  toe  in  man  ?  Give  its  technical  name.  What  of  the  correspond 
ing  muscle  in  the  Orang  Outang  ?  What  does  Prof.  Owen  say  in  relation 
to  this,  and  how  does  this  bear  upon  the  development  theory  ?  What  do 
the  teeth,  bones,  and  muscles  of  the  monkey  forbid  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
hands,  thumbs,  and  fingers  of  man  ?  What  does  Sir  Charles  Bell  say  in  his 
"Bridgewater  Treatise?"  What  is  further  said  of  the  human  hand? 
What  of  the  ring  finger  ?  What  of  the  thumb  and  other  fingers  ?  Of 
what  use  is  the  different  length  of  the  fingers  ?  Docs  it  evince  design,  or 
did  it  occur  by  chance  ?  What  is  chance  ?  What  is  the  cup  of  Diogenes, 
and  how  is  it  formed  ?  Who  was  Diogenes  ?  Ans.  A  celebrated  Cynic  phi 
losopher,  of  Greece,  who  died  in  great  misery  and  indigence,  B.  C.  324,  at  the 
age  of  96.  What  is  said  of  the  human  brain  ?  How  is  this  shown  ?  How  is  the 
size  of  the  brain  sometimes  estimated  ?  How  is  this  angle  found  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  arteries  supplying  blood  to  the  human  brain  ?  How  does  the 
cranium,  or  human  skull,  contrast  with  that  of  the  monkey  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  monkey's  face  ?  What  of  man's  ?  Which  bespeaks  the  most  intel 
ligence  ?  For  what  does  he  use  his  hands  ?  How  does  he  protect  himself? 
What  is  said  of  his  jaws  and  teeth?  What  are  monkeys  unable  to  do? 
By  whom  are  they  surpassed  ?  Is  there  any  anatomical  reason  why  an  ape 
should  not  speak  ?  Have  they  ever  been  taught  to  speak  ?  What  makes  a 
vast  difference  between  man  and  all  other  mammals  ?  In  what  is  man's 
physical  system  peculiar?  What  have  Arctic  and  African  explorations 
shown  ? 

VARIETIES    OF   THE    HUMAN   RACE. 

The  variations  of  mankind,  in  respect  to  climate  and  modes  of 
life,  are  connected  with  changes  in  complexion  and  feature,  with 
differences  in  the  skull,  in  the  color  and  nature  of  the  hair,  etc. 
The  divisions  of  the  race  to  which  these  differences  have  given 
rise,  are  stated  diversely  by  naturalists,  some  numbering  more, 
and  others  fewer  varieties.  The  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  and 
Nigritian  tribes,  are  by  some  regarded  as  the  three  distinctly 
marked  types;  and  the  other  varieties  as  but  a  blending  of 
these  and  their  peculiarities,  and  hence  merely  sub-typical. 

The  "  Chart  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  "  exhibits  the  division  of 
Blumenbach,  the  one  which  has  commonly  been  made,  which, 
separating  the  Malay  and  American  varieties  from  the  Mongolian, 
one  of  the  distinctly  marked  types,  makes  the  number  FIVE,  viz. : 
1.  THE  EUROPEAN  or  CAUCASIAN;  2.  THE  ASIATIC,  MONGO 
LIAN,  or  TURANIAN,  of  Dr.  Pritchard ;  3.  THE  MALAY  or  AUS 
TRALIAN  ;  4.  THE  AMERICAN  ;  5.  THE  ETHIOPIAN  or  AFRICAN. 

1.  THE  CAUCASIAN  VARIETY  was  so  called  because  it  origi- 


VARIETIES    OF    THE    HUMAN    RACE.  29 

nated  among  the  tribes  of  men  found  in  the  region  of  the  Cauca 
sus.  It  is  distinguished  for  general  symmetry  and  regularity  of 
outline.  The  head  is,  in  the  Caucasian,  almost  round,  the  face 
oval,  the  forehead  much  expanded,  the  features  not  very  promi 
nent.  The  skin  is  white,  the  hair  soft,  long  and  brown,  more  or 
less  dark,  and  curled.  The  facial  angle  is  from  80o  to  90o. 
The  entire  conformation  of  the  head  shows  a  superior  intellectual 
organization.  In  respect  both  to  mental  power,  and  attainments 
in  art  and  science,  the  Caucasians  have  ever  stood  in  the  fore 
most  rank. 

2.  THE  ASIATIC    OR  MONGOLIAN   VARIETY. — This  variety  is 
remarkable  for  a  feminine  aspect  in  both  sexes;  the  color  is,  for 
the  most  part,  pale  yellow  or  olive;  the  head  almost  square;  the 
facial  angle  80o  ;  the  cheek  bones  are  prominent ;  the  face  broad 
and  flattened,  and  without  a  beard  ;  and   the   hair  straight  and 
black. 

3.  In  the  MALAY  or  AUSTRALIAN,  the  color  varies  from  a  clear 
mahogany  to  dark  chestnut  brown;  the  hair  is  black  and  bushy; 
the  beard  thin  j  the  nose   broad,  and   the  mouth  wide  ;  the  fore 
head  slightly  arched  ;  the  upper  jaw  projecting;  the  eye  is  more 
sunken   and   piercing,  and  the  lips  less  uniformly  thick  than  in 
the  negro.  \ 

4.  THE  AMERICAN  VARIETY  is  allied  to  the  Malay  and  Mon 
golian  varieties.     It  includes  Indians,  or  native  Americans,  Tol- 
tecans,  &c.     In  these,  the  cheek  bones  are  prominent ;  the  face 
broad ;  the  forehead  low  ;  the  eyes  deeply  seated ;  the  hair  black 
and  straight. 

5.  THE  ETHIOPIAN   OR    BLACK    VARIETY  includes    Negroes, 
Africans,  Hottentots,  Bushmen,  (Bosjesmans,)  Bochmen,  (Bech- 
uanas.)     The  color  is  black,  with  greater  or  less  intensity  ;  the 
lips  extremely  thick  ;  the  nose  flat  and  thick ;  the  nostrils  wide ; 
the  hair  black  and  frizzly  like  wool ;  the  head  narrow  ;  the  fore 
head  convex ;  the  face   projecting  ;  the   facial   angle  70o.     Be 
tween  this  and  the  European  or  Caucasian  variety,  the  differen 
ces  are  marked ;  but  there  is  no  character  in  which  the  contrast 
between   the    lowest   negro  and   highest  ape  is  not  many  times 
greater  than  between  the  same  negro  and  the  highest  European. 
The  differences  in   respect  to  structure  between  the  Ethiopian 
and  the  other  varieties,  would  not  be  deemed  sufficient  to  consti 
tute  a  specific  character  among  the  lowest  animals. 

In  regard  to  the  varieties  above  described,  it  will  be  seen  that 
one  of  the  enumerated  distinctions  relates  to  the  color  and  nature 
of  the  hair.  At  a  trial  held  in  South  Carolina,  in  which  the 


30  VARIETIES    OF    THE    HUMAN    RACE. 

point  in  dispute,  property  in  a  mulatto  girl,  rested  on  a  question 
of  race,  Dr.  Gibbs  stated,  as  a  curious  fact  resulting  from  micro 
scopic  observation,  that  in  the  mulatto  cross  the  hair  of  one  or 
the  other  parent  was  present,  and  sometimes  hairs  of  both,  but 
never  a  mongrel  hair;  that  no  amalgamated  hair  existed  ;  that 
the  mulatto  as  often  had  straight  hair  as  kinky.  He  stated  that 
the  microscope  revealed  that  the  hair  of  the  white  race  is,  when 
transversely  divided,  oval;  that  of  the  Indian,  circular;  and 
that  of  the  Negro,  eccentrically  elliptical  with  flattened  edges ; 
that  of  the  Negro  is  not  hair,  but  wool,  and  capable  of  being 
felted  ;  that  the  coloring  matter  of  true  hair  is  in  an  internal  tube, 
while  in  the  negro  it  is  in  the  epidermis,  or  scales  covering  the 
shaft  of  hair.  In  corroboration  of  the  statement  that  both  white 
and  negro  hair  were  sometimes  found  in  the  same  head,  a  singu 
lar  case  was  mentioned  by  Dr.  Gibbs.  He  remarked  that  he  once 
attended  a  half-breed  Indian  and  Negro,  who  had  straight  Indian 
hair.  He  was  ill  and  had  his  head  shaved  and  blistered.  On 
his  recovery,  when  his  hair  grew  out,  it  was  negro  hair,  crisped 
and  wiry. 

The  late  Dr.  Morton,  of  our  own  country,  in  a  disquisition  rela 
tive  to  the  "Size  of  the  Brain"  in  the  different  varieties,  presents 
the  following  results : 

"  The  ancient  Egyptians,  whose  civilization  antedates  that  of 
all  other  people,  and  whose  country  has  been  justly  called  'the 
cradle  of  the  arts  and  sciences,'  have  the  least  sized  brain  of  any 
Caucasian  nation,  excepting  the  Hindoos. 

The  Negro  brain  is  nine  cubic  inches  less  than  the  Teutonic, 
and  three  cubic  inches  larger  than  that  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

The  brain  of  the  Australian  and  Hottentot  falls  far  below  that 
of  the  Negro,  and  measures  precisely  the  same  as  the  ancient 
Peruvian."  (See  Silliman's  Journal.) 

QUESTION^  ON  THE  VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE. 

With  what  are  the  variations  of  the  HUMAN  RACE  connected  ?  Are  nat 
uralists  agreed  as  to  the  number  of  these  varieties?  What  three  are  by 
some  regarded  as  distinctly  marked  types?  What  do  they  consider  the 
other  varieties  ?  How  many  distinct  types  or  races  are  named  on  the  chart  ? 
Whose  arrangement  has  been  followed?  From  what  did  the  Caucasians 
derive  their  name?  What  nations  belong  to  this  variety  ?  [See  the  chart.] 
For  what  are  they  distinguished  ?  What  are  their  characteristics  ?  What 
does  the  entire  conformation  of  the  head  show  ?  What  is  said  of  their  mental 
attainments?  For  what  is  the  MONGOLIAN  variety  remarkable ?  What  na 
tions  does  it  include  ?  How  do  you  describe  the  MALAY  or  AUSTRALIAN 
variety  ?  Name  the  people  or  nations  belonging  to  this  variety.  To  which 
variety  is  the  AMERICAN  allied  ?  Name  the  tribes  or  people  which  it  in 
cludes.  [See  on  the  chart.]  What  are  their  distinguishing  peculiarities  ? 


QUADRUMANA.  31 

What  does  the  Ethiopian  or  black  variety  include  ?  Describe  their  features, 
color,  hair,  &c.  Is  there  a  greater  contrast  between  the  highest  European 
and  the  negro,  than  between  the  same  negro  and  the  ape  ?  What  is  said 
as  to  the  difference  in  respect  to  structure  between  the  Ethiopian  and  the 
other  varieties?  In  what  respect  does  the  hair  of  the  Caucasian,  Indian, 
and  Negro  varieties  differ?  What  cases  corroborate  this  curious  fact? 
What  were  the  results  arrived  at  by  Dr.  Morton,  of  Philadelphia  ? 

OBS.  Here  is  a  good  opportunity  for  a  general  exercise  about  the  people 
of  the  different  varieties,  the  countries  they  inhabit,  their  customs,  religion, 
degrees  of  civilization,  &c.,  showing  the  pupil  how  to  apply  his  geographi 
cal  or  historical  knowledge. 

SECTION  V. 
SECOND  ORDER.     QUADRUMANA.— FOUR  HANDED. 

(Lat.  quatuor,  four,  and  inanus,  hand.) 

This  order  includes  the  Simiadae,  (Lat.  SinucL,  an  ape, — ape- 
kind;)  Celridae,  (Gr.  xrjpfo;,  kebos,  a  monkey, — monkey  tribe;) 
pronounced  kebidae  ;  Lemuridae,  (Lat.  Lemures,  ghosts, — ghost 
like.) 

The  SIMIADAE  are  spread  over  the  tropical  regions  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  including  the  larger  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean ; 
the  CEBIDAE  are  found  in  South  America  ;  the  LEMURIDAE,  in 
Madagascar  and  the  smaller  adjacent  islands. 

The  name  "QUADRUMANA"  is  given  to  these  animals  because, 
while  having  two  hands,  resembling  those  of  man,  they  have 
feet  which  are  also  formed  like  hands,  and  can  grasp  branches 
of  trees.  Like  man,  they  have  no  natural  means  of  defence  ; 
but  they  are  endowed  with  a  cunning,  a  quickness  and  agility 
not  often  equaled  and  never  surpassed  by  any  other  quadrupeds. 
The  peculiarities  of  their  structure  do  not  adapt  them  either  to 
an  erect  or  a  horizontal  position,  but  to  one  that  is  diagonal  or 
sloping.  Their  great  muscular  strength,  combined  with  "the  fac 
ulty  of  climbing,  enables  them  to  escape  from  the  carnivorous 
quadrupeds  which  are  found  in  the  same  forests  with  themselves. 
"  Leaping  from  bough  to  bough,  they  pass  through  the  most  en 
tangled  forests  with  greater  swiftness  than  an  ordinary  horse 
would  travel  on  a  turnpike  road.  The  apes  upon  the  rocks  of 
Gibraltar,  (Barbary  apes,  which  are  the  only  ones  found  in  Eu 
rope.)  can  never  be  approached  by  the  most  cautious  sportsmen. 
They  climb,  with  the  greatest  facility,  among  frightful  preci 
pices,  where  neither  dogs  nor  men  can  follow."* 

The  hand  of  the  highest  Quadrumana  is  greatly  inferior  to' 
that  of  man,  both  in  respect  to  its  structure,  and  the  uses  for 

*  "Swainsou's  Habits  and  Instincts  of  Animals." 


32  •  QUADRUMANA. 

which  it  is  fitted.  The  thumb  is  a  mere  rudiment,  and  in  some 
species,  entirely  wanting.  The  fingers  are  very  long,  and  fitted 
for  hooking  an  object,  but  have  but  little  power  of  separate 
motion  among  themselves  ;  the  palm,  instead  of  being  hollow,  is 
narrow  and  flat,  and  tapers  from  the  wrist.  All  of  them  have 
three  sorts  of  teeth,  like  man,  but  the  canine,  (eye)  teeth,  are 
more  developed  in  the  Quadrumana  than  in  him,  and  there  are 
spaces  between  them  and  the  other  teeth. 

The  principal  food  of  these  animals  is  fruit,  which  Providence 
furnishes  them  most  plentifully  in  tropical  countries,  though  occa 
sionally  they  prey  upon  the  young  and  eggs  of  birds,  also  upon 
lizards  and  insects.  When  captured  and  domesticated,  they  be 
come  almost  omnivorous,  (Lat.  omnis,  all,  and  voro,  to  devour.) 
They  are  peculiar  to  tropical  regions,  and  are  useful  there  as 
tending  to  diminish  the  annoyances  which  might  otherwise  arise 
from  the  insects  which  they  consume  for  food.  In  some  coun 
tries  these  animals  are  themselves  used  for  food,  and  their  skins 
converted  into  leather. 

The  SIMIADAE  include  three  divisions :  I.  The  APES,  without 
taiJs  ;  II.  the  BABOONS,  with  short  tails  and  sometimes  none  ; 
III.  the  MONKEYS,  with  tails,  which  as  connected  with  this  fam 
ily  are  adroit,  agile,  and  restless,  but  usually  live  only  two  or 
three  years.  In  this  family,  the  tail  has  no  prehensile,  or  grasp 
ing  power.  Their  teeth,  of  which  there  are  ten  molar  in  each  jaw, 
are  thirty-two  in  number  ;  their  nostrils  separated  by  a  very 
narrow  division.  The  larger  portion  have  cheek  pouches  and 
callosities,  (hard  parts,)  on  the  hind  parts  of  the  body.  Of  the 
Apos  we  name  first  the  Troglodytes,  (Gr.  r^l^,  trogle,  a  hole  ; 
duvM,  duno,  to  creep,  a  creeper  into  holes.) 

This  is  the  CHIMPANZEE,  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Orang- 
Outang,)  found  rather  commonly  on  the  banks  of  the  Gambia 
and  Congo.  It  is  more  man-like  than  any  other  animal,  espe 
cially  when  young.  When  full  grown,  its  height  is  at  least 
five  feet,  and  according  to  some  naturalists,  six  or  seven.  The 
hair  is  black,  long  and  coarse,  falling  down  on  each  side  of  the 
head,  forming  large  whiskers  on  the  cheeks;  the  eyes  are  hazel, 
deep  set  and  lively;  the  ears  it  rge  and  spreading;  the  lips 
covered  with  a  thin  white  beard,  and  large  and  wrinkled ; 
the  face  and  hands,  of  a  dark  brown  color.  An  officer  in 
the  English  navy,  who  saw  the  animal  in  1838,  says  that  in 
its  natural  state,  "it  mounts  trees  only  for  food  or  observa 
tion,  has  enormous'  strength,  easily  snapping  boughs  from  trees 
which  the  united  strength  of  two  men  could  scarcely  bend." 
These  animals  reach  their  full  growth  when  between  eight  and 
nine  years  old.  They  travel  in  large  bands,  armed  with  sticks, 


QUADROMANA.  gg 

which  they  handle  with  great  dexterity ;  and  sometimes  are  so 
full  of  courage  and  fury  that  they  drive  the  elephant  and  lion 
from  their  haunts.  As  their  name  imports,  they  spend  much  of 
their  time  in  holes,  or  rocky  caves.  They  are  very  watchful, 
even  when  united  in  a  herd  ;  and  the  first  one  who  notices  the 
approach  of  a  stranger,  utters  a  long  drawn  cry,  which  resem 
bles  that  of  a  human  being  in  distress.  This  is  done  to  notify 
the  herd  of  the  stranger's  coming.  They  then  immediately 
leave  any  place  which  would  expose  them  to  danger,  and  betake 
themselves  to  the  bushes.  It  is  said  to  be  very  difficult  to  obtain 
them  alive,  owing  to  a  superstitious  notion  of  the  natives  that  they 
have  the  "  power  of  witching." 

Several  young  Chimpanzees  have,  at  different  times,  been  im 
ported  into  England  and  the  United  States.  These  appeared  to 
be  mild  and  docile,  but  were  short  lived,  being  unable  to  endure 
the  changes  to  which  they  were  subjected  in  respect  to  climate 
and  mode  of  living.  Had  they  lived  to  full  age,  they  would 
probably  have  manifested  the  ape's  naturally  fierce  and  obstinate 
disposition.  One  of  them,  which  lived  about  a  year  in  the  me 
nagerie  of  the  British  Zoological  Society,  is  described  as  appear 
ing  like  "  an  old,  bent,  and  diminutive  negro."  The  appearance 
of  age  was  increased  by  its  short  white  beard  and  wrinkled  face, 
though  at  the  time  not  more  than  two  and  a  half  years  old.  All 
its  actions  seemed  child-like.  It  would  "  examine  every  object 
within  its  reach  with  an  air  so  considerate  and  thoughtful  as  to 
create  a  smile  on  the  face  of  the  gravest  spectator.  When  per 
fectly  free  and  unconstrained,  Tommy's  usual  mode  of  progression 
was  on  all  fours.  His  feet,  and  particularly  his  heels,  were  broader 
and  better  adapted  for  the  biped  race  than  those  of  the  Orang- 
Outang,  and  this  he  adopted  when  occasion  required.  He  fre 
quently  indulged  in  a  kind  of  rude,  stamping  dance  ;  would  seat 
himself  in  his  swing  with  great  good  humor,  when  ordered  to  do 
so,  stretching  out  his  foot  to  some  of  the  company  to  set  him  in 
motion;  and  interpreting  your  wishes  and  intentions  from  your 
looks,  tones,  and  gestures,  exhibited  the  most  wonderful  quick 
ness  of  apprehension." 

PitJiecus  Satyrus. 
(Gr.  niOijxos,  pithecos,  ape ;  aarvgbg,  saturos,  satyr. ) 

The  ORANG-OUTANG,  or  wild  man,  (from  Orang,  the  Malay 
term  for  man,  and  Qutang,  wild.) 

The  Orang-Outang  is  found  in  the  islands  of  Borneo  and  Sum 
atra.  Though  called  by  this  name,  it  is  less  man-like  than  the 


34  QUADRUMANA. 

Chimpanzee.  In  the.  young  animal,  the  forehead  and  skull  ap 
pear  well  developed  and  somewhat  human ;  in  the  adult,  the 
bones  of  the  face  are  so  increased  in  size  that  they  throw  the 
skull  backwards,  which,  combined  in  its  effect  with  other  differ 
ences,  takes  away  the  resemblance,  which  is  seen  in  the  young, 
to  the  human  face.  The  arms  are  so  long  that  they  reach  the 
ground,  or  nearly  so,  when  the  animal  stands  erect ;  and  the 
palms  of  the  hands  show  lines  and  papillae,  like  those  of  ma-n. 
The  ears  are  small ;  the  eyes  dark  and  round  ;  the  throat  is 
swollen,  the  skin  about  it  being  loose  and  folded,  and  enveloping 
a  double  membranous  sac,  which  connects  with  the  larynx  or 
wind-pipe,  and  becomes  inflated  when  the  animal  expresses  pleas 
ure  or  anger.  The  body  is  stoutly  built  and  very  muscular  ; 
the  belly  round  and  protuberant ;  the  hair  is  of  a  reddish  brown 
hue,  long  and  coarse.  The  Orang  has  no  tail  or  cheek 
pouches.  A  very  marked  characteristic  is  the  disproportion  be 
tween  the  size  and  length  of  the  arms,  as  compared  with  the 
legs,  which,  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  long  and  hooked  hands, 
indicates  that  the  animal  is,  more  than  the  Chimpanzee,  formed 
to  live  on  trees.  Among  the  branches,  he  moves  with  surprising 
facility.  By  weaving  these  together,  he  constructs  a  sort  of 
rude  hut,  which  he  seldom  leaves,  except  when  forced  by  the 
calls  of  appetite.  In  Borneo,  the  natives  call  the  two  species 
found  there,  mias-kassar  and  mias-pappan.  Of  these  the  latter 
is  much  the  larger  and  more  powerful,  and  justly  named  Satyrus, 
from  his  ugly  face  and  disgusting  callosities.  Some  naturalists 
consider  the  Orang  of  Sumatra  to  be  a  distinct  species. 

The  Orang  may  be  ranked  as  the  largest  of  the  apes.  A 
specimen  from  Borneo  was  in  height  five  feet  ten  inches,  and  one 
from  Sumatra  reached  the  enormous  stature  of  seven  feet  six 
inches.  Those  animals  are  described  by  persons  who  have  seen 
them  in  their  native  climes,  as  "leading  a  solitary  life,  more  than 
two  or  three  never  being  found  together;"  and  as  "roused  from 
their  habitual  dullness  by  nothing  but  hunger  or  the  approach 
of  danger."  Their  strength  is  so  great  they  can  not  be  safely 
encountered  except  with  fire-arms.  A  female  Orang  snapped  a 
strong  spear  asunder,  after  receiving  many  wounds.  Hence, 
the  natives  of  Borneo  hold  these  animals  in  especial  dread,  and 
carefully  avoid  them. 

Hy7obat.cs,  (Gr.  "1^7,  hule,  a  wood  ;  fiahw,  Imino,  to  traverse,) 
LONG  AHMED  APE,  or  GIBBON.     H.  Syndactuhi.s,  (Gr.  2w,  Sun, 
connected,  together ;  duxruAo;,  dakfu/os,  a  finger.) 
This  species  of  Gibbons  receives  the  name  Syndacly/.its,  from  hav- 


QUADRUMANA.  35 

ing  the  second  and  third  toes  of  the  hind  foot  united  by  a  narrow 
membrane  the  whole  length  of  the  first  joint.  As  the  generic 
name,  Hylobates,  imports,  this  animal  lives  in  the  recesses  of 
dense  woods,  (in  the  East  Indian  islands  and  the  Malay  penin 
sula.)  The  hands  are  extremely  powerful,  and  so  long  that 
they  reach  to  the  heel,  and  their  span  extends  from  four  to  six 
feet.  These  greatly  assist  him  in  making  his  rapid  movements 
among  the  trees.  The  fur  is  longer  and  more  abundant  than 
that  of  the  Orangs.  The  animal  is  like  the  Orang  in  temper 
and  manners,  but  much  smaller,  when  standing  upright,  being 
but  two  feet  four  inches.  It  is  a  better  walker  than  the  Orang, 
but  its  gait  is  unsteady,  and  it  frequently  places  its  hands  on  the 
ground  to  assist  its  position.  An  adult  male  of  this  species  was 
taken  in  1830,  but  died  while  on  ijs  way  to  England.  It  fed  on 
vegetables,  yet  eagerly  accepted  animal  food ;  fowls  it  especially 
preferred.  It  appeared  to  be  good  tempered  and  affectionate; 
"when  pleased,  uttering  a  chirping  note;  when  frightened  or 
angry,  uttering  the  loud  guttural  sounds  of  ra,  ra,  ra."  It  was 
fond  of  play  and  became  quite  attached  to  a  Papuan  girl  who 
was  on  board  the  vessel — "  would  sit  on  the  capstan  with  its  long 
paw  around  her  neck,  and  lovingly  eat  biscuit  with  her."  This 
Gibbon  is  sometimes  called  the  SIAMANG,  and  is  said  to  be  cele 
brated  for  the  pains  which  it  takes  to  wash  the  face  of  its  young, 
which  it  does  with  maternal  faithfulness,  in  spite  of  its  screams 
and  struggles. 

H.  agilis.  The  AGILE,  or  SILVERY  GIBBON,  also  called  the 
Uiigka,  or  Oungka. 

This  species  is  a  native  of  Sumatra,  d-eriving  its  name,  agilis, 
(active,)  from  its  remarkable  activity  in  leaning  among  the 
branches.  One  of  these  animals,  which  was  exhibited  in  Lon 
don  some  years  since,  "  sprang  with  the  greatest  ease  through 
distances  of  twelve  and  eighteen  feet ;  and  when  apples  or  nuts 
were  thrown  to  her  while  in  the  air,  she  would  catch  them  with 
out  discontinuing  her  course.  Sh'e  kept  up  a  succession  of 
springs,  hardly  touching  the  branches  in  her  progress,  continually 
uttering  a  musical  but  almost  deafening  cry.  She  was  very 
tame  and  gentle,  and  would  permit  herself  to  be  touched  or  ca 
ressed."  This  Gibbon  is  distinguished  by  its  low  forehead,  as 
well  as  its  activity.  The  color  varies  a  good  deal,  according  to 
the  sex  or  age,  but  is  usually  brown.  In  the  male,  a  white  band 
over  the  eyes  unites  with  the  whitish  whiskers.  The  hair  is  fine 
except  about  the  neck,  where  it  is  rather  woolly  and  curled. 


QUADRUMANA. 


BABOONS. 


The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  these  animals  is  the  resem 
blance  of  their  head  and  face  to  those  of  a  large  dog.  Their 
muzzles  are  long  and  truncated.  They  have  cheek  pouches, 
short  tails  and  sharp  claws.  The  malignant  expression  of  their 
countenances,  their  gigantic  strength  and  the  brutal  ferocity  of 
their  manners,  render  them  decidedly  the  most  frightful  and  dis 
gusting  of  all  the  Qtiadrumana.  Their  home  is  Africa,  where 
they  frequent  rocky  ridges  more  than  the  forests.  They  live 
mostly  on  scorpions,  which  they  find  under  stones  and  deprive 
of  their  stings  by  a  skillful  application  of  the  thumb  and  finger. 
In  the  Baboon,  the  facial  angle  is  reduced  to  30o.  The  name  is 
from  the  Italian  Babbaino,  from  which  comes  the  Latin  word 
Papio,  applied  to  these  animals  especially  in  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.  In  brilliancy  of  color,  they  vie  with  the 
gorgeous  plumage  of  the  tropical  birds. 

"  They  are  distinguished  from  the  Apes,  by  the  equality  of 
their  members,  their  cheek  pouches  and  ischial  callosities;  from 
the  Monkeys,  by  the  short  robust  make  of  their  bodies  and  extrem 
ities,  their  tubercular  tails,  too  short  to  execute  the  functions  usu 
ally  assigned  to  that  organ,  and  the  mountain  rather  than  silvan 
habitat  which  this  conformation  necessarily  induces." 

Cynocephalus,  (Gr.  KVWV,  Kudn,  a  dog;  Kecpul^  Kephale,  a 
head  ;)  Dog-headed.  C.  Mormon,  (Gr.  MOQU&V,  Mormon,  a  bogie.) 
This  is  the  MANDRIL,  or  GREAT  VARIEGATED  BABOON. 

The  Mormon  resembles  the  dog  and  bear.  It  is  a  native  of 
Guinea  and  West  Africa,  has  a  short,  erect  and  stumpy  tail,  by 
which,  and  the  enormous  protuberances  of  its  cheeks,  it  is  read 
ily  distinguished  from  the  other  species.  This  is  not  only  the 
largest  of  all  the  Baboons,  but  the  most  brilliant  in  its  colors. 
When  upright,  its  height  reaches  five  feet.  The  muzzle  is  of  a 
bright  scarlet  color  ;  a  stripe,  of  vermilion  runs  along  the  center 
of  the  nose,  and  spreads  over  the  lip ;  the  cheeks  are  also  of  a  rich 
violet  hue,  and  elevated  on  each  side  by  a  singular  development 
of  the  bone,  which  forms  a  socket  for  the  roots  of  the  immense 
canine  teeth.  The  hair  is  of  a  greenish  brown  color,  caused  by 
alternate  layers  of  yellow  and  black  present  in  each  hair.  On 
the  temples  it  is  directed  upwards,  so  as  to  meet  in  a  point  on  the 
crown  of  the  head.  The  brilliancy  of  the  colors  is  connected 
with  the  skin,  and  disappears  when  the  animal  dies  or  is  sick. 
The  Mandril  frequents  forests  filled  with  brushwood,  whence  it 
sallies  forth  to  plunder  the  nearest  villages.  Its  bulk  is  great  in 


QUADRUMANA  37 

proportion  to  its  height  and  strength,  and  its  ferocity  great,  so  that 
it  is  a  terror  to  the  natives.  Cuvier  says  he  has  seen  it  expire 
from  the  violence  of  its  fury. 

Sc?nnopithecus,  (Gr.  cretuv6g,  Semnos,  to  be  reverenced  ;  nlOyxog, 
pithccos,  Ape.) 

This  genus  includes  animals  resembling,  in  many  points,  the 
Gibbons.  As  in  the  latter,  their  extremities  are  of  great  length  as 
compared  with  the  size  of  the  body,  which  in  its  form  is  long 
and  slender.  But  they  differ  from  the  Gibbons  in  having  the  j 
hinder  extremities  longer  than  the  front  ones,  which  is  the  reverse 
of  what  occurs  in  the  Gibbons.  They  are  distinguished  by  hav 
ing  a  very  long,  slender  and  muscular  tail,  terminated  by  a  close 
tuft  of  long  hairs.  The  color  of  the  adult  animal  is  intensely 
black,  except  the  breast,  the  abdomen,  and  the  root  of  the  tail, 
which  are  gray.  The  black  hairs  on  the  top  of  the  head  are 
tipped  with  gray,  and  as  age  advances,  the  latter  color  is  extended 
to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body.  The  hair  is  long,  soft,  and  silky. 
The  eye-brows  consist  of  long  stiff  hairs,  pointing  forward. 
The  stomach  is  three  fold,  one  of  the  divisions  being  puckered 
into  a  number  of  distinct  sacs ;  and  its  teeth  resemble,  in  some 
degree,  those  of  a  ruminating  animal.  It  evinces  less  restless 
ness,  petulance  and  curiosity,  but  has  more  of  real  intelligence 
than  the  common  monkeys.  The  animals  of  this  genus  are 
found  in  Cochin  China,  the  East  Indies  and  the  neighboring 
islands. 

S.  Maurus.     (Gr.  [taijQog,  mauros,  a  fool  ?)    The  BUDENG. 

This  species  abounds  in  the  extensive  forests  of  Java,  and 
forms  its  dwelling  on  trees.  Troops  of  more  than  fifty  individ 
uals  are  found  together.  When  approached,  they  scream  loudly, 
and  by  their  movements  branches  of  decaying  trees  are  often 
thrown  down  upon  the  spectators.  The  natives  chase  them  on  ' 
account  of  their  fur  ;  attended  by  their  chiefs,  attacking  them 
with  stones  and  cudgels,  and  often  destroying  them  in  great  num 
bers.  The  furs  of  these  animals  are  used  both  by  the  natives 
and  Europeans,  in  preparing  riding  equipages  and  military 
ornaments. 

S.  Entellus.  (Lat.  the  proper  name  of  a  Roman  athlete.) 
THE  ENTELLUS,  OR  COCHIN  CHINA  MONKEY.  The  HOONUMAN 
of  the  Hindoos. 

This  species  is  one  of  the  most  common  in  Hindoostan  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  in  India  is  the  object  of  a  blind  adora 
tion.  According  to  the  popular  superstition,  he  who  puts  to 
death  an  Entellus  Monkey,  will  surely  die  within  the  year.  Its 
form  is  slight,  the  limbs  long  and  slender,  the  length  of  the  body 


3S  QUADIIUMANA. 

from  the  muzzle  to  the  tail  is,  in  the  full  grown  animal,  four  and 
a  half  feet,  and  the  tail  is  even  longer  than  the  body.  When 
young,  they  seem  gentle  and  free  from  malice  :  but  their  charac 
ters  do  not  improve  by  age.  This  animal  is  very  active  in  the 
capture  of  serpents,  stealing  upon  the  poisonous  reptile  when 
asleep,  and  grinding  down  the  reptile's  head  until  the  poisonous 
fangs  are  destroyed. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE   QUADRUMANA. 

What  is  the  second  order  of  animals?  What  three  families  does  this 
order  include  ?  Give  the  derivation  of  the  order  and  the  families.  Where 
is  their  location  or  habitat?  Why  was  the  name  Quadrumana  given  to 
these  animals  ?  Have  they  any  weapons  for  defence  ?  With  what  are  they 
endowed  ?  For  what  does  their  peculiar  structure  adapt  them  ?  Of  what 
benefit  is  their  muscular  strength  ?  What  is  said  of  their  leaping  powers  ? 
What  of  the  Barbary  apes  ?  Where  are  these  found  ?  Are  any  other  of 
the  Qua  clrumana  found  in  Europe?  How  does  the  hand  of  the  most  perfect 
Quadrumana  compare  with  man's?  What  is  said  of  the  thumb?  Of  the 
lingers  and  of  the  palm?  What  of  the  teeth  and  the  hair?  What  is  their 
principal  food?  What  change  occurs  from  domestication? 

Spell  and  define  the  following  words,  giving  examples  of  each  as  you 
proceed:  Carnivorous,  flesh-eating;  (Lat.  caro,  flesh,  and  voro,  to  devour.) 
Xruyivorous,  eating  fruits,  seeds  or  corn  ;  (Lat.  fruges,  corn.)  Omnivorous, 
eating  grain,  or  feeding  on  seeds ;  (Lat.  granuin,  grain.)  Herbivorous,  eat 
ing  herbs,  feeding  on  vegetables ;  (Lat.  hcrba,  herb.)  Insectivorous,  eating 
insects ;  Lat.  insccta,  insect,  and  voro,  to  devour.)  Apivorous,  bee  eating ; 
(Lat.  apis,  a  bee.)  Apiary,  a  place  where  bees  are  kept.  Piscivorous,  fish 
eating,  living  on  fish  ;  (Lat.  piscis,  a  fish. }  Reptilivorous,  eating  snakes, 
toads,  and  other  reptiles ;  (Lat.  reptilis,  from  repo,  to  creep.)  Omnivorous, 
eating  everything,  devouring  all  kinds  of  food;  (Lat.  oinnis,  all.) 

To  what  regions  are  quadrumanous  animals  peculiar?  In  what  respects 
are  they  useful?  What  divisions  do  the  SIMIADAE  include?  How  are  these 
divisions  readily  distinguished  from  one  another?  What  is  said  of  the 
monkeys  of  this  family?  Which  is  the  genus  first  named,  and  from  what 
is  the  name  derived?  Where  is  it  found,  and  what  is  said  of  its  resem 
blance  to  man  ?  Describe  its  appearance,  habits,  &c.  Why  is  it  difficult 
to  obtain  it  alive  ?  Have  attempts  been  made  to  import  these  animals,  and 
with  what  success?  What  is  said  of  Tommy?  Describe  him  particularly. 
What  is  the  difference  between  a  biped  and  a  quadruped  ?  Ans.  One  is  two- 
footed,  (Lat.  bis,  two,  pes,  afoot;)  the  other  four-footed,  (Lat.  quatuor,  four, 
pe.s,  foot.)  What  between  a  bimanous  and  a  quadrumanous  animal?  From 
what  language  is  the  Orang-Outang  derived  ?  From  what  are  the  generic  and 
specific  names  derived  ?  Where  is  it  found  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  Where 
docs  it  live?  For  what  kind  of  a  residence  is  it  fitted  by  its  long  arms  and 
hooked  hands?  What  does  it  construct  among  the  branches  of  trees? 
Does  it  often  leave  them,  and  for  what?  How  many  species  are  found  in 
Borneo?  Which  is  the  largest  and  most  powerful?  What  is  it  justly 
mimed?  Is  the  Orang  of  Sumatra  of  the  same  species?  What  is  said  of 
their  size,  and  what  account  do  persons  give  who  have  seen  them  in  their 
native  woods?  Why  do  the  Borneans  dread  them?  What  is  the  generic 
term  for  the  long  armed  ape,  or  Gibbon?  From  what  derived?  What 


QTJADRUMANA.  39 

does  this  name  import  ?  Give  the  derivation  of  syndactulus.  Why  was 
it  given  to  this  species  ?  Where  does  it  live  and  in  what  country  is  it  found : 
Describe  its  habits,  size,  gait,  food,  sounds,  &c.  For  what  is  it  most  cele 
brated  ?  What  is  said  of  the  silvery  or  agile  Gibbon,  H. 


What  is  the  most  striking  peculiarity  of  BABOONS  ?  What  do  they  resem 
ble  ?  Where  are  they  found  ?  On  what  do  they  live  ?  From  what  is  the 
name  derived  ?  What  is  said  of  their  colors  ?  How  are  they  distinguished 
from  the  apes?  Describe  the  Variegated  Baboon,  or  Mandril.  Give  the 
derivation  of  the  generic  and  specific  terms.  What  is  said  of  its  size, 
color,  habitat,  &c.  How  do  the  natives  regard  it  ?  From  what  is  Semno- 
pithecus  derived  ?  In  what  respect  does  this  genus  resemble  the  Gibbons  ? 
How  do  they  differ  from  the  Gibbons  ?  By  what  are  they  distinguished  ? 
What  is  said  of  their  hair,  eye-brows,  stomach,  disposition,  intelligence, 
&c.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Budeng  ?  What  of  the  Cochin  China  monkey  ? 

SECTION  VI. 

AMERICAN    MONKEYS. 

These  are  a  very  numerous  division  found  in  South  America, 
and  arranged  into  two  leading  groups,  viz.  :  the  SAPAJOUS  and 
SAGOINS;  the  former  having  muscular,  grasping  tails;  the  latter 
feeble  ones,  unfit  for  grasping.  They  are  sometimes  called  the 
four-fingered  monkeys,  as  the  thumb  is  reduced  to  a  mere  rudi 
ment,  and  in  some  species  is  entirely  wanting.  They  are  with 
out  cheek-pouches  and  callosities. 

I.  SAPAJOUS. 

These  may  be  regarded  as  representing  the  GUENONS,  (Cerco- 
pithecus,  Gr.  kerkos,  a  tail,)  of  the  Eastern  Continent.  The  whole 
of  them  are  very  active,  climb  well,  and  are  well  formed  for  living 
and  moving  among  the  trees.  The  fore-hands  show  a  less  per 
fect  organization  than  is  seen  in  the  monkeys  of  the  Eastern 
Continent.  The  palms  of  both  extremities  are  endowed  with 
exquisite  sensibility.  These  monkeys  are  of  small  size  and  play 
ful  disposition.  Gathered  in  herds,  they  lead  a  merry  life,  feed 
ing  mostly  on  insects  and  fruits.  The  facial  angle  is  about  60o. 
Among  them  we  include  the  HOWLERS,  (Mycetes.)  as  has  been 
done  by  other  naturalists.  The  Howlers  differ,  however,  from 
the  other  Sapajous  in  some  respects,  particularly  in  having  a 
facial  angle  of  but  30o,  but  agree  with  them  in  having  prehen 
sile  tails.  Of  the  numerous  species  of  these  and  other  South 
American  monkeys,  we  can  notice  only  the  most  interesting  and 
prominent. 

Mycetes,  (Gr.  ^uxijrr/g,  mukdtes,  a  Howler.) 

These  are  the  largest  monkeys  of  America,  and  remarkable 
for  the  development  of  the  vocal  organs.  The  bone  at  the  root  of 


40  QtJADRUMANA. 

the  tongue,  (thehyoid  bone,)  is,  in  these  animals,  very  large,  swell 
ing  into  a  capacious  drum  which  communicates  with  the  larynx, 
and  gives  a  tremendous  power  and  volume  to  the  voice.  They 
howl  in  concert,  especially  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  ; 
but  the  night  is  often  made  dismal  with  their  frightful  yells.  One 
monkey  begins  the  cry,  and  is  immediately  followed  by  the  oth 
ers  ;  and  their  distressing,  unearthly  sounds  have  been  heard  at 
two  miles  distance.  The  canine  teeth  are,  according  to  Swain- 
son,  six  times  as  large  as  the  incisors  or  cutting  teeth.  The  part 
of  the  prehensile  tail  with  which  these  animals  lay  hold  of  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  is  naked  below,  and  of  course  has  a  higher  sen 
sibility  of  touch.  Their  size  is  rather  larger  than  that  of  the  fox. 
In  their  dispositions  they  are  ferocious  and  intractable ;  in  habits 
social,  and  most  of  them  have  a  thick  beard.  Their  deep  sono 
rous  yells  are  supposed  to  be  a  call  to  their  mates ;  in  other 
words,  a  hideous  love-song. 

M.  ursinus,  (Lat.  ursus,  a  bear.)  The  URSINE  HOWLER, 
or  ARGUATO. 

This  animal  is,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  nearly  three  feet  long. 
The  hair  is  of  a  golden  color,  and  the  thick  beard  is  of  a  deeper 
color  than  the  rest.  Humboldt  counted  above  forty  of  these  ani 
mals  in  a  single  tree,  and  says,  "their  eye,  voice,  and  gait  denote 
melancholy."  They  feed  upon  fruit  and  the  leaves  of  plants, 
and  in  traveling  follow  an  old  monkey  as  their  file  leader. 
This  Howler  has  a  membranous  sack  in  the  throat,  connected 
with  the  wind-pipe  and  capable  of  being  inflated,  giving  the 
power  to  utter  terrific  sounds. 

Ateles,  (Gr.  azeL/?,  ateles,  imperfect.) 

This  and  the  preceding  genus  are  "  ORDINARY  SAPAJOUS  ;  "  (the 
term  Sapajous  also  including  the  genus  Cebus,  or  the  SAJOUS.) 
This  genus  includes  what  are  called  the  SPIDER  MONKEYS,  so 
called  from  their  long  slender  tails,  and  sprawling  movements, 
which  give  them  a  spider4ike  appearance.  It  is  termed  ateles, 
or  imperfect,  because  in  most  of  the  species  the  thumbs  on  the 
fore-arms  are  rudimental,  or  else  entirely  wanting;  (they  are, 
however,  found  on  the  hinder  extremities,  and  large  and  opposa- 
ble  to  the  fingers.)  They  have  four  molar  teeth  more  than  man, 
making  the  number  of  teeth  thirty-six,  and  are  distinguished  for 
their  round  heads  and  thick  or  corpulent  bodies.  The  eyes  are 
far  apart;  the  nostrils  open  laterally,  (or  sidewise:)  the  hair  is 
generally  long,  coarse,  and  of  a  glossy  appearance.  Trees  are 
their  home ;  on  the  ground  they  drag  themselves  along  with  their 
fore-arms,  using  them  as  crutches,  and  resting  upon  their  half 
closed  fists.  Sometimes  they  crouch  along  on  their  hind  legs. 


QUADRUMANA.  41 

Troops  of  them  are  found  together,  and  they  are  said  to  "  exer 
cise  a  perfect  tyranny  over*  all  the  other  arboreal  mammals  in 
their  neighborhood."  Though  living  chiefly  upon  leaves  and 
fruit,  they  also  hunt  after  insects  and  the  eggs  and  young  of  birds, 
and  are  even  said  to  fish  for  crabs  with  their  long  tails.  They 
are  uncommonly  intelligent,  easily  domesticated,  and  evince  a 
strong  attachment  for  those  who  treat  them  kindly ;  and  they  have 
less  of  curiosity,  mischief,  and  violent  passion  than  the  common 
monkeys.  They  use  their  prehensile  tails  as  a  fifth  hand,  even  t 
crossing  streams  by  mounting  to  the  topmost  branches  of  some 
over-hanging  tree,  and  forming  themselves  into  a  long  chain. 
The  last  monkey  keeps  a  good  hold  on  the  tree,  while  the  living 
chain  swings  to  and  fro,  until  by  the  impetus  thus  gained,  the 
foremost  can  reach  a  branch  upon  the  opposite  side,  when  the 
rear  animal  lets  go  his  hold,  and  the  whole  are  rapidly  drawn  up. 
The  Indians  esteem  their  flesh  as  an  article  of  food,  and  it  is  said  to 
be  "white,  juicy,  and  agreeable."  It  is  related  that  the  Spider 
Monkey,  when  shot,  fastens  its  tail  so  closely  to  the  b-ranches 
that  it  remains  suspended  even  after  death.  Among  the  most 
noted  species  are  A.  Paniscus,  (fJaviaxo^,  Paniscos,  dim.  of  flav. 
Pan,  a  little  Pan.)  This  is  the  QUATA,  or  as  the  French  write  it, 
the  COAITA,  found  in  large  companies  in  Guiana  and  Brazil. 

A.  Behebub.     The  MARIMONDA. 

The  monkeys  of  this,  like  those  of  the  preceding  species, 
unite  in  large  companies  and  form  the  most  grotesque  groups. 
All  their  attitudes  evince  the  extreme  of  sloth.  They  will 
bend  their  long  arms  over  their  backs,  and  remain  motionless 
in  this  position  for  hours  together,  under  the  heat  of  a  tropical 
sun. 

CEBIDAE. 

(From  Cebus,  Gr.  XTJ^OS,  Kebos,  monkey.     The  SAGOU,  or  SAJOU.) 

The  animals  of  this  genus  are  grouped  among  the  SAPAJOUS, 
but  denominated  more  distinctively  the  SAJOTJS.  They  are  also 
called  CAPUCHIN  MONKEYS,  from  the  hood-like  formation  of  the 
hair  of  the  head. 

C.  Appella.     The  WEEPEB. 

Why  this  very  common  species  received  so  dolorous  a  name 
is  not  apparent,  as  in  confinement  it  is  "good  tempered,  playful  f 
and   hardy."     It  has  a  rather  rich  fur  of  a  color  inclining  to 
olive,   with   a  golden  tinge  on  the  lighter  parts,   and  is  distin 
guished  by  its  yellow,  flesh-colored  face. 


4'2  QUADRUMANA. 

C.  albifrons.  (Lat.  atbus,  white,,  and  frons,  forehead.)  The 
OUAVAPAVI,  or  WHITE-FACED  CAPUCHIN. 

This  animal  has  a  grayish  blue  face,  except  the  pure  white 
orbits  and  forehead.  The  color  of  the  body  is  grayish  olive. 
Troops  of  these  monkeys  are  found  in  the  forests  of  Oronoco, 
The  Indians  often  keep  them  as  playthings,  and  derive  from 
them  much  entertainment.  Humboldt  saw  a  domesticated  one 
that  caught  a  pig  every  morning,  and  rode  him  about  the  whole 
day,  while  he  was  feeding  in  the  savanna.  Another,  in  the 
house  of  a  missionary,  bestrode  a  cat  which  had  been  brought 
up  with  it,  and  patiently  submitted  to  its  rider. 

C.fatuellus.  (Lat.,  the  same  as  Faunus,  or  Pan,  a  Roman  divin 
ity.)  The  Sagou  Cornu,  or  HORNED  MONKEY. 

This  species  takes  its  name  from  the  bushes  of  hair  which  ele 
vate  themselves  on  the  base  of  the  forehead,  producing  a  resem 
blance  to  horns.  The  color  in  some  of  these  animals  is  a  deep 
brown,  or  purplish  black  ;  in  others,  reddish  brown.  It  is  a  na 
tive  of  French  Guiana. 

II.  SAGOINS. 

These  include  several  groups,  which,  though  differing  from 
each  other  in  some  particulars,  agree  in  having  tails  that  are 
feeble  andnot  prehensile,  but  which  they  use  for  protecting  them 
selves  against  the  cold,  of  which  they  are  very  sensible.  They 
are  light  and  graceful  in  their  movements  ;  of  a  lively,  timid, 
and  irritable  disposition.  Their  food  consists  of  fruit,  birds'  eggs, 
and  insects.  Of  the  genera  belonging  to  this  division  we  name 
the 

CalHthrix  sciureus.  (Gr.  xa^o,,  kalos,  beautiful,  0§l£,  thrix, 
hair.)  Sciureus,  the  specific  term,  is  from  the  Gr.  axto^eoj, 
(skiureus,)  squirrel-like. 

This  is  the  SAIMIRI  of  BufFon,  otherwise  called  the  SQUIRREL 
MONKEY,  and  is  a  very  beautiful  little  animal  not  quite  a  foot 
long,  and  with  a  tail  three  or  four  inches  longer  than  the  body. 

It  is  native  to  Brazil  and  Guiana.  The  head  is  rounded  in 
form';  the  muzzle  is  short  and  dark  colored  ;  the  ears  very  large, 
and  it  has  a  large  bushy  tail.  Around  the  eyes  are  two  circles 
of  flesh.  The  general  color  is  olive  gray ;  but  the  fore-arms 
and  legs  are  of  a  fine  orange  red.  Its  cry  is  a  hissing  sort  of 
whistle  repeated  three  or  four  times,  and  expressive  of  impatience 
or  anger.  The  tail,  though  not  properly  prehensile,  it  sometimes 
winds  around  objects  as  a  sort  of  feeler  or  support,  so  that  this 
animal  may  be  regarded  as  a  link  between  this  division  and  the 
Ordinary  SAPAJOUS. 


QUADRUMANA.  43 

The  SAKIS, 

(Or  those  SAKIS  which  have  long  bushy  tails,  and  hence  have 
been  denominated  Fox  TAILED  MONKEYS  ;  the  term  Sold,  in  its 
more  general  application,  denoting  any  American  Monkey  which 
has  not  a  prehensile  tail.) 

Pithecia.  These  are  the  largest  of  the  SAGOINS.  Of  this 
genus,  which  has  a  facial  angle  of  60o,  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  Pithecia  lugens,  (Gr.  rtiOyxcla,  pithekeia,  ape-like ;  lugens, , 
Lat.  mourning,) — the  WIDOW  MONKEY,  so  named  from  the  con 
trast  of  black  and  white  displayed  in  its  natural  dress.  The 
general  color  is  black,  but  the  face  and  hands  are  white.  The 
Creoles  of  South  America  say,  "  it  wears  the  veil,  kerchief  and 
gloves  of  widowhood,"  according  to  the  custom  in  South  America. 

Pithecia  cheirofaotes.    (Gr.  x8t9,  cheir,  hand  ;  nonjg^potes,  drinker.) 

THE  HAND-DRINKER,  so  named  because  with  its  hands  it  con 
veys  water  to  its  mouth,  from  a  vessel  or  running  stream.  This 
animal  is  the  Capuchin  of  the  Oronoko.  It  is  distinguished  by 
two  distinct  bushy  tufts  formed  by  the  parting  of  the  hair  above 
the  large,  sunken  eyes,  and  by  its  long  crisped  black  beard.  The 
fur  is  of  a  reddish  chestnut  color.  It  lives  in  pairs  only,  and  is 
very  shy. 

But  a  more  interesting  species  of  these  animals  is  the  lacchus 
vulgaris,  (Gr.  "/«xjog,  lakchos,  Bacchus.)  The  MARMOSET, 
OUISTITIS,  or  STRIATED  MONKEY.  This  small  species  has  a  body 
about  eight  inches  long,  and  a  tail  eleven  or  twelve  inches.  Upon 
its  head  are  two  tufts  of  white  standing  hair ;  the  facial  angle  is 
50o ;  the  fur  very  soft.  Some  are  black  with  yellow  feet ;  others 
brown,  striped  with  yellow,  hence  called  striated.  When  re 
moved  from  its  native  region  to  a  colder  climate,  the  Marmoset 
nestles  itself  among  the  materials  of  its  bed,  out  of  which  it  sel 
dom  emerges.  It  is  very  fond  of  insects  :  in  captivity  it  will  eat 
scores  of  the  largest  cockroaches,  with  many  smaller  ones,  (re 
jecting  the  wing-cases  and  legs,)  three  or  four  times  a  day.  Its 
chief  and  favorite  food  in  the  wild  state,  is  the  banana,  though  in 
that  state  it  is  almost  omnivorous. 

/.  argentatus,  (Latin,  silvered.)  This  is  the  least  and  most 
beautiful  of  the  SAGOINS,  having  silvery  colored  hair,  which 
pleasantly  contrasts  with  a  tail  of  deep  brown,  inclining  to  black 
ness.  In  general  habits,  it  is  like  the  preceding. 

What  are  the  two  leading  groups  of  the  numerous  monkeys  found  in 
South  America  ?  What  is  a  marked  distinction  of  the  SAPAJOUS  ?  What 


44  QUADRUMANA. 

of  the  SAGOINS?  Why  are  they  sometimes  called  four -fingered  monkeys? 
What  monkeys  of  the  Eastern  continent  do  the  SAPAJOUS  represent  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  habits,  manner  of  climbing,  living,  &c.  ?  What  is  said  of 
their  fore  hands  ?  What  of  the  palms  of  both  extremities  ?  What  sort  of 
a  life  arc  they  said  to  lead  ?  In  what  respect  do  the  Howlers  differ  from 
the  SAPAJOUS  ?  In  what  particulars  do  they  agree  with  them  ?  Which  are 
the  largest  American  Monkeys  ?  For  what  are  they  remarkable  ?  Describe 
their  howling,  size,  disposition,  &c.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  URSINE  HOWLER, 
or  ARGUATO?  How  many  did  Humboldt  count  in  a  single  tree?  From 
what  is  Atclcs  the  generic  term  for  spider  monkey  derived,  and  what  does 
it  mean  ?  Why  are  they  called  Spider  Monkeys  ?  For  what  are  they  dis 
tinguished?  How  do  they  move  on  the  ground?  Where  and  upon  what 
do  they  live  ?  How  do  they  use  theip  tails  ?  How  cross  streams  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  flesh  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Marimonda  (Ateles  Belzebub  ?} 
What  is  said  of  the  SAJOUS,  or  CAPUCHIN  MONKEYS?  To  what  genus  do 
they  belong  ?  With  what  are  they  grouped  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Weeper? 
What  of  the  White-faced  Capuchin  ?  What  does  Humboldt  relate  of  this 
monkey  ?  From  what  does  the  horned  monkey  derive  its  name  ?  Where 
is  it  found  ?  What  do  the  SAGOINS  include,  and  in  what  do  they  all  agree  ? 
For  what  do  they  use  their  tails  ?  What  is  said  of  their  movements,  food, 
&c.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Squirrel  Monkey,  and  from  what  is  the  term 
derived  ?  What  does  the  term  SAKI  generally  denote  ?  Which  of  them 
are  called  Fox-Tailed  Monkeys?  Which  genus  of  SAGOINS  is  the  largest? 
Of  this  genus  Pithecia  which  is  the  most  remarkable  ?  What  do  the  Cre 
oles  of  S.  A.  say  of  it  ?  How  is  the  Hand-Drinker  distinguished  ?  Why  is 
it  so  named?  Where  found?  What  is  said  of  the  Marmoset,  Ouistitis  or 
Striated  Monkey  ?  What  is  said  of  its  food  in  its  wild  state  ?  What  in 
captivity  ?  Among  what  class  of  animals  on  the  chart  would  you  look  for 
cockroaches  ?  Which  is  the  least  and  most  beautiful  of  the  SAGOINS  ? 

SECTION  VII, 

LEMURIDJE,  (Lat.  Lcmures,  ghosts.) 

The  Lemurs  were  so  named  by  Linnaeus,  on  account  of  their 
nocturnal  habits  and  noiseless  movements.  The  larger  part  of 
this  family  are  natives  of  Madagascar ;  but  some  inhabit  the 
African  continent,  and  a  few  of  them  the  East  Indies.  They 
resemble  the  monkeys  in  having  opposable  thumbs  on  both  pairs 
of  extremities ;  those  of  the  hinder  limbs  are  large,  and  much 
expanded  at  the  tips ;  the  nails  are  flat,  except  those  of  the  first 
finger  of  each  hinder  limb,  which  are  long,  raised  and  pointed. 
They  do  not  show  either  the  mischievousness  and  petulance,  or 
the  sprightliness  and  curiosity  of  the  monkey  tribe.  From  them 
they  also  differ  in  size  and  form,  and  in  respect  to  their  teeth. 
The  chief  difference  among  the  Lemurs  themselves  relates  to 
color ;  the  habits,  manner  and  general  figure  being  the  same  in 
all.  The  muzzle  is  very  pointed,  the  tail  very  long ;  the  fur 
woolly  and  soft.  They  are  generally  not  larger  than  a  fox,  and 
some  are  smaller.  The  Lemurs  of  Madagascar  and  two  or  tbree 
adjacent  islands  appear  to  take  the  place  of  the  Monkeys,  none  of 


QUADRUMANA.  45 

which  are  found  in  those  islands.  Their  habits,  in  a  state  of  na 
ture,  have  not  been  much  observed.  When  in  captivity,  they 
are  quite  tame,  and  good  natured ;  fond  of  attention,  and  leap 
about  with  surprising  agility.  They  are  evidently  nocturnal. 
When  undisturbed,  they  spend  the  greatest  part  of  the  day  in 
sleep.  If  alone,  they  roll  themselves  up  in  the  form  of  a  ball, 
and  wind  their  long  tails  in  a  very  curious  manner  about  their 
bodies,  seemingly  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  themselves  warm, 
for  they  are  naturally  quite  sensitive  to  cold,  and  delight  in  bask 
ing  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  in  keeping  themselves  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  fire. 

At  twilight  they  show  more  alertness,  springing  from  perch  to 
perch,  and  uttering  a  peculiar  grunt  of  pleasure  and  satisfaction. 
At  this  time,  they  seem  most  desirous  of  food,  which  in  confine 
ment  is  usually  bread  and  fruits.  They  are  naturally  climbing 
animals  and  exceedingly  active,  twisting  their  tails  about  objects, 
but  not  using  it  as  a  fifth  hand. 

They  endure  changes  of  air  and  climate  better  than  the  Mon 
keys ;  but  "dust  and  wet  not  only  annoy  them,  but  produce  dis 
ease  and  death."  It  is  said  that  "one  of  their  favorite  situations 
is  the  edge  of  the  fender,  on  which  they  will  rest,  spreading  out 
their  hands  before  the  fire,  half  closing  their  eyes,  and  luxuria 
ting  in  the  genial  glow." 

The  noise  which  the  Lemur  makes  when  alarmed,  or  suddenly 
startled,  is  a  singular  "braying,  or  roar  of  interrupted  hoarse 
sounds,  ending  with  abruptness."  Their  native  food  is  not  cer 
tainly  known,  but  it  is  believed  to  be  fruits  and  eggs,  birds  and 
insects.  When  in  captivity,  they  refuse  cooked  meat.  They 
live  together  in  troops,  clinging  to  the  branches  of  trees,  or  when, 
confined,  to  the  bars  of  their  cages,  like  the  sloth,  which  in  many 
respects  they  resemble.  The  eyes  are  full  and  of  hazel  color ;  in 
confinement,  blindness  is  a  common  occurrence. 

The  whole  are  sometimes  called  MADAGASCAR  CATS. 

Cuvier  arranges  the  Lemurs  into  five  groups,  viz. 
I.  The  Makis,  or  Macacos,  the  TRUE  LEMURS. 
II.  The  Indris,  Lichanotus,  (Gr.  lichanos,  index-finger ;  ous, 
an  ear.) 

III.  The  Lori  group,  Slow  Lemurs,  Stenops,  (Gr.  Stenos,  nar 
row  ;  dps,  face  or  muzzle.) 

IV.  The  Galagos,  Otilicnus,  (Gr.  ous,  an  ear ;  liknon,  a  fan.) 
V.  The  Tarsiers,  Tarsius. 

Among  the  most  beautiful  species  of  the  first  group,  is  the  RED 
LEMUR,  L.  ruber,  (Lat.  red.)  This  is  also  one  of  the  largest,  and 
apparently  suffers  less  than  others  by  a  removal  from  its  native 


46  QUADRUMANA. 

abode.  Its  fur  is  of  a  deep  rich  chestnut ;  but  the  face  and  fore 
hands,  as  also  the  under  parts  and  tail,  are  black.  It  is  easily 
tamed,  and  very  gentle. 

A  still  more  beautiful  species  is  the  L.  Macaco.  The  RUFFLED 
LEMUR,  the  largest  of  the  family.  Its  fur  is  varied  with  pure 
white  and  black,  in  nearly  equal  proportions ;  the  hands,  how 
ever,  are  black,  and  a  white  ruff  surrounds  the  face.  In  habits 
and  disposition,  it  is  like  the  rest.  All  the  species  of  the  Lemurs 
are  handsome,  and  worthy  of  attention ;  but  it  is  sufficient  for  our 
purpose  to  name  the  above. 

The  Indris,  (Lichanotus,  Illiger.)  These  are  found  in  Mada 
gascar,  and  present  two  species,  the  long  and  the  short  tailed. 

The  BLACK  OR  TAILLESS  INDRI,  I.  brevicaudatus,  (Lat.  with 
short  or  rudimentary  tail,)  is  described  as  "a  large  animal  three 
and  a  half  feet  high,  entirely  black  except  on  the  face  and  abdo 
men,  which  are  of  a  grayish  cast,  and  the  rump  which  is  white." 
The  face  is  dog-like;  the  ears  are  short  and  much  tufted;  the 
hair  is  silky  and  thick,  but  in  some  places,  curly  ;  the  nails  are 
flat,  but  pointed.  When  young  it  is  trained  to  the  chase  like  a 
dog.  Its  note  is  spoken  of  as  like  a  young  child's  crying;  hence 
it  probably  derived  its  name  INDRI,  man  of  the  wood. 

The  FLOCKY  INDRI,  L  lanigcr,  (Lat.  wool-bearing,)  has  a  black 
face,  and  large  and  greenish  gray  eyes;  five-fingered  feet  with 
long  claws,  except  the  thumbs  which  have  rounded  nails.  It  is 
said  to  be  one  foot  nine  inches  long  from  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the 
tail,  the  tail  being  nine  inches.  The  color  above  is  a  pale  yellow 
ferruginous,  or  iron  color,  and  white  beneath.  The  fur  is  very 
soft  and  curly. 

The  LORIS.  Stenops,  (Illiger.)  The  animals  of  this  genus 
have  narrow,  pointed  muzzles,  and  are  without  tails.  Their  eyes 
are  close  together,  and  they  have  a  grasp  that  is  quite  tenacious. 
Their  movements  are  sometimes  very  slow ;  their  habits  noctur 
nal.  "The  base  of  the  arteries  of  the  limbs  has  the  division  into 
small  branches  which  is  found  in  the  true  Sloths."  The  number 
of  their  teeth  is  thirty-six.  The  thumbs  are  widely  separated 
from  the  fingers  on  both  extremities.  Two  species  are  found  in 
India  and  Ceylon,  viz. 

L.gracilis.  (Lat.  slender.)  The  SLENDER  LORIS.  This  is  a 
very  small  animal,  being  only  eight  inches  in  length.  It  has  a 
long,  doij-like  visage,  a  thin  and  weak  body,  and  long  slender 
limbs.  On  each  foot,  the  thumb  is  very  distinct  and  separate 
from  the  toes.  The  color  above  is  tawny;  beneath  whitish. 
According  to  Pennant,  it  is  very  active,  and  many  of  its  actions 
are  like  those  of  an  ape. 


QUADRUMANA.  47 

L.  tardigradus.  (Lat.  slow-paced.)  The  SLOW-PACED  LEMUR 
is  ';an  animal  of  small  size,  scarcely  equal  to  that  of  a  cat."  The. 
largest  yet  noticed  is  but  sixteen  inches  long.  The  apparent  clum 
siness  of  its  form  is  much  increased  by  the  manner  in  which  it 
usually  contracts  itself  into  a  kind  of  ball.  The  large  eyes  have 
transverse  pupils  capable  of  being  closed  during  the  day,  and  very 
largely  dilated  at  night.  The  hair  is  long,  close  and  woolly,  and 
of  a  deep  ashy  gray  with  a  brownish  tinge.  A  brown  or  chestnut 
band  runs  along  the  middle  of  the  back.  Under  the  true  tongue 
is  a  second  tongue,  narrow  and  sharp  pointed,  which  the  animal 
projects  in  connection  with  the  other  when  he  drinks,  and  also 
when  he  eats,  especially  when  eating  flies,  of  which  he  is  very 
fond ;  but  he  is  able  to  retain  the  second  within  his  mouth  at 
pleasure.  One  of  this  species  was  a  pet  of  Sir  William  Jones, 
during  l.n  residence  in  India. 

Galago.  The  GALAGOS,  found  in  Africa  and  India.  These 
animals  have  round  heads,  short  muzzles,  and  very  large  eyes 
and  ears.  The  feet  are  five-fingered,  with  the  exception  of  the 
first  finger  of  the  hind  feet,  which  has  a  sharp  awl-shaped  claw. 
The  tail  is  very  long  and  hairy.  Their  large  ears  close  when 
they  sleep,  but  open  upon  their  hearing  any  noise.  They  make 
their  nests,  squirrel-like,  in  the  branches  of  trees,  and  cover  it 
with  a  bed  of  leaves  or  grass  for  their  young.  Their  food  con 
sists  of  soft  fruits  and  insects.  They  are  found  in  great  numbers 
among  the  gum-trees  of  the  desert  of  Sahara,  and  are  particularly 
fond  of  the  gum  yielded  by  these  trees.  Thence  they  are  taken 
by  the  Moors,  and  carried  to  the  coast  for  sale,  where  they  are 
named  "animals  of  the  Gam.1'  These  animals  are  gentle  and 
pretty,  but  small,  the  length  of  the  body  being  only  seven  inches, 
and  that  of  the  tail,  nine. 

Of  the  several  species,  the  one  most  worthy  of  notice  is  the  G. 
Moholi.  The  MOHOLI.  This  singular  but  beautiful  animal, 
peculiar  to  Africa,  has  a  long  glossy  tail,  very  long  hinder  legs, 
large,  bare  and  spreading  ears.  The  color  of  the  tail  is  a  medi 
um  between  a  yellowish  brown  and  cochineal  red  ;  the  fur  is 
throughout  of  the  same  color;  that  of  the  other  parts  is  a  dark 
slate  color,  except  at  and  near  the  surface ;  the  eyes  are  a  deep 
topaz  yellow.  In  its  grimaces  and  active  movements,  it  resem 
bles  the  monkey.  It  is  rarely  seen  during  the  day,  which  it 
spends  in  the  nest  it  forms  in  the  forks  of  branches,  or  in  the 
cavities  of  decayed  trees.  Its  length  from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of 
the  tail  is  sixteen  inches. 

The  TARSIERS  are  found  in  the  Molucca  islands.  These  have 
tarsi,  which  are  very  long,  and  this  gives  to  their  hinder  limbs  a 

3 


43  QUADRUMANA. 

disproportionate  extent.  They  have  a  rounded  head,  large  eyes 
and  a  long  tufted  tail.  The  hands  are  small  and  delicate  ;  ex 
ternally  covered  with  a  soft  down,  but  within  they  are  naked. 
The  nails  of  all  the  fingers  of  the  hand  as  well  as  of  the  third  and 
fourth  finger  of  the  feet  are  triangular  in  shape  ;  on  the  index 
and  middle  finger  of  the  feet  they  resemble  the  thorns  of  a  rose 
bush.  The  fur  is  woolly  and  soft,  the  general  color  brown,  in 
clining  to  gray.  Two  species  are  known.  Tarsius  Bancanus. 
The  BANCA  TARSIER,  and  T.fuscomanus.  (Lat.  fuscus,  dark  or 
swarthy  ;  manus,  hand.)  These  animals  feed  chiefly  on  lizards. 
Averse  to  light,  they  retire  by  day  under  the  roots  of  trees.  Dr. 
Horsefield  obtained  the  BANCA  TARSIER  in  Banca,  near  laboos, 
one  of  the  mining  districts,  where,  he  says,  it  inhabits  the  exten 
sive  forests  in  the  vicinity. 

Cheiromys,  (G.  cheir,  hand;  mus,  mouse.)  The  AYE-AYE. 
This  quadruped,  whose  name  signifies  hand-mouse,  resembles  the 
ai,  or  sloth  in  its  habits,  but  should  not  be  confounded  with  that 
animal.  Cuvier  places  it  with  the  Rodent.ia,  but  it  may  properly 
be  classed,  as  it  has  been  by  some  naturalists,  among  the  monkeys. 
Its  specific  name  Madagascariensis,  points  it  out  as  a  native  of 
Madagascar.  It  burrows  under  ground,  and  is  slothful  and  noc 
turnal  in  its  habits  ;  has  large  flat  ears,  like  those  of  a  bat,  and  a 
tail  like  a  squirrel's;  but  its  most  distinguishing  peculiarity  is  the 
middle  finger  of  the  fore  foot,  the  last  two  joints  of  which  are  very 
long,  slender  and  without  hair.  This  peculiarity  aids  the  animal 
in  drawing  worms  out  of  the  holes  in  the  trees,  and  in  holding 
on  to  branches.  Its  length  is  eighteen  inches,  exclusive  of  the 
tail,  and  its  general  color  ferruginous  (iron)  brown,  mixed  with 


Galeopiihecus,  (Gr.  galeos,  a  weasel  ;  pithecos,  an  ape.)  FLY 
ING  LEMUR. 

This  genus  of  animals  is  the  connecting  link  between  the 
Lemurs  and  the  Bats.  There  are  two  species  ;  some  enumer 
ate  three.  G.  volans,  the  Flying  Lemur,  —  is  found  in  the  most 
eastern  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  chief  peculiarity 
of  this  animal  is  the  extension  of  its  skin  between  the  front 
and  hind  limbs,  including  also  the  tail,  by  which  it  receives  a 
(  parachute-like  support  in  the  air,  and  is  able  to  take  long  sweep 
ing  leaps  from  tree  to  tree,  somewhat  like  flying  ;  but  it  has  not, 
like  the  bats,  the  power  of  continued  flight.  The  general  struc 
ture  is  like  that  of  the  Lemurs.  During  the  day  it  sleeps  sus 
pended  on  the  branches,  with  the  head  downward.  At  night  it 
goes  forth  in  quest  of  its  food,  which  in  addition  to  insects,  consists 
of  fruits,  eggs  and  birds. 


CARNIVORA.  49 

By  whom  were  the  Lemurs  so  named,  and  why  ?  "Where  are  they  found, 
and  of  what  do  they  there  take  the  place  ?  In  what  do  they  resemble 
Monkeys,  and  how  differ  from  them  ?  In  what  do  Lemurs  chiefly  diifer 
among  themselves  ?  What  is  said  of  their  size,  and  is  much  known  of  their 
habits  in  a  wild  state  ?  What  are  their  habits  in  a  state  of  captivity  ?  In 
what  do  they  delight  ?  What  food  do  they  prefer,  and  what  refuse  ?  How 
do  changes  of  climate  affect  them  ?  What  influences  have  wet  and  dust 
upon  them  ?  What  is  to  them  a  favorite  position  ?  Do  they  live  alone,  or 
in  troops  ?  What  animal  do  they  strongly  resemble  ?  What  general  name 
is  sometimes  given  them  ?  Name  the  groups  into  which  Cuvier  arranged 
them  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Red  Lemur  ?  Which  of  the  Lemurs  is  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  other  groups,  the 
Indris,  the  Slow  Lemurs,  the  Galagos,  and  the  Tarsiers.  Describe  the  Aye- 
Aye,  and  the  Flying  Lemurs.  Why  is  the  name  Aye-Aye  given  to  the 
Cheiromys?  Ans.  Because  this  name,  as  pronounced,  is  supposed  to  resem 
ble  the  cry  of  the  animal. 

SECTION  VIII. 

ORDER  3.     CARNIVORA. 

(Lat.  caro,    flesh ;    woro,    to    devour.) 

The  two  preceding  orders,  we  have  found  specially  character, 
ized  by  the  number  and  properties  of  their  hands.  In  the  animals 
we  are  now  about  to  consider,  the  hands  are  modified  into  feet. 
At  the  head  of  the  four-footed  animals  are  the  Carnivora,  or  flesh 
eating  anim  ils,  which  have  the  strongest  thirst  for  blood,  and  with 
it  the  power  and  instruments  for  its  gratification.  These,  in  the 
structure  of  their  teeth,  their  digestive  organs,  and  general  con 
formation,  are  adapted  for  preying  upon  other  animals.  In  com 
mon  with  the  first  two  orders,  they  have  three  kinds  of  teeth,  and 
nails  or  claws  on  their  feet;  but  unlike  them,  never  have  the 
front  toe  opposable  to  the  other  fingers.  Their  molar  teeth,  or 
grinders,  are  adapted  for  cutting  and  tearing  rather  than  bruising 
or  grinding.  The  greater  or  less  development  of  the  molar  teeth 
as  cutting  or  tearing  instruments,  indicates  the  kind  of  animal 
food  suited  for  their  support.  Those  Carnivora  which  have  their 
molars,  in  whole  or  part,  tuberculated,  (covered  with  small 
knobs,)  use  vegetables,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent;  those  which 
have  them  serrated,  or  notched  with  points,  live  chiefly  on  insects. 
Other  modifications  of  the  molar  teeth,  fit  them  for  crushing 
bones,  or  dividing  flesh,  as  occasion  may  require.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  jaws  open  and  shut  like  a  pair  of  shears,  upwards  and 
downwards,  but  do  not  admit  of  a  side-wise  movement.  The 
Carnivora  have  no  third  lobe  in  the  brain.  The  senses  of  sight, 
hearing  and  smell  are  exceedingly  acute.  Their  feet  are  of  a 
peculiarly  soft  structure,  to  enable  them  to  steal  silently  upon 
their  prey ;  and  their  supply  being  uncertain,  they  can  endure 


50  CARN1VORA. 

long  abstinence  from  food.  The  intestines  of  this  order  are  suited 
to  their  flesh-eating  habits,  being  shorter,  and  less  voluminous 
than  those  of  herbivorous  animals.  A  kind  providence  has  so 
arranged  things  that  the  larger  and  more  formidable  of  the  car- 
nivorous  tribes  are  but  thinly  scattered  and  more  or  less  remote 
from  the  abodes  of  civilization. 

The  CARNIVORA  may  be  divided  into  I.  the  CHEIROPTERA, 
Bats;  II.  the  DIGITIGRADA,  including  the  Cat,  Dog  and  Weasel 
families ;  III.  the  PLANTIGRADA,  the  Bear  family  or  tribe ;  IV. 
the  AMPHIBIA,  the  PHOCIDJS,  or  Seal  family;  V.  the  TRUE  IN- 
SECTIVORA,  including  Shrews,  Moles,  &c. 

By  what  were  the  first  two  orders  characterized  ?  How  are  the  hands 
modified  or  changed  in  the  CARNIVORA,  and  other  orders  of  MAMMALS? 
What  order  stands  at  the  head  of  four  footed  animals  ?  What  are  their 
propensities,  and  have  they  the  power  to  gratify  them  ?  For  what  are 
their  teeth  and  digestive  organs  adapted  ?  How  many  kinds  of  teeth  have 
they  ?  Describe  them,  and  spell  their  names.  Ans.  Incisors.  The  fore  teeth 
with  sharp  cutting  edges  for  cutting  or  separating  the  food.  Canine  teeth 
are  on  each  side  of  the  incisors.  These  are  very  long  and  prominent  in  the 
Carnivora.  (See  plate  IV.  fig.  3.)  Those  in  the  upper  jaw  are  called  eye 
teeth  in  the  human  family.  Molars,  or  grinders  arc  of  three  kinds ;  false 
molars  are  more  or  less  pointed,  and  stand  next  the  canine  teeth ;  next  come 
the  carnivorous  teeth,  especially  adapted  for  dividing  and  lacerating  muscle, 
and  last  the  Tuberculated  teeth,  full  of  rounded  knobs  or  pimples.  Serrated 
teeth  are  notched  with  points  like  a  saw,  and  show  that  the  animal  lives  on 
insects.  Trenchant  teeth  are  very  sharp  and  cutting.  Granulated  teeth  are 
covered  with  small  elevations,  or  grains.  What  have  Carnivorous  animals  in 
common  with  the  first  two  orders  ?  In  what  are  they  unlike  them  ?  For 
what  are  their  molar  teeth  adapted,  and  what  is  indicated  by  their  varia 
tions  ?  How  can  you  distinguish  by  the  teeth  what  food  an  animal  lives 
upon?  How  do  carnivorous  animals  generally  open  and  shut  their  jaws? 
Have  their  jaws  any  side-wise  movement?  How  many  lobes  has  the  brain 
in  animals  of  this  order?  What  is  said  of  their  senses?  For  what  are 
their  feet  peculiarly  adapted  ?  Can  they  sustain  long  fasts  ?  Are  the  intes 
tines  shorter  in  Carnivorous  than  in  Herbivorous  animals  ?  How  are  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  God  shown  in  the  distribution  of  carnivorous  and 
blood-thirsty  animals?  How  are  the  CARNIVORA  divided? 

SECTION  IX. 
I.  DIVISION  OF  THE  CARNIVORA. 

SUB-ORDER  CHEIROPTERA,  (Gr.  xEl9,  clieir,  hand;  TTTSQOV,  pteron, 
wing.) 

These  singular  animals  combine  so  much  of  the  character  of 
birds  with  that  of  quadrupeds,  that  it  was  long  thought  difficult  to 
assign  them  a  separate  arrangement  in  the  system  of  nature.  It 
is  now,  however,  settled  that  the  structure  of  their  bodies,  their 
viviparous  nature,  their  hair,  etc.,  entitle  them  to  a  place  among 


H..IV. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  IY. 

DENTITION. 

1.  Skull  of  man,  showing  the  omnivorous  teeth  of  the  order  Bimana. 

2.  Tiger's  head,  showing  the  carnivorous  teeth  of  the  Cat  family,  (Felidae.) 

3.  Dog's  head,  showing  the  carnivorous  teeth  of  the  Dog  family,  (Canidae.) 

4.  Skull  of  a  porcupine,  showing  the  teeth  of  a  gnawing  animal,  order 
Rodentia. 

5.  Horse's  head,  showing  the  vacancy  for  the  bit  between  the  front  and 
back  teeth,  which  space  corresponds  with  the  angle  of  the  lips. 

6.  Hippopotamus'  head,   showing  the  canine  teeth,  (eye  teeth,)  developed 
into  enormous  tusks,  with  a  chisel  like  edge. 

7.  Elephant's  skull,  showing  the  long,  round,  arched,   pointed  tusks  or 
incisors  projecting  from  the  upper  jaw. 

8.  A  molar,  grinding  or  back  tooth  of  the  elephant,  of  which  there  are 
never  more  than  two  on  each  side  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  of  the 
African  elephant,  and  only  one  in  a  similar  position  in  the  Asiatic  ele 
phant. 

9.  Mastodon's  tooth,  showing  the  conical  points  whence  the  animal  derives 
its  name.     For  the  tusks  of  the  mammoth,  see  the  Chart. 

10.  Skull  of  a  cow,  showing  the  dentition  of  a  cud  chewing  animal,  order 

Ruminantia. 

11.  Porpoise  skull,  showing  how  the  numerous  teeth  interlock  with  one 

another  when  the  jaws  are  closed, 


54  CARNIVORA. 

the  quadrupeds.  Some  of  them  are  fruit  eaters  ;  but  as  a  whole, 
we  arrange  them  as  Cuvier  has  done,  with  carnivorous  animals. 
They  are  found  both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Continents,  and 
also  in  Australia.  A  climate  tolerably  temperate  seems  best, 
suited  to  these  animals ;  but  they  are  largest  in  warm  countries. 
Their  most  distinguishing  character  consists  of  a  fold  of  the  skin, 
which  rising  at  the  neck,  extends  over  the  lengthened  limbs,  as, 
the  silk  over  the  whalebone  of  a  parasol  or  umbrella,  and  gives 
them  a  winged  appearance.  Those  genera  which  have  the 
bones  of  the  hand  so  developed  as  to  spread  a  sufficient  extent 
of  this  membranous  skin,  have  power  to  perform  all  the  evolu- 
tions  which  are  required  for  flight.  The  hand-wings  present 
a  much  greater  extent  of  surface  than  those  of  birds,  and  the 
strong  muscles  attached  as  in  the  birds,  to  the  sternum  or  breast 
bone,  assist  them  to  fly  with  great  rapidity,  and  turn  with  aston 
ishing  swiftness.  A  lengthened  bone  proceeding  from  the  heel, 
assists  the  tail  in  expanding  that  part  of  the  membranous  skin 
which  is  between  the  thighs,  and  where  the  tail  is  absent,  per 
forms  that  office  alone ;  and  thus  gives  the  power  of  governing 
the  direction  of  the  flight,  like  the  spread  tail  of  a  bird.  By  the 
extension  of  the  upward  curving  of  the  tail  and  the  hind  feet,  the 
interfemoral  (between  the  thighs)  part  forms  a  hollow  cradle  into 
which  the  new  born  young  is  received.  The  thumb  is  free,  short 
and  armed  with  a  strong  hooked  claw,  by  which  they  crawl  along 
on  the  ground.  The  feeble  hind  feet  have  five  toes,  armed  with 
sharp  edged,  curved  and  pointed  claws,  by  which  these  animals 
suspend  themselves,  head  downwards,  in  hollow  trees,  caves,  or 
deserted  buildings,  where  they  are  found  during  the  day,  going 
forth  only  at  night.  Their  eyes  are  extremely  small,  but  the  ex 
ternal  ears  are  often  large,  and  with  the  wings,  form  an  extensive 
surface  endued  with  the  most  singular  and  exquisite  sensibility,  and 
enabling  them,  even  when  their  eyes  are  sealed  up,  or  removed,  to 
pursue  their  rapid  and  wheeling  flight,  avoiding  every  obstacle, 
not  even  hitting  threads  stretched  in  various  directions  across 
their  way,  and  passing  through  the  narrowest  passages  without 
touching  the  sides.  All  are  exquisitely  susceptible  of  cold,  and 
pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy,  retiring  to  old  ruins,  cav 
erns,  or  hollow  trees,  where  they  continue  suspended  by  their 
claws  until  the  genial  spring  warms  them  into  activity.  They 
are  most  active  in  the  calm  evenings  of  summer.  Some  of  them 
are  supposed  Lo  be  migratory  in  their  habits.  In  the  C/ieiroptera 
the  teats  are  pectoral ;  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Garni vora,  they  are 
ventral.  They  perform  a  very  useful  part  in  the  economy  of 
nature  in  the  destruction  of  insects. 


CARNIVORA.  55 

The  CHEIROPTERA,  or  VESPERTILIONID^E,  are  divided  into  five 
sub-families,  each  including  many  genera,  viz.  1.  Phyllostoma- 
tina,.  2.  Rhinolophina.  3.  Vespertilionina.  4.  Noctilionina. 
5.  Pteropina.  They  may  also  be  arranged  into  1st.  the  Frugiv- 
erous  group,  and  2d.  the  true  or  Insectivorous  Bats.  Omnivorous 
is,  however,  a  term  that  more  accurately  describes  the  former 
group.  Their  teeth  are,  some  of  them,  more  trenchant  than  fruit 
eating  habits  would  alone  require.  Cuvier  says  of  these  animals, 
"they  know  how  to  pursue  birds  and  small  quadrupeds,"  and  it  is 
quite  probable  they  sometimes  prey  on  the  large  insects  found  in 
the  regions  of  their  abode.  Beside  the  variations  in  the  teeth  of 
the  Fruit  Eating  or  Omnivorous,  and  the  Insectivorous  Bats,  there 
are  other  differences  which  relate  to  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
The  stomach  of  the  former  is  very  complicated,  and  the  intestines 
very  long,  (in  the  Pteropus,  seven  times  as  long  as  the  body,) 
whereas  in  the  latter,  the  stomach  is  very  simple,  having  but  two 
divisions  or  portions,  and  the  intestines  are  not  more  than  twice 
the  length  of  the  body.  Another  difference  respects  the  tail, 
which  in  the  insectivorous  bats  is  generally  powerful ;  in  the 
fruit  eaters  wanting,  rudimental  or  comparatively  inefficient. 

From  what  is  the  name  of  the  sub-order  CHEIROPTERA  derived  ?  What  do 
these  singular  animals  combine  ?  To  what  difficulty  did  this  give  rise  ?  Is 
it  now  a  settled  question  ?  What  particularly  entitles  them  to  a  place  among 
quadrupeds  ?  Are  any  of  them  fruit-eaters  ?  How  did  Cuvier  arrange  them 
as  a  whole  ?  Where  are  they  found,  and  what  climate  suits  them  best  ? 
Where  are  the  largest  found  ?  What  is  their  most  distinguishing  charac 
teristic  ?  How  do  their  wings  compare  with  those  of  birds  ?  How  are  the 
muscles  attached?  How  is  the  cradle  for  the  young  formed?  What  is 
said  of  the  thumb,  and  of  what  use  is  the  hooked  claw  ?  By  what  do  they 
suspend  themselves,  in  what  position,  and  in  what  places  ?  What  is  said  of 
their  eyes,  ears,  wings,  &c.  ?  What  of  their  exquisite  sensibility,  and  what 
docs  it  enable  them  to  avoid  ?  Are  they  affected  by  cold,  and  how  do  they 
pass  the  winter  ?  At  what  season  do  they  leave  their  retreats  ?  When  are 
they  most  active  ?  Are  any  of  them  migratory  ?  In  what  do  they  differ 
from  all  other  CARNIVORA?  Are  bats  useful?  In  what  way?  Into  how 
many  sub-families  are  they  divided?  How  may  they  also  be  arranged? 
What  does  Cuvier  say  of  them?  What  is  said  of  their  teeth,  intestines, 
&c.  ?  Name  any  further  differences  between  the  Insectivorous  and  Frugiv- 
erous  Bats. 

Spell,  give  the  derivations  and  examples  of  each  of  these  five  sub-families. 

1.  PHYLLOSTOMATINA,  (Gr.  Phidlon,  a  leaf,  Stoma,  a  mouth,)  named  from 
the  leaf-like  crest  upon  the  nose.     The  Vampire,   (Vampirus  Spectrum,}  of 
South  America,  is  one  of  this  blood-sucking  family,  acquaintance  with  which 
would  divest  it  of  half  its  terrors. 

2.  RHINOLOPHINA,  (Gr.  Rhin,  a  nose,  Lophos,  a  crest.)     These  are  the 
Horse  Shoe  Bats,  of  Java,  which  derive  their  name  from  the  shape  of  the 
leafy  membrane  upon  the  nose.     The  genus  Nycteris,  (Gr.  Nucteris,  a  bat,) 
inflate  their  bodies,  and  appear  like  small  balloons. 


56  CARNIVORA. 

3.  YESPERTILIONINA,  (Lat.    Vespertilio,  a  bat.)    These  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  including  Australia.     The  Flitter  mouse  of  England,  V. 
murinus,  has  the  ears  inclining  backwards.     The  New  York  Bat,  V.  Novebo- 
racensis,  the  Little  Brown  Bat,   V.  mbulatus,  (Lat.  awl-shaped,)  the  Silver 
Haired  Bat,  V.  noctivagans,  (Lat.  nox,  night ;  vagans,  wandering,)  the  Car 
olina  Bat,   V.  Carolinensis,  are  all  found  in  the  United  States  and  Canadas. 

4.  NOCTILIONINA,  (Lat.  Noctilio,  from  nox,  night,  and  eo,  to  go.)     These 
South  American  bats  have  side  pouches  for  receiving  their  young. 

5.  PTEROPINA,  (Gr.  Pteron,  a  wing;  pous,  a  foot.)     These  are  the  Rous- 
SETTES  of  the  French,  and  the  fruit-eating  bats  of  Java.     The  Kalong,  or 
Fox  Bat,   Pteropus  Javanicus,    is  the  largest,  measuring  five  feet  in  the 
spread  of  its  wings.     They  are  found  in  large  companies,  suspended  from 
trees. 

SECTION  X. 
THE  CARNIVORA  PROPER. 

The  CARNIVORA  proper  are  sometimes  arranged  into  three  di 
visions — the  DIGITIGRADA,  the  PLANTIGRADA,  and  the  PHOCIDAE 
or  AMPHIBIA. 

II.  DIVISION  OF  THE  CARNIVORA. 

I.  DIGITIGRADA,  (Lat.  digitus,  a  finger  or  toe  ;  gradior,  I  walk  ;) 
walking  on  the  toes. 

This  division  of  the  CARNIVORA  derive  their  name  from  their  ap 
plication  of  the  toes  to  the  ground  in  walking.  It  includes  the 
Cat,  Dog,  and  Weasel  families.  They  are  distinguished  by  their 
free,  light  and  active  step,  their  elasticity  of  motion,  beauty  of 
fur,  and  elegance  of  form.  Many  of  them  are  nocturnal,  slum- 
bering  by  day  in  some  dark  den  or  deep  recess,  but  prowling  steal 
thily  and  noiselessly  about  during  the  night.  Having  satisfied 
their  blood-thirsty  dispositions  and  voracious  appetites,  when 
"  the  sun  ariseth,  they  gather  themselves  together,  and  lay  them 
down  in  their  dens."  Some  animals  of  this  division,  as  the  wolf, 
are,  however,  more  open  in  their  movements,  and  in  bands  hunt 
their  prey  during  the  day. 

1.  FELIDAE,  (Lat./eZ/s,  a  cat.)     The  Cat  family. 

These  include  Cats,  Lions,  Tigers,  Leopards,  and  Lynxes. 
Among  them  are  the  most  eminently  carnivorous  and  formidable 
of  the  mammalia,  and  they  include  a  large  number  of  animals 
that  closely  resemble  each  other  in  structure  and  appearance. 
They  are  among  quadrupeds  what  birds  of  prey  are  among  the 
feathered  tribes.  The  size  and  strength  of  the  Lion,  Tiger  and 
Leopard,  combined  with  their  thirst  for  blood,  render  them  most 
fearfully  dangerous. 

The  jaws  and  teeth  of  the  FELIDAE  are  quite  different  from 


CARNIVORA.  57 

those  of  the  preceding  orders;  the  jaws  are  much  more  powerful, 
the  teeth  longer  and  sharper.  On  their  fore  feet  are  five  toes, 
and  on  the  hind  ones  four,  all  armed  with  strong  hooked  and 
sharp  claws.  To  prevent  the  claws  from  injury  by  coming  in 
contact  with  the  ground,  they  are,  when  not  in  use,  drawn  back. 
They  are  also  elevated  above  the  ground  by  the  so  ft  pad  underneath, 
into  sheathes,  so  that  the  point  only  just  peeps  out  beneath  the  fur, 
and  thus  are  not  liable  to  be  worn  or  blunted.  (See  Plate  VI,  fig.  7.) 
The  tongue  is  very  rough,  as  may  be  known  by  feeling  that  of  the 
domestic  cat.  This  roughness  is  occasioned  by  the  innumerable 
papillcB  which  are  turned  backwards,  and  are  like  so  many  little 
hooks  to  assist  the  animal  in  tearing  off  any  remnants  of  flesh 
that  may  adhere  to  the  bones  of  their  prey.  Their  sight  is  acute, 
and  suited  for  vision  both  by  night  and  by  day.  The  expansive 
power  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  so  great  that  it  takes  in  every 
ray  of  light.  In  the  larger  cats  the  pupil  is  circular  ;  in  those 
that  roam  at  night  and  also  see  well  by  day,  as  our  domestic 
cat,  it  is  oval.  Their  long  whiskers  are  delicate  organs  for  the 
sense  of  smelling.  These  whiskers  are  each  connected  with  a 
large  nerve,  and  they  are  useful  in  indicating  objects  when  the 
animal  is  prowling  at  night. 

Felis  Leo,  the  LION.  This  is  the  strongest  and  most  coura 
geous  of  the  feline  tribes,  called  the  "  King  of  Beasts,"  and  "  Mon 
arch  of  the  forest."  He  is  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  majesty 
and  strength  combined  with  generosity.  His  form  supports  the 
royal  arms  of  England,  and  surmounts  them  as  a  crest.  Many 
allusions  are  made  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  to  his  energy, 
power  and  majesty,  (Rev.  v.,  5,)  and  his  ferocious  and  sanguinary 
disposition.  There  are  two  kinds  of  Lions,  Leo  Africus  and  L. 
Asiaticus.  The  brown  Lions  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  are 
more  ferocious  than  the  yellow  variety  found  in  that  vicinity, 
and  will  carry  off  a  heifer  as  easily  as  a  cat  would  a  rat.  The 
Lion  of  Senegal  has  a  thinner  mane,  and  is  of  a  deeper  yellow 
than  the  Lion  of  Barbary.  The  Bengal  Lion,  the  Persian  Lion, 
and  the  Maneless  Lion,  are  only  varieties  of  the  Asiatic  Lion, 
Leo  Asiaticus. 

The  Lioness  is  smaller  than  her  mate,  has  two  and  sometimes 
three  blind  whelps  at  a  litter,  which  she  guards  with  great  care. 
They  are  easily  tamed  when  young,  and  live  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  years,  sometimes  much  longer.  The  great  lion  Pompey, 
which  was  in  the  Tower  of  London  in  1760,  had  been  there 
seventy  years.  One  from  the  river  Gambia  died  in  the  Tower 
at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  Anderson,  the  African  traveler,  does 
not  represent  lions  as  so  ferocious  and  formidable  as  we  have 


58  CARNIVORA. 

been  accustomed  to  consider  them.  They  have  a  small  horny 
prickle,  or  hook,  fastened  to  the  skin  and  concealed  in  the 
tassel  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  It  is  easily  detached,  and  its  use  is 
still  unknown.  Lions  belong  exclusively  to  the  Eastern  Conti 
nent,  but  the  Puma  is  sometimes  called  the  American  Lion,  and 
as  it  is  the  largest  of  the  Cat  family  on  the  Western  Continent, 
we  shall  give  it  a  more  particular  notice. 

Felis  Concolor.     The  PUMA,  COUGAR,  PANTHER,  PAINTER,  CATA 
MOUNT. 

This  formidable  animal  is  known  under  all  these  names  in  North 
and  South  America.  Washington  Irving,  (see  his  "Astoria,")  men 
tions  it  as  seen  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river.  Dr.  Good- 
man  gives  an  account  of  a  sportsman  killed  by  one  of  these  ani 
mals  in  the  Catskill  mountains.  One  of  them,  within  the  recol 
lection  of  Dr.  Dekay,  was  even  seen  a  few  miles  from  the  city  of 
New  York.  This  animal  was,  no  doubt,  formerly  found  in  all 
the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  along  the  borders  of  the  Pacific.  A  few  yet  remain  in  the 
less  cultivated  portions  of  the  Atlantic  States.  In  Florida  and 
Texas  it  is  quite  abundant.  It  is  also  found  within  the  tropics 
in  Mexico  and  Yucatan,  and  has  made  its  way  through  Panama 
into  Guiana  and  South  America,  where  it  is  called  the  Puma, 
and  reaches  its  greatest  size.  From  its  likeness  in  other  respects, 
to  the  b'on  of  the  old  world,  it  is,  though  maneless,  sometimes 
named  the  American  lion.  The  courage  of  the  Cougar  is,  bow- 
ever,  not  great,  and  unless  very  hungry  or  wounded  and  at  bay, 
he  seldom  attacks  man.  The  body  is  long  and  slender,  (five 
feet  in  length  and  including  the  tail,  eight ;)  the  legs  are  short 
and  stout.  The  general  color  of  the  Puma,  when  the  animal  is 
mature,  is  silvery  grey,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  sil 
very  lion.  In  the  United  States  the  general  color  is  tawny  or 
fulvous ;  the  under  part  is  reddish  white.  The  name  "  concolor" 
it  obtains  from  its  uniformity  of  color.  The  tail  of  the  male  is 
longer  than  that  of  the  female,  and  without  a  tuft.  The  Puma 
lives  much  on  trees,  which  it  climbs  with  great  ease ;  and  its 
uniform  dusky  fur  makes  it  so  like  the  bark  that  it  is  not  readily 
distinguished  from  the  branches  on  which  it  rests.  From  trees, 
it  falls  suddenly  upon  monkeys,  deer,  and  cattle  as  they  pass  by  ; 
or  it  lurks  among  reeds  and  thickets  by  the  side  of  rivers  and 
marshes,  where  it  seizes  the  alligator  as  he  raises  his  head  above 
water,  or  crawls  out  upon  the  bank.  In  Florida,  the  animal  in 
habits  the  miry  swamps  and  the  watery  everglades ;  in  Texas 


CARNIVORA.  59 

he  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  open  prairies,  and  his  tracks  are  found 
in  every  crossing  place  of  creeks  and  bayous  where  perhaps  he 
may  find  some  calf,  cow  or  bullock  that  has  been  sunk  and  suf 
focated  in  the  mire.  The  Cougar  sometimes  attacks  young  cat 
tle,  but  is  generally  compelled  to  subsist  on  small  animals,  such 
as  young  deer,  skunks,  racoons,  &c.,  or  birds,  and  even  will  eat 
carrion  when  hard  pressed  by  hunger.  (Audubon.) 

The  Panther  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits  ;  not,  however,  from  ne 
cessity,  as  it  can  see  well  in  day  light.  It  makes  its  way  through 
tangled  forests  in  searching  for  prey  at  night — perhaps  arousing 
and  affrighting  some  benighted  traveler  or  wearied  hunter,  who 
has  bivouacked  at  the  foot  of  a  large  tree ;  and  fortunate  indeed 
is  he  if  his  rifle  fail  him  not,  or  if  by  a  burning  fire-brand  he 
can  frighten  away  the  hungry  animal.  At  the  sight  of  a  Pan 
ther,  horses  are  thrown  into  such  fright  that  they  "  break  all  fast 
enings  and  fly  in  every  direction."  Audubon  says,  "  a  respecta 
ble  gentleman  of  the  state  of  Mississippi  gave  us  the  following 
account.  A  friend  of  his,  a  cotton  planter,  one  evening  while  at 
tea,  was  startled  by  a  tremendous  out-cry  among  his  dogs,  and 
ran  out  to  quiet  them,  thinking  some  person,  perhaps  a  neighbor 
had  called  to  see  him.  The  dogs  could  not  be  driven  back,  but 
rushed  into  the  house.  He  seized  his  horsewhip  which  hung  in 
side  the  hall  door,  and  whipped  them  all  out,  as  he  thought,  ex 
cept  one,  which  ran  under  the  table.  He  then  took  a  candle, 
and  looking  down,  to  his  surprise  and  alarm,  discovered  the  sup 
posed  refractory  dog  to  be  a  Cougar.  He  retreated  instanter ; 
the  females  and  children  of  the  family  fled,  frightened  half  out 
of  their  senses.  The  Cougar  sprang  at  him — he  parried  the 
blow  with  the  candle-stick,  but  the  animal  flew  at  him  again, 
leaping  forward  perpendicularly,  striking  at  his  face  with  the 
fore  feet,  and  at  his  body  with  the  hind  feet.  These  attacks  he 
repelled  by  dealing  the  Cougar  straight-forward  blows  on  its 
belly  with  his  fists,  lightly  turning  aside  and  evading  its  claws 
as  best  he  could.  The  Cougar  had  nearly  over-powered  him, 
when  luckily,  he  backed  towards  the  fire-place,  and  as  the  ani 
mal  sprang  again  at  him,  dodged  him,  and  the  panther  almost 
fell  into  the  fire,  at  which  he  was  so  terrified  that  he  endeavored 
to  escape,  and  darting  out  of  the  door,  was  immediately  attacked 
again  by  the  dogs,  and  with  their  help  and  a  club,  was  killed." 

The  female  has  three,  four,  and  even  five  at  a  litter,  but  the 
usual  number  is  two.  She  shows  great  affection  for  her  young, 
never  leaving  them  except  to  obtain  food  to  support  her  strength. 

Felis  Tigris,  (regatis.)     The  ROYAL  TIGER.  (PI.  IV.  fig.  2.) 

This  animal  infests  Hindostan,  and  the  parts  of  Asia  between 


63  CARNIVORA. 

Bengal  and  China.  It  is  nearly  equal  to  the  lion  in  size,  and 
though  inferior  to  him  in  strength,  surpasses  him  in  activity  and 
rapidity.  Whole  villages  are  sometimes  depopulated  by  this 
most  dangerous  animal.  The  tigress  has  five  cubs  at  a  time, 
which  are  easily  tamed  but  not  to  be  trusted.  Among  American 
Tiger  Cats  may  be  enumerated  the  Ocelot,  F.  pardalis,  of  Tropical 
America;  theChati,  F.  mitis,  (mild,)  of  South  America,  about  one 
third  larger  than  a  cat,  and  the  Pampas,  or  Jungle  Cat,  F.  Pajeros, 
which  lives  on  Guinea  pigs.  The  Nepaul  Tiger  Cat,  F.  nepa- 
lensis,  is  two  and  a  half  feet  long,  including  the  tail.  The  Ser- 
val,  F.  Serval,  an  African  Tiger  Cat,  plays  like  a  kitten,  and 
looks  very  cat-like. 

The  LEOPARDS,  or  SPOTTED  Cats,  are  numerous,  and  found  on 
both  continents.  They  are  distinguished  for  beauty  and  ele 
gance.  Their  color,  in  the  East,  is  a  pale  yellow,  covered  with 
rosettes  of  black,  which  contract  into  spots  about  the  head,  neck 
and  limbs.  The  general  length  is  about  four  feet  and  the  height 
about  two.  The  Leopard  preys  upon  antelopes,  deer  and  mon 
keys.  So  great  is  the  flexibility  of  its  body  that  it  can  make 
surprising  leaps,  swim,  climb  trees  or  crawl  like  a  snake,  with 
nearly  equal  facility.  These  animals  are  fierce  and  rapacious, 
and  it  is  remarked  that  "though  they  are  ever  devouring,  they 
always  appear  lean  and  emaciated." 

The  JAGUAR,  F.  onca,  is  the  Leopard  of  this  Continent.  This 
formidable  animal  inhabits  Mexico,  and  is  met  with  in  almost 
every  part  of  Central  America.  In  common  with  many  of  this 
family,  he  is  often  called  the  Panther.  The  Cheetah,  .F.  jubala, 
is  the  Hunting  Leopard  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  combines 
in  some  degree,  the  habits  of  both  the  cat  and  the  dog.  Its  spe 
cific  name  jubata,  (Lat.  crested,)  is  derived  from  the  thin 
mane  running  down  the  neck. 

The  LYNXES  are  distinguished  by  their  tufted  ortasseled  ears, 
and  shorter  bodies  and  tails.  Eight  species  are  described.  The 
Wild  Cat,  or  Bay  Lynx,  Lynx  rufus,  looks  most  ferocious,  but 
flies  from  its  pursuers,  moving  by  bounds  or  leaps,  and  raising 
all  the  feet  at  the  same  time  from  the  ground.  The  Canada 
Lynx,  (L,  Canadensis  )  is  more  retired  in  its  habits,  and  its  fur 
furnishes  the  most  beautiful  materials  for  mufFs,  collars,  &c. 
The  Caracal,  F.  Caracal,  takes  its  specific  name  from  the  black 
tips  of  its  ears,  the  word  in  Turkish  meaning  black.  Its 
body  is  longer  and  more  slender  than  in  the  true  LYNXES.  It 
is  called  the  "Lion's  provider."  The  domestic  and  the  wild  cat 
are  supposed  by  many  to  be  of  distinct  species.  A  ma.rked  dif. 
ference  is  shown  in  the  tails  of  the  two ;  that  of  the  wild  cat  is 


CARNIVORA.  61 

bushy  and  short,  while  that  of  our  tame  cats  .is  long  and  slender. 
The  varieties  are  numerous ;  among  the  most  noted  are  the 
Tabby,  or  Brindled  ;  the  Maltese,  of  a  bluish  hue  ;  the  Tortoise, 
shelled  or  spotted  ;  the  Angora  ;  the  Egyptian  ;  and  the  Manx 
Cats,  of  the  Chartreuse,  a  species  that  have  no  tails.  Another 
variety  are  said  to  have  the  fore  paws  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  cat  is  more  attached  to  places  than  persons ;  is  sly  and  sus 
picious  ;  loves  her  ease  and  seeks  the  softest  places  for  her  bed ; 
is  fond  of  catnip  and  valerian ;  and  is  a  great  favorite,  particu 
larly  with  children.  She  is  fond  of  rats,  mice,  squirrels  and 
birds,  and  notorious  for  thievish  propensities ;  dislikes  cold  wa 
ter  and  bad  smells.  Her  hair  is.  electric,  and  always  dry  and 
glossy ;  average  age,  14  years. 

"What  three  divisions  compose  the  CARMVORA  PROPER  ?  From  what  is  dig- 
itigrada  derived  ?  What  does  it  include  ?  By  what  are  they  distinguished  ? 
What  are  their  usual  habits?  At  what  time  do  they  seek  their  prey? 
Which  hunt  in  bands  ?  At  Avhat  time  ? 

FELID^E. 

What  does  felis  signify  ?  What  does  this  family  include  ?  What  is  their 
character,  and  how  do  they  resemble  each  other  ?  To  what  are  they  com 
pared  ?  What  renders  them  particularly  dangerous  ?  In  what  way  do  the 
teeth  and  jaws  of  the  FELIDAE  diifer  from  those  of  the  preceding  orders  ? 
What  is  said  of  their  feet  and  claws  ?  How  are  the  claws  protected  ?  By 
what  are  they  elevated  above  the  ground  ?  What  is  said  of  the  tongue  ? 
What  causes  the  roughness?  What  do  these  hooks  assist  them  to  do? 
What  is  said  of  their  sight  and  of  the  shape  of  their  eyes  ?  Of  what  use 
are  their  whiskers,  and  with  what  is  each  connected  ? 

Which  is  the  strongest  and  most  courageous  of  the  feline  tribe  ?  What  is 
he  called  ?  How  regarded  ?  Where  referred  to  ?  What  species  are  here 
mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  lioness  and  her  young?  Are  they  long 
lived?  How  does  Anderson,  the  African  traveler  who  was  recently  trod 
den  to  death  in  that  country  by  elephants,  speak  of  them  ?  What  is  con 
cealed  in  the  tuft  of  hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail  ? 


Where  do  lions  belong  ?  Which  is  the  largest  of  the  American  Cats  ? 
Under  what  names  are  they  known?  Where  have  they  been  found? 
Where  is  it  still  found  ?  Why  is  it  called  the  American  Lion  ?  Why  the 
Silvery  ?  What  is  said  of  its  courage  ?  What  of  its  general  color  in  the 
United  States  ?  How  do  the  male  and  female  differ  ?  On  what  does  the 
Purna  live  ?  What  is  said  of  the  appearance  of  its  fur  ?  Of  what  advan 
tage  is  this  ?  How  does  it  secure  its  prey  ?  Where  are  its  haunts  in 
Florida?  Where  in  Texas?  What  does  the  Cougar  attack?  On  what 
does  it  usually  subsist  ?  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Panther  ?  Define  and 
spell,  Noc-tur-nal,  (Lat.  nocturnhs,  by  night,  from  nox,  night.)  Di-ur-nal, 
(Lat.  diurnus,  by  day,  from  dies,  day.)  Crepuscular,  (Lat.  crepusculum,  twi 
light.)  Are  Panthers  attached  to  their  young,  and  what  is  their  usual 
number  ? 


62  CARNIVORA. 

How  does  the  Royal  Tiger  compare  with  the  Lion  ?  What  countries 
does  he  infest?  What  is  said  of  his  ravages?  How  many  cubs  has  the 
tigress  ?  When  tamed,  are  they  trustworthy  ?  Where  is  the  Ocelot  found  ? 
Where  the  Chati?  What  is  said  of  its  size?  Where  is  the  Jungle  Cat 
found  ?  On  what  does  it  live  ?  What  other  Tiger  Cats  can  you  mention  ? 

Are  Leopards  or  Spotted  Cats  numerous?  Where  are  they  found?  For 
what  are  they  distinguished?  What  is  their  color  in  the  East?  What 
their  usual  length  and  height?  Upon  what  do  they  prey?  What  is  said  of 
the  flexibility  of  their  bodies?  What  of  their  disposition?  Which  is  tfie 
Leopard  of  this  Continent,  and  where  found  ?  What  is  he  often  called  ? 
Where  is  the  Cheetah  found  ?  What  called  ?  What  habits  are  united  in 
him  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  specific  name  jubata  ?  Why  given  ? 

How  are  the  Lynxes  distinguished  ?  How  many  species  are  described  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Wild  Cat,  or  Bay  Lynx?  What  of  the  Canada  Lynx? 
From  what  does  the  Caracal  take  its  specific  name  ?  From  what  language 
is  the  name  derived?  What  does  it  mean?  Is  the  Caracal  larger  or 
smaller  than  the  true  lynxes  ?  What  is  it  called  ? 

Are  Domestic  and  Wild  Cats  of  the  same  or  different  species?  What  is 
a  plain  difference  ?  Mention  the  most  noted  varieties.  Give  the  character 
of  the  cat.  What  is  her  average  age  ? 

SECTION  XL 
SUB-FAMILY  HYAENINA. 

HYAENA,  (Gr.  {5awa,  Huaina.) 

The  Hyaena  has  the  head  and  feet  of  a  fox,  and  the  intestines 
of  a  civet.  Linnaeus  placed  it  between  the  wolf  and  fox.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  ferocious,  malignant  and  carnivorous  of  animals. 
There  are  three  species,  the  Striped,  (H.  striata.)  the  Villose, 
(H.  viUosa.)  and  the  Spotted,  (H.  maculata.)  The  Striped  is  the 
H.  vutgaris,  or  Common  Hyaena,  (see  Chart.)  It  often  deceives 
its  pursuers  by  feigning  lameness  at  the  commencement  of  a 
chase.  It  dwells  in  caverns  and  rocky  places;  prowling  about 
at  night  to  feed  on  dead  animals,  or  such  living  prey  as  it  can 
seize,  seldom,  however,  assailing  man  unless  in  self  defence. 
Hyaenas  are  useful  as  feeders  on  carrion,  in  cleansing  the 
region  where  they  dwell  of  the  decaying  remains  of  larger  ani 
mals,  and  preventing  the  increase  of  poisonous  effluvia.  They 
are  found  in  the  train  of  armies,  whose  slain  they  feed  upon, 
and  sometimes  even  tear  newly  buried  corpses  out  of  their 
graves. 

VIVERRIDAE,  (Lat.  viverra,  a  Ferret.)     The  CIVETS. 

This  entire  group  are  noted  for  their  perfume,  which  is  secreted 
in  a  glandular  pouch  near  the  tail,  and  is  of  some  importance  as 
an  article  of  commerce.  It  is  called  Civetta,  (Arabic,  Zibetta,) 


CARNIVORA.  63 

meaning  scent  or  perfume,  and  gives  name  to  the  animal.  They 
are  nocturnal  and  predatory;  inhabit  Africa,  Asia  and  the  adja 
cent  islands,  and  are  particularly  numerous  in  Abyssinia.  Their 
general  appearance  is  like  that  of  the  fox. 

GENETTA,  (Fr.  Genette.)     The  GENETS  or  WILD  CATS. 

The  Genets  are  similar  to  the  Civets,  but  in  contour  of  body, 
are  most  like  the  Weasels,  having  long  arid  slender  forms,  short 
limbs  and  sharp  pointed  muzzles.  They  give  out  the  same  odor 
as  the  Civets,  though  the  odoriferous  pouches  are  much  reduced 
in  size. 

HERPESTES  ICHNEUMON,  Pharaoh's  Rat,  or  Mangouste. 

This  beautiful  little  animal  is  appropriately  called  Herpestes, 
(Gr.  a  creeper,)  and  Ichneumon,  (Gr.  a  tracker.)  It  was  an 
ciently  ranked  among  the  sacred  animals  of  Egypt;  destroys 
reptiles  and  young  crocodiles,  and  thousands  of  crocodile's  eggs. 
It  is  kept  tame  in  the  houses  of  the  east,  to  destroy  unpleasant 
intruders. 

What  is  said  of  .the  mixed  form  and  nature  of  the  Hyaena?  What 
of  its  disposition  and  habits?  How  many  species  are  there?  Describe 
the  one  figured  on  the  chart.  Give  its  zoological  gradations.  Ans.  The 
Common  or  Striped  Hyaena  is  of  the  VARIETY,  striata ;  SPECIES,  vulgaris; 
GENUS,  Hyaena;  sub-family,  Hyenina,  FAMILY  or  TRIBE,  Canidae;  SUB-ORDER, 
Digitigrada;  ORDER,  Garnivora;  CLASS,  Mammalia;  WARM  BLOODED  division 
of  the  suB-KiN'GDOM,  Vertebrates,  the  highest  branch  of  the  ANIMAL  KING 
DOM.  Give  the  meaning  of  these  several  gradations.  Trace  out  every 
genus  studied  by  the  class  in  this  way.  To  what  deceptive  expedient  do 
the  Hyaenas  resort  ?  Do  they  often  assail  man  ?  Where  do  they  li ve  ? 
Upon  what  do  they  feed  ?  What  do  they  sometimes  do  ? 


For   what  are   the    Civets  noted  ?     From  what  is  their  name  derived  ? 
Where  are  they  found  ?     What  is  their  general  appearance  ? 

What  are  the  Genets  most  like  ?     In  what  do  they  resemble  the  Civets  ? 
How  was  the  Ichneumon  ranked,  and  for  what  is  it  useful  in  Egypt  ? 

SECTION  XII. 

2.    DIVISION    OF    THE  DlGITIGRADES. 

The  CANIDAE,  (Lat.  cants,)  a  dog.     (PL  IV.,  fig.  2.) 

This  includes  a  large  number  of  animals,  some  of  which,  in 
particular  respects,  resemble  the  Cats;  others,  the  Weasels  and 
Bears.  The  dog  has,  from  olden  time,  been  the  friend  and  com- 
panion  of  man;  yet  some  uncertainty  still  exists  as  to  its  original 
stock.  It  is  quite  like  both  the  Wolf  and  the  Jackal.  Some 


64  CARNIVORA. 

naturalists  incline  to  assign  it  a  common  origin  with  the  former ; 
others  have  identified  it  with  the  latter.  The  balance  of  the  ar 
gument,  however,  seems  in  favor  of  the  wolf  as  the  original 
source  from  which  the  domestic  dogs  have  sprung.  Their  skulls 
and  skeletons  are  similar.  The  period  of  gestation  is  sixty-three 
days  in  both.  Both  open  their  eyes  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day,  and 
live  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  We,  however,  prefer  the  position 
that  when  man  first  went  forth  to  till  the  ground  whence  he  was 
taken,  the  dog  was  given  him  by  the  Creator  as  his  assistant  and 
ally.  The  relation  which  he  sustains  to  man  differs  much  from 
that  sustained  to  him  by  other  animals.  The  dog  is  alone  iden 
tified  with  his  master's  interests  and  occupations.  Other  animals 
may  endure  his  rule  ;  to  the  dog  it  seems  a  pleasure.  He  knows 
his  looks,  his  voice,  his  walk,  rejoices  at  his  approach,  and  shows 
himself  his  willing  defender.  The  classic  scholar  will  remem 
ber  that  Homer,  in  the  true  spirit  of  nature  and  of  poetry,  repre 
sents  Ulysses  as  recognized  on  his  return  to  Ithaca  by  his  old  and 
faithful  dog  alone,  which  died  with  joy  at  his  feet.  The  value 
of  the  dog's  services,  in  the  early  stages  of  society,  and  in  pre 
paring  the  way  for  civilization,  affords  confirmation  of  our  idea 
concerning  its  origin.  In  wild  and  uncultivated  regions,  and  es 
pecially  in  northern  latitudes,  the  very  existence  of  man  is 
often  dependent  upon  the  fidelity  and  ever  ready  aid  of  the  dog. 
"He  is  the  only  animal  which  has  followed  man  through  every 
region  of  the  earth."  The  intimacy  of  relation  implied  in  this 
remark  of  Cuvier  should  be  qualified  in  respect  to  its  extent,  as 
it  is  well  known  the  Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  Hindoos,  regard 
the  dog  as  impure  and  abominable,  and  will  not  touch  it  without 
ablution.  The  teeth  of  the  Canine  family,  (including  dogs, 
wolves  and  jackals,)  are  forty-two  in  number.  The  muzzle  of 
these  animals  is  more  or  less  lengthened ;  the  tongue  small,  and 
the  pupil  of  the  eye  circular.  The  fore-feet  have  five  toes ;  the 
hind  feet  four,  and  sometimes  a  fifth  ;  the  toes  are  not  retractile. 
DOMESTIC  DOGS. 

Their  legs  are  long,  and  hence  their  stature  is  elevated. 
Though  carnivorous,  their  ferocity  is  not  generally  equal  to  their 
strength.  They  obtain  their  prey,  not  by  sudden  bounds,  but  by 
,t  hunting  it  down  by  the  aid  either  of  sight  or  smell,  often  associ 
ating  in  packs  for  that  purpose.  Martin  makes  seven  divisions, 
containing  fifty  varieties  of  the  Domestic  Dog. 

Facts  almost  innumerable  illustrate  the  docility,  sagacity, 
and  memory;  the  courage,  faithfulness  and  love  of  this 
animal.  The  ESQUIMAUX  dogs,  included  in  the  first  division,  are 
peculiarly  valuable  to  the  dwellers  in  Arctic  regions.  They  are 


CARNIVORA.  G5 

used  by  them  in  pursuing  the  seal,  the  bear  and  the  reindeer. 
Yoked  to  heavily  laden  sledges,  they  often  drag  them  with  untir 
ing  patience,  fifty  or  sixty  miles  in  a  day.  Capt.  Parry's  "  Jour 
nal  of  a  Second  Voyage  for  the  Discovery  of  a  North  West 
Passage,"  and  Dr.  Kane's  "Arctic  Explorations,"  abound  in 
graphic  descriptions  of  the  manners  of  the  Esquimaux  them 
selves,  and  in  interesting  particulars  showing  the  utility  of  their 
dogs.  With  good  sleighing,  six  or  seven  of  these  dogs  will  draw 
from  eight  to  ten  hundred  weight,  at  the  rate  of  seven  or  eight 
miles  an  hour,  for  several  hours  together. 

The  GREYHOUND,  (one  of  the  second  division,)  is  the  swiftest 
of  all  the  dogs,  and  is  used  principally  in  the  chase  of  the  hare. 

The  NEWFOUNDLAND  dog  is  so  named  from  the  place  whence  it 
originated.  It  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Labrador  dog, 
which  is  a  larger  and  stronger  animal.  Both  are  trained  to  draw 
sledges  and  light  carriages.  The  Newfoundland  dog  is  well 
known  for  his  care  in  guarding  the  property  of  his  owner.  He 
is  remarkably  fond  of  the  water,  and  will  bring  out  any  object 
which  his  master  points  out  in  the  water,  and  place  it  at  his  feet. 
Many  have  been  rescued  by  this  dog  from  a  watery  grave.  He 
evinces  the  greatest  fidelity  and  affection  towards  those  who  take 
care  of  him. 

The  WATER  SPANIEL,  (of  the  fourth  division,)  delights  in  taking 
itself  to  the  water,  which  it  does  in  pursuit  of  game.  It  is  use 
ful  to  persons  who  are  shooting  wild  ducks,  or  water  hens,  as 
these  fowl  conceal  themselves  so  closely  that  without  aid  they  can. 
not  be  discovered.  It  will  dive  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  bring 
up  any  small  object  from  the  bottom. 

The  BLOODHOUNDS,  (fifth  division,)  are  noted  for  the  acuteness 
of  their  smell,  and  can  trace  a  man  or  an  animal  with  unfailing 
certainty.  Sometimes  they  have  been  used  in  the  capture  of 
thieves,  especially  sheep  stealers.  It  is  about  two  feet  four 
inches  in  height,  and  has  a  voice  peculiarly  deep,  and  that  may 
be  heard  a  considerable  distance. 

The  MASTIFFS,  (sixth  division,)  are  distinguished  by  the  short 
ness  of  the  nose,  and  the  breadth  of  the  head,  which  is  caused  by  the 
large  muscles  that  move  the  jaw.  Its  powerful  frame  and  deep 
voice  have  led  to  its  selection  as  a  house  guard  against  burglars. 

The  TERRIERS,  (seventh  division,)  are  used  for  destroying  rats 
and  other  vermin,  and  will  boldly  invade  the  covert  of  the  fox  or 
the  badger.  They  become  strongly  attached  to  their  masters, 
and  can  be  taught  many  tricks  for  their  amusement. 

The  Shepherd's  dog,  (of  the  same  division  with  the  Esquimaux,) 
is  a  rough  and  shaggy  animal,  having  sharp  pointed  ears  and  nose. 


63  OAJLNIVORA. 

To  the  shepherd  it  is  an  invaluable  assistant.  In  point  of  intel 
ligence,  thoughtfulness  and  promptitude,  it  is  not  probably  ex 
celled  by  any  of  the  varieties  of  dogs.  A  story  is  told  of  a  dog 
belonging  to  the  "  Ettrick  Shepherd,"  who  had  700  sheep  under 
his  care.  On  a  certain  occasion,  they  broke  away  in  the  middle 
of  the  night,  and  in  spite  of  every  effort  of  the  shepherd  and 
his  assistants,  roamed  to  a  distance  across  the  hills.  "  Sirrah," 
said  the  afflicted  shepherd  to  his  dog,  "  Sirrah,  my  man,  they're 
a'  awa."  Away  went  the  dog  in  the  darkness,  the  shepherd  and 
his  companions  meantime  scouring  the  hills,  but  seeing  nothing 
of  the  flock  or  the  dog.  The  next  morning  they  found  them  at 
the  bottom  of  a  deep  ravine,  not  one  lamb  of  the  whole  flock 
missing,  and  the  dog  standing  in  front  of  them,  keeping  watch. 

On  the  Alpine  summits  of  St.  Bernard,  remarkable  for  its 
hospital,  and  covered  with  the  snows  of  a  ceaseless  winter,  the 
resident  monks  have  been  often  known  to  issue  forth  in  the  midst 
of  tempests  and  snow  storms,  and  by  means  of  their  large  dogs, 
of  peculiar  breed,  have  discovered  travelers  unable  to  track 
their  way,  and  saved  them  from  the  cold  embrace  of  death.  We 
subjoin  the  following  as  illustrating  the  powers  of  imitation  and 
memory  possessed  by  the  dogs. 

A  few  winters  since,  a  gentleman  in  Lawrence,  Mass.,  one 
morning  when  the  snow  was  covered  with  a  smooth  icy  crust, 
noticed  a  little  dog  seated  on  his  haunches,  sliding  down  the 
steep  bank  before  his  house.  He  supposed  that  the  dog  had  slipped, 
but  noticed  as  he  reached  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  he  ran  up  again. 
He  continued  his  sport  for  some  time,  apparently  with  great  delight. 
P.  H.  Gosse,  in  his  article  on  the  dog,  relates  that  "  Lord  Com- 
bermere's  mother,  (Lady  Cotton,)  had  a  terrier  named  Viper, 
whose  memory  was  so  retentive  that  it  was  only  necessary  to  re 
peat  to  him  once  the  name  of  the  numerous  visitors  at  Comber, 
more,  and  he  never  afterwards  forgot  it.  Mrs.  H.  came  on  a 
visit  there  on  a  Saturday.  Lady  Combermere  took  the  dog  up 
in  her  arms,  and  going  up  to  Mrs.  H.  said,  "Viper,  this  is  Mrs. 
H."  She  then  took  him  to  another  newly  arrived  lady,  and  said, 
"  Viper,  this  is  Mrs.  B. ;  "  and  no  further  notice  was  taken. 
Next  morning,  when  they  went  to  church,  Viper  was  of  the 
party.  Lady  Cotton  put  a  prayer  book  in  his  mouth,  and  told 
him  to  take  it  to  Mrs.  H.,  which  he  did,  and  then  carried  one  to 
Mrs.  B.,  at  his  mistress's  order." 

A  man  in  Windsor,  Vt.,  owned  a  large  and  valuable  Mastiff  dog, 
which  had  the  misfortune  to  break  his  leg.  The  owner,  after 
trying  in  vain  to  set  the  bones  himself,  sent  for  a  physician,  who 
speedily  put  the  bone  in  its  place,  and  splintered  up  the  leg. 


CARNIVORA.  G7 

For  several  days  the  doctor  visited  the  dog,  and  dressed  the 
wound,  and  then  told  the  owner  he  should  come  no  more,  but  if 
any  thing  seemed  to  be  wanting,  to  bring  the  dog  to  his  office. 
He  did  so  two  or  three  times,  and  when  he  ceased  going,  the  dog 
would  go  alone  to  the  doctor's  office  every  morning,  and  lie  down 
until  the  doctor  looked  at  his  leg,  and  then  he  would  return,  con- 
tinuing  this  practice  until  he  was  fully  cured.  Some  time  after 
this,  the  great  dog  found  in  the  street  a  little  one,  with  a  broken 
leg ;  and  after  smelling  around  him  for  some  time,  he  got  him 
up  on  his  three  legs,  and  managed  to  get  him  to  the  before  men 
tioned  doctor's  office,  where  he  waited  with  the  little  dog,  until 
the  doctor  came  and  set  the  bone. 

Canis  vulpes,  (Lat.  vulpes,  a  fox.) 

The  Fox  is  about  the  size  of  a  small  dog.  He  is  by  nature 
suspicious,  timid  and  cunning ;  his  sight  is  keen ;  his  smell  and 
hearing  so  acute  that  it  is  difficult  to  take  him  in  any  kind  of  trap. 
Unmolested,  the  fox  lives  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years;  the  first 
year  he  is  called  a  cub;  the  second,  a  fox;  and  the  third,  an  old 
fox.  Audubon  enumerated  twelve  species,  four  of  which  exist 
in  North  America.  The  skin  of  the  Silvery  Fox,  (C.  argentatus, 
Lat.  silvered,)  of  Labrador,  has  been  sold  in  London  for  five 
hundred  dollars.  Its  fur  is  copious,  and  of  a  beautiful,  lustrous, 
black  hue,  with  the  longer  hairs  of  a  silvery  white.  It  is  found 
in  Oregon,  and  the  northern  parts  of  this  continent. 

The  Common  Fox  of  Europe,  Vulpes  vulgaris,  is  there  the 
favorite  object  of  the  chase.  The  American  Red  Fox,  C.fulvus, 
(Lat.  tawny,)  is  somewhat  larger ;  its  fur  is  finer,  and  of  a  bright 
er  color,  and  it  has  a  larger  brush  tail.  It  eats  fish  as  well  as  rats, 
rabbits,  &c.  The  Swift-Fox,  C.  velox,  (Lat.  swift,)  is  the  smallest 
of  the  fox  tribe.  The  Cross-Fox  derives  its  name,  C.  decussatus, 
(Lat.  divided  cross-wise,)  from  its  markings,  not  from  its  nature. 
The  Gray  Fox,  C.  cinereus,  (Lat.  ash-colored,)  is  the  annoyance 
of  the  southern  planter,  as  the  Red-Fox  is  of  the  northern  farmer. 
The  Arctic  Fox,  C.  Lagopus,  (Gr.  Lagos,  hare,_poiw,  foot,  Hare's- 
foot,)  is  covered  with  white  woolly  fur.  The  Antarctic  Fox,  C. 
Antarcticus,  is  called  the  Wolf- Fox,  from  its  resemblance  to  that 
animal.  It  is  tame,  and  barks  like  a  dog.  The  Caama,  C.  Caa- 
ma,  is  the  smallest  African  fox.  The  Fennec,  or  Zerda,  C. 
Zerda,  whose  place  has  been  so  often  discussed  by  naturalists, 
has  the  skeleton  and  teeth  of  the  dog  family.  Its  fur  is  short  and 
silky. 

C.  Lupus,  (Lat.  a  wolf.)     The  WOLF. 

The  Wolf,  in  its  habits  and  physical  development,  we  have 
already  intimated,  is  closely  related  to  the  dog.  His  proportions 


C3  CARNIVORA. 

are  larger,  and  his  frame  more  muscular  than  those  of  that  ani 
mal,  and  between  the  two  there  exists  a  most  inveterate  hatred. 
The  well  known  traits  of  the  Wolf  are  ferocity,  cunning  and 
cowardice.  In  the  earlier  periods  of  English  history,  it  is  often 
adverted  to  as  a  common  and  dreaded  pest.  In  consequence  of 
its  ravages,  many  of  the  early  British  kings  and  chieftains,  as  if 
to  render  themselves  more  formidable,  adopted  its  name  with  cer 
tain  adjuncts.  This  is  seen  in  such  names  as  Athlewolf,  (noble 
wolf;)  Berth  wolf,  (illustrious  wolf;)  Eadwolf,  (prosperous  wolf,) 
etc.  It  was  finally  extirpated  in  England,  about  1350,  in  Scot 
land,  about  1600,  and  in  Ireland,  about  1700.  It  is  still  abundant 
in  the  northern  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  France  and  Western 
Asia.  Wolves  always  hunt  in  packs,  and  evince  great  craftiness 
in  waylaying  and  pursuing  their  prey.  Sometimes  they  form  a 
semicircle  and  advance  upon  the  animal  which  they  would  reach, 
in  this  way  forcing  it  over  a  precipice,  or  gradually  hemming  it 
in  so  as  to  prevent  its  escape.  Winter  is  the  time  when  they 
are  most  dreaded  by  those  living  in  the  regions  which  they  in 
habit.  Then  as  hunger  renders  them  peculiarly  ferocious  and 
daring,  they,  with  the  greatest  obstinacy,  follow  after  their  prey, 
whether  it  be  man  or  animal.  Under  the  gnawings  of  famine, 
they  will  devour  every  sort  of  offal,  and  even  disinter  the  dead. 
It  is  related  that  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  a  large  party  of 
dragoons  were,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  attacked  at  the  foot  of  the 
Jural  mountains,  by  a  numerous  band  of  wolves.  The  dragoons 
fought  bravely,  and  killed  many  hundreds  of  them ;  but  at  last, 
overpowered  by  numbers,  they  and  their  horses  were  all  devoured. 

Of  the  Wolf,  many  varieties  are  found  in  both  continents. 
The  C.  lupus,  Common  Wolf,  is  of  a  yellowish  or  fulvous  gray 
color;  covered  with  harsh  and  strong  hair,  and  from  twenty- 
seven  to  thirty  inches  high  at  the  shoulders.  Of  this  there  is  a 
variety,  white,  either  as  an  albino,  or  as  the  effect  of  a  northern 
or  cold  climate,  also  found  in  both  continents,  viz.  C.  lupus  allus. 
The  wolves  of  Lapland  and  Siberia  are  almost  all  of  a  whitish 
gray  color  ;  those  of  the  Alps  in  Europe,  and  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains  of  North  America,  become  white  or  nearly  so.  The  length 
of  the  American  White  Wolf  (albus)  is  about  four  and  a  half  feet, 
it  being  the  largest  of  all  the  varieties  of  this  animal.  The 
Black  American  Wolf,  C.  Lupus,  (Niger.)  is  of  the  same  shmpe 
as  the  Common  American  Wolf,  and  rising  three  feet  in  length. 

Packs  of  this  animal,  showing  various  shades  approaching 
black,  have  been  found  occasionally  in  every  part  of  the  United 
States.  In  Florida  the  prevailing  color  is  black.  This  is  the 
most  numerous  variety  among  the  Pyrenees  of  Europe,  and  also 


CARNIVORA.  09 

V        OF    >^y^ 

south  of  those  mountains,  where  it  is  of  larger-size  .than  the  com 
mon  wolf.  Several  varieties  of  wolves  are  met  with  in  Asia. 
Those  of  Asia  Minor  are  deeply  fulvous,  and  show  more  of  red 
than  the  wolves  of  Italy. 

Numbers  of  such  as  the  C.  lupus  (mibilus,)  the  Dusky  Wolf, 
the  Black  Wolf,  C.  lupus  (niger,)  are  found  on  the  sandy  plains 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  go  in  droves,  and  hunt  deer 
by  night,  with  dismal,  yelling  cries*,  and  woe  to  the  foxes  if  they 
find  them  on  a  plain  at  any  distance  from  their  hiding  places  ! 
In  the  same  districts,  and  associating  in  greater  numbers  than 
other  wolves,  are  found  the  C.  lupus (latrans,)the  Prairie  or  Bark 
ing  Wolf,  intermediate  in  size  between  the  large  American  Wolf 
and  the  Virginia  Fox,  and  in  many  respects  like  the  fox.  In  its 
bark  or  howl  it  greatly  resembles  the  latter  animal,  as  well  as 
the  domestic  dog  of  the  Indians.  Their  general  color  is  ashy 
gray;  their  length  two  feet,  ten  inches.  They  are  well  known 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  parts  of  Arkansas  and  Missouri, 
and  to  those  who  live  on  the  borders  of  the  Upper  Missouri  and 
Mississippi  rivers. 

Their  skins  are  of  some  value,  the  fur  being  soft  and  warm, 
and  constitute  a  part  of  the  exportations  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com 
pany.  The  Prairie  Wolf  is  found  in  California  and  Texas,  and 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico,  as  well  as 
on  the  western  prairies. 

C.  lupus,  (rufus.)  The  Red  Texan  Wolf  resembles  the 
common  gray  variety,  is  more  slender  and  light  than  the  White 
Waif  of  the  North- West  part  of  this  continent,  and  has  a  more 
fox-like  aspect.  The  hair  is  not  woolly  like  that  of  the  White 
W'jlf,  but  lies  smooth  and  flat.  The  length  is  two  feet,  eleven 
inches.  In  habits,  it  is  nearly  like  the  Black  and  White  Wolf. 
It  is  said  that  "  when  visiting  the  battle  fields  of  Mexico,  the  waives 
preferred  the  slain  Texans  or  Americans,  to  the  Mexicans,  and 
only  ate  the  bodies  of  the  latter  from  necessity,  as  owing  to  the 
quantity  of  pepper  used  by  the  Mexicans  in  their  food,  their  flesh 
is  impregnated  with  that  powerful  stimulant."  Audubon,  in  re 
ferring  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  this  animal,  remark's  of 
quadrupeds  generally,  that  toward  the  north  they  are  more  sub 
ject  to  become  white ;  toward  the  east,  or  Atlantic  side,  gray ;  to 
the  south,  black ;  and  toward  the  west,  red. 

C.  aureus,  (Lat.  golden.)  The  JACKAL.  This  animal  is  found 
throughout  the  Levant,  in  Persia,  India  and  Africa.  It  is  called 
"aureus"  on  account  of  the  yellow  tint  of  its  skin.  The  Jackal 
is  supposed  to  be  the  fox  of  the  sacred  writers,  (Judges  xv.  4,  5.) 
Like  the  wolf,  it  hunts  in  packs,  pursuing  the  antelope  and  other 


70  CARNIVORA. 


animals  for  prey,  and  making  away  with  carrion  in  every 
putrefaction.     It  has  been  called  the  "lion's  provider,"  ft 


state  of 

provider,"  for  when 

the  cry  of  the  Jackal  is  heard,  the  Lion,  aware  of  the  cause, 
makes  his  appearance,  and  without  ceremony  seizes  upon  the 
hooty.  The  Jackals,  however,  retaliate  by  aiding  in  the  con 
sumption  of  the  larger  prey  which  the  lion  destroys.  They  are 
useful  in  the  east  as  scavengers,  consuming  the  offal  which  in 
oriental  cities  is  thrown  into  the  streets,  and  might  otherwise 
breed  pestilence.  Grapes  are  the  special  delight  of  the  Jackal, 
and  it  often  makes  great  havoc  in  vineyards.  When  hunting, 
these  animals  utter  most  piercing  shrieks,  which  produce,  it  is 
said,  a  very  terrific  effect,  "as  resounding  through  the  stilly  dark- 
ness  of  night,  and  answered  from  a  thousand  throats.'* 

The  Jackal  is  rather  larger  than  the  fox,  but  its  tail  is  shorter 
and  less  bushy.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  is  dog-like  in  disposition 
and  habits.  One  species  of  the  Jackal,  Canis  Corsac,  the  ADIVE, 
is  not  larger  than  a  pole-cat,  has  a  long  tail,  and  is  found  in 
troops  amidst  the  deserts  of  Tartary.  Other  species  are  the  Cape 
Jackal,  C.  mesomela,  (Gr.  mesos,  middle,  melas,  black,)  and  the 
C.  anthtu,  (Gr.  anthos,)  of  Senegal.  All  agree  in  manners  and 
general  disposition,  and  in  exhaling  a  strong  and  offensive  odor, 
which,  however,  is  "scarcely  perceptible"  in  a  state  of  domesti 
cation. 

Proteles  Lalandii.  The  AARD-WOLF,  or  EARTH- WOLF,  of 
Sooth  Africa.  This  animal  has  interest  as  connecting  together 
the  Civets,  Dogs  and  Hyaenas.  It  has  the  bones  and  external 
appearance  of  a  hyaena,  the  head  and  feet  of  a  fox,  and  the  intes 
tines  of  a  civet.  The  fore  legs  are  considerably  longer  than  the 
hind  ones,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  also  like  the  hyaenas.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  full  grown  fox,  yet  stands  higher  on  its  legs; 
but  for  its  more  pointed  head,  and  the  additional  fifth  toe  of  the 
fore  feet,  it  might,  at  first  sight,  be  easily  mistaken  for  a  young 
hyaena.  Thn  color  is  a  pale  ash,  with  a  slight  shade  of  yellow 
ish  brown.  The  fur  is  woolly,  except  the  mane,  which  is  coarse, 
stiff  hair,  and  bristles  up  when  the  animal  is  provoked.  One  of 
those  animals  was  brought  from  Africa,  by  the  traveler,  Lalande, 
from  whom  it  received  its  specific  name.  The  generic  term  is 
from  the  Greek  protefes,  and  relates  to  the  superior  length  of  the 
fore  legs. 

Spell  CANIDAE  and  give  its  derivation.  What  does  the  second  division 
of  DIGITIGRADES  include?  What  other  animals  do  they  resemble?  What 
is  said  of  the  origin  and  antiquity  of  the  dog?  What  of  their  resemblance 
to  Wolves  and  Jackals,  and  in  what  respects  do  they  agree?  How  do  his 
fidelity  and  attachment  compare  with  those  of  other  animals?  In  what 


CARNIVORA.  71 

state  of  society  and  in  what  regions  is  he  particularly  valuable  ?  What 
does  Cuvier  remark  respecting  the  dog?  What  qualification  does  this 
remark  require  ?  What  is  said  of  their  teeth,  muzzle,  tongue,  eyes,  feet, 
claws,  &c.  ?  How  many  varieties  of  domestic  dogs  does  Martin  make  ? 
Does  their  ferocity  equal  or  surpass  their  strength  ?  How  do  they  obtain 
their  prey  ?  To  what  people  are  the  Esquimaux  dogs  of  great  value  ? 
What  use  is  made  of  them?  What  works  give  interesting  particulars 
respecting  them  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Greyhound  ?  Why  is  the  New 
foundland  dog  so  named?  What  is  said  of  his  fidelity  and  affection? 
What  use  is  made  of  him  ?  In  what  does  the  Water  Spaniel  delight  ?  For 
what  is  it  useful  ?  For  what  is  the  Bloodhound  noted  ?  How  are  Mastiffs 
distinguished  ?  Of  what  use  are  Terriers  ?  In  what  does  the  Shepherd's 
dog  excel  ?  Relate  the  story  of  the  Ettrick  Shepherd  and  dog.  What  is 
said  of  the  dogs  of  St.  Bernard?  For  what  are  they  trained?  What 
anecdotes  can  you  give  showing  the  imitative  power  and  memory  of  dogs  ? 
What  is  the  size  of  the  common  fox  ?  Describe  him.  How  long  does  he 
live  ?  How  many  species  did  Audubon  enumerate  ?  How  many  are  found 
in  North  America  ?  What  fox  furnishes  the  most  valuable  fur  ?  Where  is 
it  found  ?  Name  and  characterize  the  other  principal  species. 


How  do  the  dog  and  wolf  compare  with  each  other?  What  are  the 
traits  of  the  wolf?  What  is  said  of  it  in  English  history?  From  what 
places  has  it  been  extirpated?  Where  is  it  still  abundant?  How  do  wolves 
hunt  ?  When  are  they  most  dreaded  ?  Why  at  that  time  ?  What  occur 
red  near  the  Jural  mountains?  Are  there  many  varieties  of  the  common 
Wolf?  Describe  it.  What  is  said  of  the  Red  Texan  Wolf,  and  its  prefer 
ences?  What  does  Audubon  say  of  the  changes  of  color  in  quadrupeds  ? 

Where  is  the  Jackal  found  ?  What  is  it  supposed  to  be  ?  What  is  it 
called  ?  Why  ?  Of  what  is  it  particularly  fond  ?  What  is  said  of  Jack 
als'  hunts  ?  Are  they  of  any  use  ?  What  is  their  size  ?  Why  called  aureus  ? 
Are  they  easily  tamed?  What  is  said  of  the  Adive?  What  of  the 
Aard,  or  Earth  Wolf?  What  does  it  connect?  Describe  its  habitat,  size, 
color,  fur,  &c.  &c. 

SECTION  XIII. 

3.    DIVISION    OF    THE    DlGITIGRADES. 

MUSTELIDAE,  (Lat.  Mustela,  a  weasel.)  The  WEASEL  TRIBE. 
The  weasels  are  readily  distinguished  by  their  long  snake-like 
bodies,  short  muzzle,  sharp  teeth  and  predatory  habits.  Their 
relish  for  blood  is  strong.  In  pursuing  their  prey,  they  are  bold, 
cautious  and  resolute,  creeping  toward  their  unsuspecting  victim, 
usually  a  rabbit,  rat  or  bird,  and  on  a  sudden,  darting  at  it,  and 
piercing  its  neck  with  its  sharp  teeth.  Fixing  themselves  where 
some  large  vein  invites  them,  they  hang  on  until  their  prey  ex 
pires,  devouring  its  brain,  and  sucking  its  blood;  but  almost 
always  leaving  the  flesh  untouched.  Their  head  is  small,  oval 
and  flattened,  and  their  bodies  so  pliable  as  to  be  capable  of  being 
insinuated  into  holes  and  crevices  which  it  would  seem  they 


7,3  CARNIVORA. 

could  not  possibly  enter ;  and  their  short  strong  limbs  and  sharp 
claws,  enable  them  to  climb  with  the  greatest  celerity  and  adroit 
ness.  In  their  habits  they  are  more  or  less  nocturnal.  Accord 
ing  to  Audubon,  about  twelve  species  of  the  true  Martens  are 
included  in  this  family,  four  of  which  inhabit  North  America. 

Mustela  vulgaris,  (or  Putorius  Vulgaris.)  The  COMMON 
WEASEL. 

This  is  the  smallest  of  the  tribe,  and  well  known,  especially 
by  farmers,  as  they  often  have  occasion  to  lament  its  onsets  upon 
their  young  broods  of  poultry.  For  this,  however,  they  have 
some  compensation  in  the  destruction,  by  this  animal,  of  numer 
ous  rats  and  mice  that  infest  their  barns  and  out-houses ;  so  that 
it  is  sometimes  said,  weasels  "  ought  to  be  fostered  as  destroyers 
of  vermin,  rather  than  extirpated  as  noxious  depredators."  This 
active  little  creature  is  sometimes  tamed,  and  by  its  playfulness 
and  unexpected  display  of  affection,  has  awakened  much  interest. 

M.  Erminea,  or  Putorius  Ermincus.     The  STOAT,  or  ERMINE. 

This  species  closely  resembles  the  Weasel,  but  is  a  third  lar 
ger,  being  about  the  size  of  a  cat.  In  the  summer,  its  general 
color  is  a  yellowish  brown,  when  it  is  called  a  STOAT  ;  but  it 
changes  to  a  pure  white  in  winter,  when  its  fur  is  extremely 
beautiful,  and  it  is  called  ERMINE.  It  is  abundant  in  the  northern 
parts  of  this  continent,  and  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The  fur  of  the 
Ermine  is  closest  and  most  purely  white  in  the  most  northern 
latitudes,  and  constitutes  a  valuable  article  of  commerce.  The 
white  skins  of  this  animal  usually  bring  from  ten  to  fifteen  dol 
lars  per  hundred.  The  tail  remains  black  at  the  extremity,  du 
ring  all  the  changes  of  the  color.  Formerly,  the  official  robes  of 
judges  and  magistrates  were  lined  with  this  fur.  In  predatory 
habits,  it  is  like  the  kindred  species.  Hares  and  rabbits  fall  easy 
victims  to  this  animal,  which  kills  them  with  a  single  bite,  pene 
trating  4o  the  brain.  It  frequents  stony  places  and  thickets,  and 
in  a  short  race  will  outstrip  a  dog. 

Mephitis,  (Lat.  a  noxious  odor  or  exhalation.)  MEPHITIC  WEA 
SELS. 

The  anicmls  of  this  genus  are  so  named  from  the  intolerable 
odour  which,  whon  irritated,  or  for  self- protection,  they  give 
forth.  They  have  on  their  fore  feet  nails,  strong  and  well  suited 
far  digging.  The  distinguishing  color  of  the  genus  is  black, 
striped  with  white,  lengthwise  along  the  back,  and  the  tail  is  long 
and  bushy.  The  Mephitic  weasels  all  move  slowly ;  seldom  flee 
from  man,  unless  when  they  arc  near  their  burrows.  Though  fee 
ble  and  insignificant  in  some  respects,  yet  they  seem  conscious  of  a 
power  to  "  annoy  beyond  the  point  of  endurance."  Large  num- 


CARNIVORA.  73 

bers  of  them  are  sometimes  found  in  the  same  hole.  They  feed 
on  poultry,  birds,  eggs,  small  quadrupeds  and  insects.  The 
head  is  short ;  the  nose  rather  projecting ;  the  snout  generally 
blunt;  the  hairs  on  the  tail  are  very  long.  Seventeen  or  eight 
een  species  have  been  enumerated  ;  one  in  South  Africa,  two 
or  three  in  the  United  States,  and  the  rest  in  Mexico  and  South 
America  ;  but  of  these  species  there  are  almost  endless  varieties 
in  respect  to  color  and  markings. 

Mephitis  Americana  or  M.  Chinga.  The  COMMON  AMERICAN 
SKUNK. 

This  animal  is  about  as  large  as  a  cat,  and  generally  is  of  a 
blackish  brown,  with  white  stripes  running  lengthwise  on  the 
back.  In  the  markings  of  white,  it  shows  many  diversities,  and 
it  has  a  long  bushy  tail.  All  the  varieties  of  this  animal  have. a 
broad  fleshy  body,  not  unlike  that  of  the  wolverine.  Its  legs  are 
short ;  the  fur  is  rather  long  and  coarse,  intermingled  with  much 
longer  smooth  and  glossy  hairs.  Its  length  from  the  point  of  the 
nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail  is  seventeen  inches.  No  quadruped 
found  on  this  continent  is  more  universally  detested  than  the 
skunk.  The  offensive  fluid  is  contained  in  two  small  sacs  situ 
ated  near  the  root  of  the  tail.  By  day  it  is  so  thin  and  transpa 
rent  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible  ;  but  at  night  has  a  yellow 
luminous  appearance.  He  is  himself  a  very  cleanly  animal, 
never  suffering  a  drop  of  the  fluid  to  touch  his  fur,  nor  does  his 
burrow  give  forth  any  offensive  smell.  In  the  northern  states, 
this  animal  retires  to  his  burrow  about  December,  and  is  not  seen 
again  till  the  following  February.  In  the  southern  states  he 
does  not  go  into  winter  quarters,  but  continues  to  prowl  at  night 
during  the  winter.  It  is  said  his  flesh  is  "  well  tasted  and  savory," 
and  cooked  and  eaten  by  the  Indians. 

The  LONG  or  LARGE  TAILED  SKUNK,  M.  macroura,  (Gr.  /uax^o?, 
makros,  long,  oi^>«,  oura,  tail.)  common  in  Mexico  and  Texas,  is 
of  the  size  of  a  common  cat,  and  has  five  or  six  young  at  a  time. 

The  M.  Zorilla,  or  CALIFORNIA  SKUNK  has  white  spots  on  the 
forehead  and  on  each  temple,  and  four  white  stripes  on  the  sides 
and  back,  with  a  br.oad  tip  of  white  on  the  tail  ;  in  form  is  a 
small  image  of  the  common  skunk,  and  like  it,  so  offensive  as 
seldom  to  be  approached.  The  African  Zorilla,  found  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  has  the  tail  spread  out  in  the  form  of  a 
plume,  and  does  not  give  out  the  overpowering  odor  of  other 
species. 

The  M.  mesoleuca,  (Gr  fitaog,  mesos,  middle,  levxog,  leukos, 
white.)  The  MEXICAN  SKUNK  has  the  long  and  under  fur  of  the 
whole  back  and  the  tail,  white.  The  long  tail  of  this  animal  is 

4 


CAR.NIVORA. 


often  first  seen  in  the  high  grass  and  bushes,  and  makes  a  beau 
tiful  appearance. 

The  Teledu,  or  Skunk  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  Mydaiis  meliceps, 
(Lat.  melis,  a  badger,  caput,  a  head,)  has  a  short  tail  covered  with 
a  mere  pencil  of  hairs.  In  somethings,  it  reminds  one  of  a  hog. 

M.  Maries.  The  MARTEN.  Of  this  there  are  three  varieties, 
the  Common  Beech,  or  Stone  Marten,  the  Pine  Marten,  and  the 
Sable,  of  which  the  furs  are  exquisitely  soft  and  beautiful.  Their 
agile  and  graceful  motions  are  not  excelled  by  any  of  the  Weasel 
tribe.  They  reside  in  woods,  and  prey  chiefly  on  birds,  and 
small  animals.  They  also  feed  on  rats,  mice,  and  moles,  and  will 
sometimes  eat  seeds  and  grain.  The  general  length  is  about  a 
foot  and  a  half;  the  tail  is  ten  inches  long,  bushy,  and  of  a  darker 
color  than  the  other  parts.  The  Marten  is. of  a  dark,  tawny 
color,  with  a  white  throat,  and  the  under  part  is  of  a  dusky 
brown  ;  the  muzzle  is  pointed,  and  the  eyes  bright  and  lively. 
The  fur  is  of  two  sorts  ;  the  outer  is  long  and  brown,  with  vary 
ing  shades,  in  different  parts  of  the  body ;  the  inner,  very  soft, 
short  and  of  light  yellowish  gray  color. 

M.fagorum,  (Lat.  of  beech-trees.)  The  BEECH  MARTEN  is  a  va 
riety  with  a  white  throat,  found  in  Northern  and  temperate  Europe, 
and  Western  Asia.  It  approaches  the  habitations  of  men  oftener 
than  the  Pine  Marten,  resorting  for  prey  to  the  vicinity  of  farm  yards 
and  homesteads.  Its  fur,  which  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  Pine 
Marten,  is  called  in  trade,  the  Stone  Marten.  Many  skins  of  this 
animal  are  obtained  from  the  north  of  Europe,  and  the  fur  is  dyed 
to  represent  Sable  ;  though  the  practised  eye  easily  distinguishes 
it  from  the  latter.  The  richest  furs  of  this  Marten  come  from  the 
most  northern  latitudes. 

M.  Abietum,  (Lat.  of  fir-trees.)  The  PINE  MARTEN.  This 
variety  with  a  yellow  throat,  varies  much  in  color,  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  find  two  specimens  alike,  but  generally  is  yellowish, 
blended  into  a  blackish  hue  in  other  parts.  It  is  found  in  Mount 
Caucasus,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe ;  and  is  very  numer 
ous  in  the  wooded  districts  of  the  northern  latitudes  of  this  conti 
nent.  It  is  particularly  abundant  where  the  trees  have  been  killed 
by  fire,  but  are  still  standing.  Specimens  have  been  obtained  from 
near  Albany  and  the  Catskill  mountains,  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Pennsylvania.  Its  southern  range  is  about  lat.  40o,  and  the  north 
ern  about  680.  The  length  is  one  foot  five  inches.  This  Marten 
is,  in  its  disposition,  shy,  cruel,  cunning  and  active ;  does  not  ap 
proach  the  residences  of  men,  but  keeps  rather  in  dense  woods. 
The  fur  of  this  animal  is  valuable,  next  to  the  Sable;  and  when 
in  fashion,  Marten  skins  bring  good  prices.  It  is  sometimes  dyed, 


CARNIVORA.  75 

and  efforts  are  made  to  palm  it  upon  buyers  as  fur  of  a  more 
costly  kind.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  sold  as  many  as 
1 1,000  skins  in  a  year,  and  upwards  of  30,000  have,  in  the  same 
time,  been  exported  from  Canada  by  the  French.  According  to 
Sir  John  Richardson,  Martens  of  the  finest  and  darkest  fur  "ap 
pear  to  inhabit  certain  rocky  districts."  The  flesh  of  the  Pine 
Marten  is  rank  and  coarse,  but  is  eaten  by  the  Indians.  In  con 
finement,  it  appears  tolerably  gentle,  and  loses  much  of  its  "snap 
pish  character."  They  are  trapped  only  in  autumn  and  winter. 

Mitstela  Zibellina.  The  SABLE.  This  is  the  most  celebra 
ted  of  all  the  Weasel  tribe,  not  only  on  account  of  the  richness  of 
its  fur,  but  from  the  perils  connected  with  the  chase  of  it,  carried 
on  in  the  depth  of  winter,  and  in  regions  the  coldest  and  most  des 
olate  traversed  by  human  footsteps.  It  has  long  whiskers,  round 
ed  ears,  large  feet,  (the  soles  of  which  are  covered  with  fur,) 
white  claws,  and  a  long  bushy  tail.  The  general  color  of  the  fur, 
of  which  the  hair  lies  each  way,  is  brown,  with  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck  and  throat  grayish.  These  animals  inhabit  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. .  Vast  numbers  of  them  are  killed  in 
Siberia,  and  their  skins  form  a  very  considerable  article  of  com 
merce  among  the  Russians.  Sables'  skins  are  in  the  highest 
perfection  between  November  and  January  ;  and  within  that  time 
they  are  sought  after  by  large  numbers  of  hunters.  They  are 
tnkon  in  snares,  or  traps,  which  are  usually  pit-falls,  with  loose 
boards  placed  over  them,  baited  with  flesh.  Sometimes  fire-arms 
and  cross-bows  are  used  in  taking  them. 

Putorius  Vison.  The  MINK.  This  animal  is  of  a  brown 
color,  with  a  white  chin  and  short  ears.  The  feet  and  palms  are 
covered  with  hair  to  the  extremity  of  the  nails,  and  the  feet  are 
semi-palmated.  It  is  smaller  than  the  Pine  Marten,  being  thir- 
teon  inches  long,  and  the  tail  is  half  the  length  of  the  body.  It 
presents  varieties  which  are  striking  and  permanent,  both  in 
respect  to  size  and  color.  Next  to  the  Ermine,  it  is  the  worst 
depredator  that  prowls  about  the  poultry  yards  of  the  farmer. 
The  Mink  catches  rats  like  the  weasel  or  ferret,  holding  them  by 
the  neck  like  a  cat,  and  it  has  no  aversion  to  fish ;  trout  and 
salmon  seem  to  be  special  favorites.  It  will  steal  them  when  it 
can,  or  dive  after  them  in  brooks  and  shallow  water,  swimming 
with  considerable  facility,  and  like  the  muskrat,  diving  at  the 
flush  of  a  gun.  It  resides  of  preference  on  the  borders  of  ponds, 
and  along  the  banks  of  small  streams.  This  species  is  very 
numerous  in  salt  marshes  of  the  southern  states,  where  it  subsists 
principally  on  the  marsh-hen,  the  sea-side  finch,  and  sharp-tailed 
iitjch.  It  has  not  much  cunning,  and  is  easily  taken  in  any  kind 


76  CARNIVORA. 

of  trap.  When  taken  young,  it  becomes  very  gentle,  and  much 
attached  to  those  who  fondle  it.  It  does  not  emit  its  unpleasant 
odor  except  when  it  is  hurt.  The  skins  of  tire  Mink  have  been 
used  for  making  muffs,  tippets,  &c.,  and  sold  for  about  fifty  cents 
each.  Some  skins  are  of  a  beautiful  silver  gray  color,  the  fur 
being  quite  unlike  that  ordinarily  obtained.  Such  skins  are  rare  ; 
six  of  them  suffice  to  make  a  muff  worth  at  least  a  hundred  dol 
lars.  (Audubon.)  The  Mink  is  constantly  found  in  almost 
every  part  of  North  America. 

Mustela  furo,  (Lat.  I  rage.)  The  FERRET.  This  useful  but 
ferocious  little  animal  is  kept  in  Europe,  in  a  domesticated  state, 
and  is  employed  for  rabbit-hunting,  and  for  destroying  rats.  Its 
general  form  is  like  that  of  the  Polecat,  but  it  is  smaller,  being 
usually  about  thirteen  inches  in  length.  It  has  a  very  sharp 
nose,  red  and  fiery  eyes,  and  round  ears.  In  the  slenderness 
of  its  form,  and  the  shortness  of  its  legs,  it  resembles  the  Weasel. 

The  head  of  M.  Canadensis,  the  FISHER,  or  PENNANT'S  MAR 
TEN,  is  more  like  that  of  the  dog  than  that  of  the  cat.  It  catches 
and  eats  fish. 

The  BLACK-FOOTED  FERRET  is  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long ; 
found  in  woody  districts,  as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 

P.  pusillus,  (Lat.  very  small,)  is  th£  smallest  of  the  Weasels. 
It  is  one-third  smaller  than  the  Stoat,  the  Polecat,  or  Fitchet 
Weasel. 

M.  Putorious,  (Lat.  Putor,  stink,)  is  stouter  than  the  common 
weasel.  The  under  coat  of  fur  is  short,  silky  and  pale  yellow  ; 
the  outer  is  of  a  dark  chocolate  brown,  and  long  and  coarse.  The 
fur  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  Sable  and  Marten,  but  esteemed  as 
an  article  of  commerce  under  the  name  of  Fitch. 

Lut.ra,  (Lat.  Otter,)  (Gr.  Aot>o,  louo,  to  wash.) 

This  genus  includes  a  species  known  as  the  common  or  river 
Otters,  whose  habits  are  aquatic,  and  whose  food  is  fish,  and  also 
the  Sea  Otters.  In  their  skulls  and  muzzles,  there  are  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  Seal,  (phoca  vitulina.)  The  limbs  are  short 
and  strong,  and  so  articulated  as  to  allow  of  free  motion ;  the 
animal  being  able  to  turn  them  easily  in  almost  any  direction, 
and  bring  them  on  a  line  with  the  body,  so  as  to  act  like  fins. 
The  teeth  are  sharp  and  strong,  and  the  tubercles  of  the  molars 
very  pointed ;  which  aids  them  in  taking  and  destroying  their 
slippery  prey.  Their  intestines  are  very  long.  The  body  is 
covered  outwardly  with  long  and  glossy  hair,  with  a  softer,  short 
er,  downy  fur,  intermixed.  The  Otter  is  fierce,  wild,  and  shy, 
and  its  habits  principally  nocturnal.  The  hunt  of  this  animal  has 
been  a  favorite,  but  a  cruel  sport.  Pursued,  he  betakes  himself 


CARNIVORA.  77 

to  the  water,  where  he  is  more  than  a  match  for  the  strongest 
dog.  His  determined  courage  holds  out  to  the  last,  and  pierced 
with  spears,  he  dies  without  uttering  a  cry.  Eleven  species  are 
enumerated. 

Lutra  vulgaris.  The  COMMON  OTTER.  This  species  is  about 
two  feet  long,  and  its  tail  fifteen  inches  in  addition.  The  tail  is 
flat  and  broad,  and  the  toes  of  the  feet  are  connected  by  a  com 
plete  web.  In  its  entire  structure,  the  animal  is  well  adapted  for 
an  aquatic  life  ;  diving  and  swimming  with- great  readiness,  and 
with  much  ease  and  elegance  of  movement.  It  has  a  black  nose, 
and  long  whiskers.  The  ears  are  small  and  erect,  the  eyes  very 
small,  and  nearer  the  nose  than  in  most  animals.  The  color  is 
brown  except  small  patches  of  white  on  the  lips  and  nose.  The 
size  varies  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  feet.  When  it  has  seized 
a  small  fish,  it  immediately  leaves  the  water  and  eats  it,  begin 
ning  with  the  head,  while  the  body  is  held  in  the  fore  paws. 
Larger  fish  are  held  down  by  the  paws,  and  the  head  and  tail 
often  left  uneaten.  These  animals  destroy  multitudes  of  fish,  in 
ponds  and  rivers,  eating  but  a  small  portion  of  the  fish,  when  they 
have  an  abundance  of  prey.  When  fish  are  scarce,  and  they 
are  pressed  by  hunger,  it  is  said,  they  sometimes  go  far  inland 
and  attack  lambs,  sucking  pigs  and  poultry,  and  even  feed  upon 
larvae  and  earth  worms.  The  Otter's  place  of  retreat  is  beneath 
roots  of  trees,  or  in  holes  near  ponds  and  rivers.  The  female 
bears  from  three  to  five  young  at  a  time. 

The  Common  Otter  is  capable  of  domestication,  but  most  readi 
ly  when  taken  young,  and  fed  with  small  fish  and  water.  Some 
times  it  shows  attachment,  but  if  offended,  "bites  grievously." 
In  some  instances,  it  has  been  trained  to  catch  fish,  or  to  assist  in 
fishing.  When  tamed,  "they  will  allow  themselves  to  be  gently 
lifted  by  the  tail ;"  though  they  "object  to  any  interference  with 
the  snout,  which  is  probably  with  them  the  seat  of  honor." 
Usually  they  resort  to  fresh  waters,  but  in  some  regions  frequent 
the  sea,  and  hunt  far  out  from  land.  Few  animals  show  more 
attachment  for  their  young  than  the  Otter.  When  these  are 
taken  from  them,  they  express  their  sorrow  in  tones  resembling 
the  crying  of  children. 

Lutra  Canadensis.     The  CANADA  OTTER. 

This  is  larger  than  the  Common  or  European  Otter,  having 
dark,  glossy  brown  hair,  with  the  chin  and  throat  dusky  white, 
and  is  five  feet  in  length.  The  longer  and  outer  hairs  are  glossy 
and  stiff,  but  the  inner  fur  is  soft,  dense,  and  nearly  as  fine  as 
that  of  the  Beaver.  The  ears  are  closer  together  than  in  the 
Common  Otter,  and  the  tail  flattened  horizontally  for  half  its 


'78  CARNIVORA. 

length.  The  American  Otter  frequents  running  streams  and 
large  ponds,  and  sometimes  is  found  on  the  shores  of  some  of  our 
great  lakes.  It  prefers  those  waters  which  are  clear,  and  a  bur 
row  in  the  banks,  the  entrance  to  which  is  under  water.  Their 
favorite  sport  is  said  to  be  sliding  down  steep  banks,  head  fore 
most,  sometimes  for  the  distance  of  twenty  yards.  When  shot 
and  killed  in  water,  they  sink  from  the  weight  of  their  bones, 
which  are  solid  and  heavy,  so  that  in  deep  water,  the  hunter  may 
lose  his  game.  The  American  Otter,  like  the  European,  when 
taken  young,  is  easily  tamed,  will  follow  its  owner,  and  sometimes 
is  playful.  Audubon  had  one  which  was  very  familiar,  and 
much  attached  to  him.  And  he  relates  that  a  landlord  in  the  in 
terior  of  Ohio,  had  four  Otters  alive  which  were  so  gentle  that 
they  would  come  when  he  whistled  for  them,  and  approach  him 
with  much  apparent  humility.  This  species  ranges  almost  the 
whole  of  North  America,  but  is  now  obtained  most  readily  in 
Maryland,  and  the  western  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  Brit 
ish  provinces  of  North  America  annually  furnish  a  considerable 
number.  Their  furs  are  much  esteemed. 

Enhydra  marina.    (Mustela  Lutris,  Lirinceus.)     SEA  OTTER. 

The  generic  name  enhydra,  is  from  the  Greek  evvdoog,  (enu- 
dms,)  ei>,  (en,  in,)  'v<5u^,  (hudor,  water.)  The  palmated  feet,  and 
the  teeth  of  this  genus  are  so  modified  as  to  connect  this  Otter 
with  the  Seal,  (Otia,)  which  have  ears.  The  color  is  chestnut 
brown  or  black;  the  fur  exceedingly  fine  and  velvety;  the  size 
about  twice  that  of  the  Common  Otter.  In  length  it  is  from  four 
to  five  feet.  The  hind  legs  and  thighs  are  short,  and  better 
adapted  for  swimming  than  in  other  mammalia,  seals  excepted ; 
the  hind  feet  are  flat  and  webbed,  and  clothed  with  glossy  hairs. 
The  hair,  both  on  the  body  and  tail,  is  of  two  kinds ;  the  longer 
hairs  are  silky  and  glossy,  but  not  very  numerous ;  the  fur  is 
shorter  hair,  exceedingly  fine  and  soft.  This  Otter  runs  very 
swiftly,  and  swims  with  great  rapidity,  either  on  its  back  or 
sides,  and  sometimes  as  if  upright  in  the  water.  It  has  very 
long  intestines,  they  being  twelve  times  as  long  as  the  animal, 
while  those  of  the  Common  Otter  are  but  three  and  one-fourth 
times  its  length.  It  seems  to  have  more  the  manners  of  a  seal 
than  a  land  otter;  haunts  sea. washed  rocks,  and  lives  mostly  in 
the  water.  The  female  brings  forth  its  young  on  land,  and 
though  the  animal  is  marine,  it  is  found  occasionally,  very  far 
from  the  sea. 

The  Kamtschatdales,  on  whose  coasts  the  greatest  numbers  of 
these  animals  are  killed,  exchange  the  skins  with  the  Russians, 
for  those  of  the  fox  and  sable ;  and  the  Russian  merchants  for- 


CARNIVORA.  79 

mcrly  sold  them  to  the  Chinese,  at  a  very  high  price,  even  as 
high  as  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  dollars  each.  The  fur  is  not 
prized  so  high  as  formerly.  The  Sea  Otter  is  caught  by  placing 
a  net  among  the  sea  weeds,  or  by  chasing  it  in  boats.  It  inhabits 
the  waters  that  bound  the  northern  parts  of  America  and  Asia, 
and  the  seas  and  bays  from  Kamtschatka  to  the  Yellow  Sea,  on 
the  Asiatic  side,  and  from  Alaska  to  California  on  the  American. 

How  are  Weasels  readily  distinguished?  What  is  their  character? 
What  their  habits  ?  How  many  species  of  true  Martens  does  Audubon  in 
clude  in  this  family?  Who  was  Audubon  ?  Answer.  One  of  the  most  en 
thusiastic,  industrious  and  observing  American  naturalists.  Died  near  New 
York  city  four  or  five  years  since,  aged  76.  How  many  of  these  inhabit 
North  America  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Common  Weasel  ?  Describe  the 
Ermine  or  Stoat.  Describe  its  winter  and  summer  dress.  Which  is  the 
Ermine  dress  ?  For  what  was  this  fur  particularly  used  ?  What  places 
docs  it  frequent  ?  What  is  its  pace  ?  Give  the  meaning  of  the  generic 
term  MKPHITES.  Why  is  this  genus  so  called  ?  What  is  said  of  their  name  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  nails  of  these  animals  ?  What  of  the  tail  ?  What  is 
their  distinguishing  color  ?  How  are  they  striped  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
movements  ?  What  gives  them  their  power  ?  Upon  what  do  they  feed ? 
How  many  species  have  been  enumerated?  How  many  in  the  United 
States  ?  How  many  in  Africa  ?  Where  are  the  rest  found  ?  What  is  said 
of  their  varieties  ?  To  what  do  these  varieties  refer  ?  Give  some  account 
of  the  Skunk.  What  places  does  it  frequent?  Describe  the  Common 
American  Skunk,  and  give  its  peculiarities.  When  in  the  Northern  States, 
does  it  retire  to  its  burrow,  and  when  reappear  ?  How  is  it  in  the  Southern 
States  ?  What  is  said  of  its  flesh  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Large  Tailed 
Skunk  ?  Where  found  ?  What  is  said  of  the  California  Skunk  ?  What  of 
the  African  Zorilla  ?  What  of  the  Mexican  ?  What  of  the  Teluda  of  Java, 
and  what  docs  it  resemble  ? 


How  many  varieties  of  the  Marten  ?  What  is  said  of  their  motion  ? 
Where  do  they  reside  ?  What  is  said  of  the  fur  ?  Where  is  the  Beech,  or 
Stone  Marten  found?  What  distinguishes  it?  What  is  said  of  its  fur? 
What  is  it  called  in  trade  ?  Whence  are  many  skins  obtained,  and  what  is 
said  of  their  fur  ?  What  distinguishes  the  Pine  Marten  ?  What  is  the  gen 
eral  color  ?  Where  is  it  found  ?  In  what  places  is  it  particularly  abun 
dant  ?  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  has  it  been  found  ?  What  is  said 
of  its  fur  and  flesh  ?  Which  is  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Weasel  tribe  ? 
What  countries  does  it  inhabit  ?  At  what  time  are  the  skins  of  the  Sable 
in  the  highest  perfection  ?  How  are  they  taken  ?  How  does  the  fur  differ 
from  the  Marten  ?  What  others  are  mentioned,  either  on  the  chart,  or  in 
the  text  ?  From  what  animal  is  the  fur  called  Fitch  obtained  ?  Mention 
the  varieties  and  habits  of  the  Mink  ?  Where  is  it  numerous  ?  What  use 
is  made  of  its  skin  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Ferret  ?  Which  is  the  smallest 
Weasel  ?  Give  the  derivation  of  LUTRA  ?  Describe  the  Otters  ?  Repeat 
the  description  given  of  the  Common  Otter  ?  How  does  the  Canada  Otter 
compare  with  the  European  Otter  ?  Give  some  account  of  it.  How  exten 
sive  is  its  range  ?  What  is  said  of  its  fur  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  ENHY- 
DRA  ?  In  what  respect  does  the  Otter  resemble  the  Seal  ?  What  is  said  of 
its  size,  speed,  fur,  &c.  ?  For  what  do  the  Russians  exchange  its  fur  ?  In 
what  waters  is  it  found  ? 


80  CARNIVORA. 

SECTION  XIV. 
III.  DIVISION  of  THE  CARNIVORA. 

II.  PLANTIGLRADA.  (Lat.  planta,  sole  of  the  foot,gradior,  to  walk.) 
This  name  is  given  to  those  carnivorous  animals  which  apply  the 
whole,  or  part  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  to  the  ground  in  walking. 
They  are  able  to  raise  themselves  on  their  hinder  limbs  or  haunches, 
and  easily  keep  an  upright  position.  There  is  a  slowness  and 
heaviness  in  their  motions ;  their  habits  are  generally  nocturnal, 
and  in  northern  latitudes,  they  are  in  a  lethargic  condition  during 
the  winter. 

First  in  order  are  the  URSIDAE,  (Lat.  ursus,  a  bear,)  the  Bears 
forming  a  connecting  link  between  this  family  and  the  herbivo- 
rous  animals.  These  lay  the  whole  of  the  foot  upon  the  ground 
in  walking,  which  occasions  their  well  known  heavy,  shuffling 
gait,  but  allows  them  to  raise  themselves  with  facility,  and  to 
maintain  an  erect  position.  When  in  this  position  they  fre 
quently  use  the  fore  paws  in  self  defence,  or  else  to  strike  or 
hug  an  assailant  to  death,  by  muscular  pressure.  The  entire  sole 
of  the  foot  is  naked.  The  feet  have  five  toes  each,  fortified  with 
strong,  curved,  and  somewhat  obtuse  claws,  adopted  for  digging; 
their  grinding  teeth  are  more  or  less  tuberculated,  and  the  food 
is  either  animal  or  vegetable.  In  form  they  are  generally  robust. 
The  genera  of  this  family  inhabit  both  continents. 

Ursus.  The  BEAR.  Of  this  animal,  according  to  Audubon, 
eight  species  have  been  described,  "three  existing  in  Europe, 
one  of  which,  the  Polar  Bear,  is  common  also  to  America;  one 
in  the  mountainous  districts  of  India ;  one  in  Java  ;  one  in 
Thibet ;  and  three  in  North  America."  The  head  of  the  Bear, 
is  large,  the  body  stou-t,  and  thickly  covered  with  coarse, 
shaggy  hair;  the  ears  are  large  and  slightly  pointed  ;  the  limbs 
are  stout  and  massive;  the  five  toes  have  strong  curved  claws, 
fitted  for  digging  rather  than  for  taking  prey  ;  the  tail  is  short, 
and  usually  hidden  in  the  hair  of  this  animal ;  the  teeth  are  forty- 
two  in  number ;  the  grinders  have  flattened  crowns,  surmounted 
with  tubercles,  and  are  fitted  for  bruising  vegetables,  rnther  than 
cutting  flesh,  and  the  incisor  teeth  give  these  animals  but  a 
limited  power  of  cutting  it,  so  that  they  are  ranked  as  the  most 
omnivorous  of  all  the  Carnivora.  Some  of  them  subsist  on 
vegetable  food  alone,  and  nearly  all  are  capable  of  supporting 
themselves  upon  it.  They  are  nocturnal,  but  often  seen  wander 
ing  about  during  the  day.  Their  habits  are  unsocial,  most  of 
them  frequenting  the  recesses  of  mountains  and  caverns,  and  the 


CARNIVORA.  81 

depths  of  forests.  In  winter,  they  dwell  in  caves  and  hollow 
trees,  almost  without  food,  and  comparatively  dormant.  In  that 
season  the  female  produces  her  young.  Though  widely  diffused 
throughout  both  continents,  they  are  seldom  met  with  in  Africa. 
Bears  are  said  to  be  very  fond  of  honey,  and  will  climb  trees  in 
order  to  get  at  the  nests  of  wild  bees,  for  though  clumsy  ani 
mals,  they  are  expert  climbers.  In  Russia  and  other  northern 
regions,  the  skins  of  bears  are  among  the  most  useful  as  well  as 
most  comfortable  articles  of  winter  apparel.  They  are  made 
into  beds,  coverlids,  caps  and  gloves,  and  used  also  for  the  ham 
mer  cloths  of  carriages,  for  pistol  holsters,  etc. ;  and  the  leather 
prepared  from  them  is  used  in  harness,  and  for  other  purposes 
where  strength  is  requisite. 

Ursus  Arctusj  (Gr.  ajjxrog,  arktos,  a  bear.)  This  bear  is 
found  in  mountainous  districts  of  Europe,  from  very  high  lati 
tudes  to  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

It  was  once  common  in  Great  Britain ;  but  centuries  ago  was 
there  extirpated. 

This  bear  of  Northern  Europe  seems  to  be  the  only  one  with 
which  Linnaeus  was  acquainted.  To  the  people  of  Kamtschatka 
it  gives  the  necessaries,  and  even  the  comforts  of  life  ;  its  skins 
forming  their  beds  and  coverlids,  bonnets  for  their  heads  and 
collars  for  their  dogs;  overalls  are  also  made  of  the  skins, 
and  drawn  over  the  soles  of  their  shoes,  to  prevent  them  from 
slipping  on  the  ice  ;  the  intestines  yield  them  material  for  masks 
or  covers  for  their  faces,  to  protect  them  from  the  glare  of  the 
sun  in  spring,  and  as  substitutes  for  glass,  cover  their  windows. 
The  flesh  is  much  esteemed  as  food,  and  the  hams  and  paws  con 
sidered  great  delicacies.  So  great  are  the  benefits  which  it 
yields,  that  the  Laplanders,  it  is  said,  call  it  "the  dog  of  God;  " 
while  the  Norwegians  say,  "  it  has  the  strength  of  ten  men  and 
the  sense  of  twelve."  If  this  bear  is  unable  to  find  a  hollow 
tree  or  cavern  for  its  wintry  home,  it  constructs  a  habitation  for 
itself,  out  of  branches  of  trees,  lined  with  moss,  where  it  contin 
ues  dormant  and  without  sustenance  until  spring.  The  female 
produces  two  cubs  at  a  birth,  which  at  the  first  are  about  the 
size  of  puppies.  The  brown  bear  is  long  lived.  One  in  the 
menagerie  at  Paris,  France,  is  spoken  of  as  forty-seven  years 
old.  This  animal  is  four  feet  in  length,  and  about  two  and  a 
half  feet  in  height. 

Ursus  ferox,  (Lat.  ferox,  fierce.)  The  GRIZZLY  BEAR  is 
the  most  ferocious  and  powerful  of  the  family,  frequently  attack 
ing  man.  It  sometimes  weighs  more  than  1,000  pounds.  The 
Indians  fear  it  so  much  that  a  necklace  of  its  claws,  which  may 


82  CARNIVORA. 

only  be  worn  by  one  who  has  destroyed  this  bear,  is  an  orna 
ment  that  entitles  the  wearer  to  distinguished  honor.  In  Califor 
nia  it  keeps  among  the  oaks  and  pines,  on  the  acorns  and  seeds 
of  which  it  feeds.  It  is  strong-  enough  to  overcome  and  carry 
off  a  Buffalo. 

U.  Americanus.  The  AMERICAN  BLACK  BEAR  is  smaller  than 
the  Grizzly  bear,  and  of  a  more  clumsy  appearance.  It  feeds 
upon  berries,  succulent  roots,  and  juicy  plants.  When  in 
swamps,  it  wallows  in  the  mud  like  a  hog,  living  on  cray  fish, 
roots,  and  nettles  ;  sometimes  it  seizes  on  a  pig,  or  sheep,  or  calf, 
or  even  a  full  grown  cow.  In  robbing  bee  trees  it  is  peculiarly 
expert.  The  young  are  at  first  not  larger  than  kittens.  The 
Cinnamon  Bear,  which  is  a  permanent  variety  of  this  species,  is 
quite  a  northern  animal,  and  its  fur  is  more  valuable  than  that 
of  the  black  bear. 

Ursus  maritimus,  (Lat.  belonging  to  the  sea.)  or  tlialarctos, 
(Gr.  O&laaaa,  tlialassa,  the  sea,  a^jtrog,  arktos,  a  bear.)  The 
POLAR  BEAR. 

This  formidable  species  of  bear  has  a  long  and  narrow  head, 
prolonged  in  a  straight  line  with  the  forehead,  which  is  flattened  ; 
a  long  neck,  and  long,  soft  hair  or  fur,  of  considerable  value. 
Its  average  length,  when  full  grown,  is  from  six  to  seven  feet.  Capt. 
Ross  brought  back  a  specimen  measuring  seven  feet  ten  inches, 
and  the  weight  of  which,  after  losing  thirty  pounds  of  blood, 
was  1131  Ibs.  Another  specimen,  described  by  Capt.  Lyon, 
measured  eight  feet  seven  and  a  half  inches,  and  weighed  1600 
Ibs.  The  Polar  Bear  is  entirely  white,  except  the  tip  of  the 
nose  and  claws,  which  are  jet  black.  Dr.  Kane,  in  his  "Arctic 
Explorations,"  remarks  that  this  animal  is,  "  next  to  the  Walrus, 
the  staple  diet  to  the  North  ;  and  excepting  the  Fox,  supplies  the 
most  important  element  of  the  wardrobe."  "  The  liver  of  the 
animal,"  he  says,  "  is,  for  some  reason,  poisonous,  though  eaten 
with  impunity  by  the  dogs." 

The  chief  diet  of  the  Polar  Bear  is  obtained  from  the  floating 
carcasses  of  whales  and  fishes,  which  often  carry  him,  as  a  swim 
mer,  far  away  from  the  shore.  He  also  makes  unceasing  war  upon 
the  seals  and  walruses,  and  neither  refuses  the  animal  exuviae 
which  the  waters  cast  upon  the  land,  nor  the  few  berries  afforded 
by  the  shrubs  of  an  arctic  climate.  On  the  hind,  these  animals 
prey  upon  hares,  young  birds,  etc.  Their  lodges  are  dens 
formed  in  layers  of  ice  which  are  piled  up  so  as  to  make  stupen 
dous  masses.  The  males  are  said  not  to  hybernate,  but  to  brave 
the  severity  of  the  winter  upon  the  ice  of  the  open  sea,  wander 
ing  along  the  margin  and  swimming  from  floe  to  floe  in  search 


CARNIVORA.  83 

of  prey.  The  females,  however,  do  not  appear  until  the  approach 
of  milder  weather,  when  they  sally  forth  from  their  retreats,  ac 
companied  by  two  cubs.  At  this  period,  gaunt,  lean  and  fam 
ished,  they  are  peculiarly  formidable,  hunger  and  the  presence 
of  their  young  adding  to  their  natural  ferocity.  This  bear  is, 
however,  formidable  at  all  times,  strong  and  active  as  it  is,  run 
ning  with  great  swiftness  either  on  the  ground  or  on  the  ice,  and 
with  its  claws,  easily  ascending  the  slippery  sides  of  icebergs. 
The  affection  of  this  animal  for  its  young  is  much  celebrated, 
and  its  sagacity  is  great. 

U.  ornatus,  (Lat.,  furnished  or  adorned.)  The  SPECTACLED 
BEAR,  in  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes,  in  Chili,  has  two  semi-cir 
cular  marks  of  a  buff  color  above  the  eyes,  appearing  somewhat 
like  a  pair  of  spectacles. 

U.  collaris,  (Lat.  cottare,  a  collar.)  The  BEAR  OF  SIBERIA 
has  a  large  white  collar  passing  over  the  neck  and  shoulders,  on 
to  the  breast. 

U.  Syriacus.  The  SYRIAN  BEAR,  mentioned  in  2  Kings,  ii, 
23,  is  probably  the  first  of  which  there  is  any  record. 

U.  labiatoiSi  (Lat.  labia,  a  lip.)  The  LABIATED  or  SLOTH  BEAR, 
was,  sixty  years  since,  called  the  Five-fingered  Ursine  Sloth. 
The  cartilage  of  the  nose  is  capable  of  extension,  and  the  lips 
of  considerable  protrusion. 

U.  Malayanus.     The  MALAYAN  BEAR. 

The  long  tongue  of  this  Bear  aids  it  in  feeding  upon  the  honey 
of  bees,  of  which,  as  of  other  delicacies,  it  is  extremely  fond. 
It  has  also  a  taste  for  the  young  shoots  of  the  Cocoa  trees. 

The  existence  of  bears  in  Africa  was  doubted  by  Cuvier,  but 
there  is  now  good  reason  to  believe  the  animal  is  found  in  Ab 
yssinia,  and  the  mountains  of  Arabia  Felix. 

Procyon  lotor,  (Gr.  TIQOXVUV,  prokuon,  nqoy  pro,  before,  xvwv, 
a  dog.)  The  RACOON. 

The  remaining  animals  of  this  group  form  a  sort  of  connect 
ing  link  between  the  plantigrade  and  digitigrade  carnivorous 
tribes.  The  Racoon,  which  with  one  or  two  other  species,  was 
formerly  included  in  the  genus  Ursus,  is  now  separated  from  it, 
and  included  in  the  new  genus  Procyon.  It  is  a  native  of  this 
continent,  and  numerously  found  in  its  northern  territories,  also 
in  the  Eastern,  Northern  and  Middle  States  of  the  American 
Union,  and  yet  more  abundantly  in  some  of  the  Southern  States. 
The  average  length  of  the  animal  is  about  two  feet,  from  the 
nose  to  the  tail.  The  head  is  somewhat  like  that  of  a  fox,  the 
forehead  being  broad  and  the  nose  sharp  ;  the  ears  are  short,  and 
slightly  rounded ;  the  body  is  broad  and  stout ;  the  back  arched  ; 


84  CARNIVORA. 

the  limbs  rather  short,  and  the  fore  legs  shorter  than  the  hinder. 
The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  of  a  grayish  color  mixed  with 
black.  The  ears  nnd  under  part  whitish,  with  a  black  patch 
across  the  eve.  Varieties,  however,  are  seen,  some  of  which 
are  black,  others,  yellowish  white.  The  tail  is  bushy,  and 
rather  long,  with  rings  of  black  and  gray.  Albinos  are  some 
times  found,  with  red  eyes  and  only  faint  traces  of  rings  on  the 
tail.  In  its  feet  the  Racoon  is  only  partially  plantigrade,  and 
when  it  sits,  it  often  rests  the  whole  hind  sole  of  the  foot  on  the 
ground,  in  the  manner  of  a  bear.  The  nails  are  strong,  hooked, 
sharp  and  without  hair.  The  outer  hair  is  long  and  coarse ; 
the  inner,  softer  and  more  like  wool. 

The  Racoon  is  a  cunning,  and  when  mature  and  in  good  case, 
quite  a  handsome  animal.  It  mounts  trees  with  facility,  and  fre 
quently  invades  the  woodpecker's  nest ;  and  it  digs  up  and  de 
vours  the  eggs  of  the  soft-shelled  turtle. 

This  animal  sometimes  makes  great  havoc  among  wild  as  well 
as  domesticated  birds,  eating  only  the  head,  or  the  blood  which 
flows  from  their  wounds.  Occasionally  it  ravages  plantations 
of  sugar  cane  and  Indian  corn,  especially  when  the  latter  is 
young.  Oysters  are  also  a  favorite  article  of  food  with  the 
racoon.  These  it  is  very  expert  in  opening,  biting  off  the  hinge, 
and  dexterously  hooking  out  the  contents  of  the  shells.  Audu- 
bon  remarks  that  "  the  habits  of  the  muscles,  (unios  )  which  are 
found  in  our  fresh  water  rivers,  are  better  known  to  the  Racoon 
than  to  most  conchologists,  and  their  flavor  is  as  highly  relished 
by  this  animal  as  is  that  of  the  best  bowl  of  clam  soup  by  the 
epicure  in  that  condiment."  Swampy  or  marshy  lands,  abound 
ing  in  trees  and  coursed  by  small  streams,  are  the  Racoon's  fa 
vorite  resorts  ;  it  traverses  the  margins  of  creeks  and  other  wa 
ters,  looking  after  frogs  and  muscles,  which  are  found  along  their 
banks.  It  feeds  chiefly  by  night,  keeping  by  day  in  its  nest  or 
lair,  which  is  usually  made  in  the  hollow  of  somo  broken  branch 
of  a  tree.  It  rolls  itself  up,  with  the  head  between  the  hind  legs, 
and  sleeps  away  the  time  until  the  approach  of  darkness,  when 
it  goes  forth  in  search  of  food.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  seen 
in  corn  fields ;  occasionally  it  will  make  an  onset  upon  poultry 
during  the  day.  The  universal  testimony  is  that  it  shows  great 
slvness  and  cunning  in  its  tricks  and  devices  for  procuring  food. 
When  in  captivity,  kind  treatment  soon  renders  it  docile;  it  learns 
to  be  active  during  the  day  and  to  remain  quiet  at  night.  It 
shows  an  insatiable  curiosity,  prying  into  every  corner  and  crev 
ice  with  the  greatest  assiduity.  In  its  habits  it  then  becomes 
omnivorous,  eating  any  thing,  "  vegetable  or  animal,  cooked  or 


CARNIVORA  83 

uncooked,"  with  equal  avidity.  The  Racoon  exhibits  a  peculiar 
f}ndness  for  sweets  of  every  kind,  and  a  great  dislike  for  acids. 
It  is  fond  of  water,  and  before  eating  its  food  usually  washes  it ; 
hence  its  name  lotor,  or  washer.  When  hard  pursued  by  the 
hunter,  the  animal  takes  to  a  tree,  but  unless  the  tree  is  very 
large,  the  pursuer  is  still  after  the  "  coon."  If  he  cannot  be 
taken  otherwise,  the  axe  levels  the  tree  to  the  ground,  when  he 
is  soon  dispatched.  The  more  common  method  of  taking  him  is 
by  box  traps,  baited  with  an  ear  of  corn,  a  fish  or  a  squirrel. 
For  several  months  during  winter,  this  animal  hibernates  in  the 
hollow  of  some  large  tree,  leaving  its  retreat  only  occasionally 
and  when  the  weather  is  warm.  The  flesh  is  eatable,  and  the 
fur  considered  by  hatters  next  in  value  to  that  of  the  beaver. 

Proycyon  cancrivorus,  (lat.  cancer,  a  crab;  voro,  to  devour.) 
CRAB  EATING  RACOON.  This  species  has  a  longer  and  more  slen 
der  body  than  the  common  racoon.  As  observed  in  California,  it 
conceals  itself  during  the  day,  in  the  holes  of  decayed  oak  trees, 
which  exist  in  the  branches,  not  in  the  trunk  itself,  (Aud.)  Be 
sides  crabs,  frogs  and  fish,  it  feeds  on  birds,  eggs,  fruits,  etc.,  and 
is  said  to  be  specially  fond  of  the  sugar  cane. 

Nasua,  (lat.  from  nasus,  a  nose.)  The  COATI-MONDI,  found  in 
Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Paraguay, — is  like  the  Racoon,  characterized 
by  nocturnal  habits,  a  semi-plantigrade  mode  of  progress,  and 
facility  of  climbing,  but  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  racoons 
by  its  snout,  which  is  quite  long  and  extremely  flexible ;  also  by  its 
longer  and  more  slender  body,  and  by  its  feet,  which  are  stronger 
and  well  fitted  for  digging.  The  animal  uses  its  snout  in  routing 
the  worms  and  insects,  which  it  digs  up.  The  size  is  about  that 
of  a  large  cat,  and  in  addition  to  insects  and  worms,  it  eats  birds 
and  eggs,  and  sometimes  roots.  Like  the  cat,  it  descends  a  tree 
with  the  head  downwards,  and  it  is  even  more  active  than  that 
animal.  The  smell  of  the  Coati  seems  to  be  more  highly  devel 
oped  than  any  other  sense.  It  is  easily  tamed,  but  is  irritable 
and  not  to  be  touched  without  caution. 

Cercoleptes,  (Gr.  xegxog,  kerkos,  a  tail,  ASTTO?,  leptos,  thin.) 
caudivolvulus,  (Lat.  cauda,  tail,  volvulus,  twisted.)  The  POTTO 
KINKAJOU,  or  MEXICAN  WEASEL, — is  found  in  Mexico,  and  the 
warmer  parts  of  South  America,  resembling  the  Coati  in  its  habits, 
but  showing  more  activity,  and  having  a  long  tail,  which  is  prehen 
sile,  and  used  after  the  manner  in  which  the  spider  monkeys  use 
theirs.  Its  size  is  that  of  a  cat,  but  its  limbs  are  shorter,  thicker 
and  more  muscular.  The  tongue  is  long,  slender,  and  very  ex- 
tensible,  and  used  for  drawing  out  of  crevices,  insects  which  are 
beyond  the  reach  of  its  paws.  This  animal  is  a  great 


83  CARNIVORA. 

of  the  nests  of  wild  bees,  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  the  honey,  of 
which  it  is  very  fond,  and  has,  therefore,  been  called  the  "Honey 
bee." 

Meles,  (Lat.  a  badger.)  M.  vuJgaris,  (Lat.  common.)  The 
BADGER.  The  Badger  has  teeth  wh^ch  are  best  suited  for  masti 
cating  and  bruising  vegetable  substances,  and  is  less  carnivorous 
than  any  of  the  PLANTIGRADES,  except  perhaps  the  bears.  It  is 
about  as  large  as  a  dog  of  medium  size,  being  about  two  feet 
three  inches  in  length,  but  stands  much  lower  on  the  legs,  and 
has  a  broader  and  flatter  body.  The  hairs  taken  separately  are 
yellowish  white  at  the  bottom,  black  in  the  middle,  and  ashy 
gray  at  the  point;  the  last  color  alone  appears  externally,  and 
gives  a  sandy  gray  shade  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body.  The 
face  is  white,  and  a  long  band  of  black  runs  along  each  side  of 
the  head,  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  a  quiet  and  inoffen 
sive  animal,  but  is  often  subjected  to  such  ill-treatment,  that  "  badg 
ering"  a  person  is  a  phrase  used  to  express  irritating  him  in  every 
variety  of  manner.  This  animal  inhabits  most  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  but  in  some  places  is  less  common  now  than  it  once  was. 
It  is  rather  solitary  and  stupid,  seeking  refuge  in  retired  places, 
where  it  excavates  deep  burrows,  and  shuns  the  light  of  day.  The 
cruel  sport  of  "  baiting  the  badger,"  which  consists  in  putting  him 
in  a  kennel, and  setting  dogs  to  bite  him  through  his  thick  hair  and 
tough  skin,  is  in  some  parts  still  continued.  The  Badger  defends 
itself  with  great  resolution,  and  sometimes  to  the  destruction  of  its 
assailants.  The  flesh  is  esteemed  a  delicacy  in  Italy,  France  and 
China,  and  may  be  made  into  hams  and  bacon.  The  skin,  when 
dressed  with  the  hair,  is  impervious  to  the  rain,  and  makes  ex 
cellent  pistol  furniture  and  covers  for  traveling  trunks,  while  the 
hairs  or  bristles  are  made  into  paint  brushes. 

M.  Labradorius.  The  AMERICAN  BADGER.  The  general 
characteristics  of  the  American  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Eu 
ropean  Badger.  There  is,  however,  a  difference  in  the  teeth  of 
the  American  animal,  and  it  has  one  tooth  less  than  the  Common 
Badger,  on  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  length  of  this  spe 
cies  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet.  The  body  is  very  thick  and 
fleshy,  the  nose  thinner  than  that  of  the  European  species,  and  the 
claws  of  the  fore  feet  much  larger  in  proportion,  while  the  tail  is 
comparatively  shorter  ;  its  fur  is  also  of  a  quite  different  quality, 
and  its  appetites  more  carnivorous.  The  hair  of  the  head  and 
extremities  is  short  and  coarse  ;  that  of  the  other  parts  is  fine  and 
silky.  At  the  roots  it  is  dark  gray,  then  light  yellow,  then  black 
tipped  with  white,  so  that  in  winter  it  has  an  aspect  of  hoary  gray ; 
but  in  summer  is  more  nearly  a  yellowish  brown.  It  abounds  in 


CARNIVORA.  87 

the  plains  watered  by  the  Missouri,  and  has  been  traced  as  far 
north  as  the  banks  of  the  Peace  River.  It  is  known  to  inhabit 
Mexico,  but  its  exact  southern  range  is  perhaps  not  accurately 
determined.  The  sandy  plains  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Winnipeg, 
are  perforated  with  innumerable  badger  holes,  which  greatly 
annoy  horsemen,  particularly  when  covered  with  snow.  Its  bur- 
rows  are  sometimes  six  or  seven  feet  deep,  and  run  beneath  the 
ground  to  the  distance  of  thirty  feet.  It  enlarges  and  pene 
trates  the  burrows  of  marmots,  ground  squirrels,  etc.,  and  feeds 
upon  these  animals,  which  it  cannot  obtain  when  the  ground  is 
frozen.  During  the  snowy  season,  or  from  November  to  April, 
it  remains  in  a  half  torpid  state.  The  badger  is  a  slow  and  timid 
animal,  taking  to  the  ground  when  pursued,  and  to  escape  from 
danger,  burrowing  in  the  sandy  soil  with  the  rapidity  of  a  mole. 
*'  The  strength  of  its  fore  feet  and  claws  is  so  great  that  one  which 
had  insinuated  only  its  head  and  shoulders  into  a  hole,  resisted  the 
utmost  efforts  of  two  stout  young  men,  who  endeavored  to  drag  it 
out  by  the  hind  legs  and  tail,  until  one  of  them  fired  the  contents 
of  his  fowling  piece  into  its  body."  Early  in  the  spring,  badgers 
come  abroad,  at  first  fat,  but  soon  become  lean.  At  that  time, 
'they  may  be  easily  caught  by  pouring  water  into  their  holes,  for 
the  water  not  penetrating  the  frozen  ground,  soon  fills  the  hole, 
and  the  animal  is  forced  to  come  out.  In  this  as  in  the  Ovis 
montana,  the  Rocky  mountain  sheep,  the  fur,  during  the  winter, 
changes  from  a  furry  texture  to  a  woolly  covering.  In  confine 
ment,  the  American  Badger  appears  gentle,  and  "allows  himself 
to  be  played  with,  and  fondled  by  his  keeper,  but  does  not  appear 
to  be  well  pleased  with  strangers."  It  produces  from  three  to 
five  young  at  a  litter. 

M.  coliaris.  The  INDIAN  BADGER,  or  BEAR  PIG  of  the  Hin 
doos, — is  about  the  size  of  the  common  badger.  It  has  the  body 
and  limbs  of  a  bear ;  the  snout,  eyes  and  tail  are  those  of  a  hog. 

Gulo,  (Lat.  a  glutton.)  This  genus  includes  the  GLUTTON, 
or  WOLVERINE,  and  the  GRISON.  These  animals  are  semiplanti- 
grade  in  their  walk,  but  resemble  the  weasel  tribe  in  their  teeth, 
and  their  thoroughly  carnivorous  propensity,  as  well  as  in  the 
lengthened  form  of  their  bodies.  Four  species  of  this  genus 
have  been  described. 

G.  Arcticus.  This  species  is  found  in  the  Arctic,  or  northern 
regions  of  both  continents ;  in  size  is  about  equal  to  the  badger, 
but  is  more  slender  in  body,  and  much  more  active.  It  seems 
to  be  intermediate  between  the  badger  and  the  polecat;  in  its 
general  figure  and  aspect  resembling  the  former;  in  its  teeth 
the  latter.  The  hair  is  of  a  chestnut  color,  verging,  in  some  in- 


88 


CARNIVORA, 


stances,  towards  black  ;  its  head  is  something  like  that  of  the 
polecat,  hut  broader,  and  indicates  greater  strength  of  jaw.  The 
nature  of  the  Glutton  is  indicated  by  its  name;  and  its  laniary 
teeth  evince  its  voracious  and  blood  thirsty  appetite. 

It  is  sometimes  called  the  "Quadruped  Vulture,"  from  the 
fact  that  it  preys  occasionally  upon  dead  bodies  of  quadrupeds, 
chiefly  those  which  have  been  killed  by  accident.  It  is  said, 
these  animals  "do  more  damage  to  the  fur  trade  than  all  other 
animals  conjointly.  They  follow  the  Marten  hunter's  path  round 
a  line  of  traps,  extending  forty,  fifty  or  sixty  miles,  and  render 
the  whole  unserviceable,  merely  to  come  at  the  baits,  which  are 
generally  the  head  of  a  partridge,  or  a  bit  of  dried  venison. 
They  are  not  fond  of  the  Martens  themselves;  but  they  never 
fail  to  tear  them  in  pieces,  and  bury  them  in  snow  at  a  consider 
able  distance  from  the  trap.  Drifts  of  snow  often  conceal  the 
repositories  thus  made  of  the  Martens,  at  the  expense  of  the  hunt 
er,  in  which  case,  they  furnish  a  regale  for  the  hungry  fox, 
whose  sagacious  nostril  guides  him  unerringly  to  the  spot,  and 
two  or  three  foxes  are  often  seen  following  the  Wolverine  for 
this  purpose."  Perhaps  these  attendant  foxes  have  given  rise  to 
the  roinurk  that  the  Arctic  Fox  is  the  "Jackal  or  provider"  of  the 
Glutton. 

The  Glutton  feeds  upon  meadow  mice,  marmots  and  other 
rodentia,  and  occasionally  upon  disabled  quadrupeds  of  a  larger 
size.  It  resembles  the  bear,  but  is  not  as  fleet ;  is  industrious, 
feeds  well,  and  is  generally  fat.  It  goes  abroad  much  in  the  win 
ter,  and  the  track  of  its  journey  in  a  single  night,  may  often  be 
traced  rOr  miles.  From  the  shortness  of  its  legs,  it  moves  with 
difficulty  through  the  loose  snow.  Sir  John  Richardson  says 
"the  Wolverine  is  a  great  destroyer  of  beavers."  It  must,  how 
ever,  be  only  In  summer,  when  these  animals  are  at  work,  that 
it  can  surprise  them,  for  an  attempt  to  break  through  their  frozen 
mud-Walled  hou^e,  would  drive  the  beavers  into  the  water,  to 
seek  shelter  in  their  vaults,  on  the  borders  of  their  dam.  What 
ever  the  boldness  of  the  Wolverine,  in  defending  itself  against 
other  quadrupeds,  "it  makes  but  a  poor  fight  with  a  hunter,  who 
requires  no  other  arms  than  a  stick  to  kill  it." 

This  animal  has  two  secretory  organs,  from  which  he,  on  oc 
casion,  discharges  a  yellowish  brown  fluid  that  gives  forth  an 
offensive  odor.  The  female  brings  forth  yearly  from  two  to 
four  cubs,  covered  with  a  downy  fur,  of  a  pale  cream  color. 

The  Wolverine  remains  through  the  winter,  as  far  north  as 
70o  11'  latitude,  but  does  not  change  its  color  on  account  of  the 
intense  cold.  According  to  Lesson,  it  inhabits  a  complete  circle 


CARNIVORA.  89 

around  the  North  Pole,  in  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as  America. 
The  skins  furnished  by  Wolverines,  do  not  compensate  for  their 
destructive  habits.  The  fur  resembles  that  of  a  bear,  and  is 
much  used  for  muffs,  and  when  several  skins  are  sewed  together, 
makes  a  beautiful  sleigh  robe.  In  Kamtschatka,  the  women 
dress  their  hair  with  the  white  paws  of  this  animal,  which  they 
esteem  a  great  ornament. 

G.  vittatus,  (Lat.  from  vitta,  a  band  or  fillet,)  the  GRISON.  A 
white  line  or  band  passes  on  each  side  of  the  front  to  the  shoulders. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  Guiana  and  Paraguay. 

G.  or  Ratellus  mellivorus,  (Lat.  mel,  honey,  voro,  to  devour.) 
The  RATEL  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  general  characters,  cor- 
responds  with  the  glutton;  in  size  is  about  equal  to  the  badger. 
The  color  is  of  a  dull  ash  gray,  but  whitest  towards  the  head.  It 
is  said  to  feed  principally  upon  the  honey  of  bees,  which  inhabit 
the  deserted  lairs  and  burrows  of  the  Ethiopian  boar,  the  porcu 
pine,  etc. 

Ailurus  fulgens,  (Lat.  shining,)  the  PANDA,  or  WAH, — is  found 
in  the  Himalaya  chain  of  mountains,  between  Nepaul  and  the 
Snowy  mountains.  Cuvier  declared  this  to  be  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  quadrupeds,  and  included  it  in  the  Bear  tribe.  In 
the  arrangement  and  form  of  the  teeth,  it  shows  some  resemblance 
to  the  Nasua  and  Procyon.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  cat ; 
the  soft  and  thickly  set  fur  is  above,  of  the  richest  cinnamon  red, 
behind  more  fulvous,  and  beneath,  deep  black,  while  the  head  is 
whitish,  and  the  tail  whitish,  annulated  with  brown.  Its  loud  cry 
resembles  the  word  wah,  whence  its  name.  "  This  elegant  animal 
frequents  the  vicinity  of  rivers  and  mountain  torrents,  passes 
much  of  its  time  on  trees,  and  feeds  upon  birds  and  the  smaller 
quadrupeds."  The  generic  name  is  from  the  Gr.  ailouros,  a  cat. 

To  what  animals  is  the  name  PLANTIGRADES  given  ?  What  is  the  derivation 
of  the  word  ?  What  their  movements  and  habits  ?  When  and  where  are  they 
in  a  lethargic  state  ?  From  what  is  the  family  name  URSIDAE  derived  ?  To 
what  animals  are  the  bears  a  connecting  link  ?  What  is  said  of  their  gait  ? 
What  use  do  they  make  of  their  fore  paws?  Describe  their  claws.  To 
what  kind  of  food  are  their  teeth  adapted?  Where  are  the  genera  of  this 
family  found?  According  to  Audubon,  how  many  species  of  the  genus 
TTRSUS  have  been  described  ?  Give  their  locations.  Describe  the  bear. 
What  is  said  of  the  number  and  kind  of  their  teeth  ?  Which  of  the  carniv 
orous  animals  is  most  omnivorous  ?  Do  any  bears  subsist  on  vegetable  food 
alone  ?  What  are  their  habits  ?  What  is  their  condition  in  the  winter  ? 
In  what  part  of  the  world  are  they  seldom  met  ?  What  use  is  made  of 
their  skins  ?  Where  is  the  common  bear  found  ?  Is  it  now  met  with  in 
Great  Britain?  What  was  the  only  species  known  to  Linnaeus?  What 
does  it  furnish  the  people  of  Kamtschatka  ?  What  do  the  Laplanders  call  it  ? 
Why  ?  What  do  the  Norwegians  say  pf  it  ?  What  is  said  respecting  its 


9D  CARNIVORA. 

winter  home?  Is  it  long  lived?  "What  is  said  of  the  age  of  one  in  the 
Menagerie  at  Paris  ?  What  is  its  size  ?  What  is  said  of  the  ferocity  of  the 
Grizzly  Bear?  What  use  is  made  of  its  claws?  How  much  does  it  weigh  ? 
Upon  what  does  it  feed  ?  What  is  said  of  its  strength  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  size,  appearance  and  food  of  the  American  Bear  ?  What  is  the  size  of 
the  young  at  first  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Cinnamon  Bear  ?  Describe  the 
Polar  Bear.  What  is  its  average  length?  What  is  said  of  its  weight? 
What  does  Dr.  Kane  remark  respecting  this  animal  ?  What  is  its  chief 
diet  ?  On  what  else  does  he  feed  ?  WThat  do  these  animals  eat  when  on 
the  land  ?  What  is  said  of  their  dens  ?  How  do  the  males  spend  the  win 
ter?  Define  and  spell  hybcrnate,  migrate  and  emigrate.  When  do  the 
female  bears  sally  forth  from  their  winter  retreats,  and  what  is  their  appear 
ance,  and  the  degree  of  their  ferocity?  What  is  further  said  of  the  Polar 
Bear  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Spectacled  Bear  ?  What  of  the  Siberian  Bear? 
What  of  the  Syrian  Bear?  What  of  the  Sloth  Bear  ?  What  of  the  Malayan 
Bear  ?  Are  bears  found  in  Africa  ?  Were  they  known  to  exist  there  dur 
ing  Cuvier's  life  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  remaining  animals  of  this  group  ?  What  name  is  given 
to  the  Racoon  ?  Give  the  meaning  of  the  generic  and  specific  terms  ?  How 
were  the  racoon  and  other  species  formerly  arranged  ?  To  what  continent 
does  it  pertain  ?  On  what  part  is  it  numerously  found  ?  Describe  the  ani 
mal  in  his  appearance  and  habits  ?  What  is  a  favorite  kind  of  food  with 
the  racoon?  How  does  it  get  at  the  contents  of  the  shells?  What  does 
Audubon  say  as  to  the  racoon's  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  fresh  water 
muscles  ?  What  are  its  favorite  resorts  ?  How  does  it  appear  in  captivity  ? 
What  is  said  of  its  curiosity?  Why  is  it  called  lotor?  How  does  it  spend 
the  winter?  What  is  said  of  its  flesh  and  fur?  How  does  the  Crab-eating 
Racoon  differ  from  the  Common  Racoon  ?  Where  does  it  conceal  itself  in 
the  day  time  ?  On  what  does  it  live  ?  From  what  is  the  generic  term 
nasua  derived  ?  Where  is  the  Coati  mondi  found  ?  What  arc  its  charac 
ters  ?  How  is  it  distinguished  from  the  Racoon  ?  How  does  it  use  its 
snout  ?  What  is  its  food  ?  In  what  respects  does  it  resemble  the  cat  ? 
What  is  further  said  of  it  ?  Give  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  CKRCOLEP- 
TES.  Where  is  the  Mexican  Weasel  found?  What  other  names  has  it? 
What  animal  does  it  resemble  ?  What  is  said  of  its  tail  and  size  ?  What 
use  does  it  make  of  its  tongue  ?  What  name  has  been  given  it  ?  Why  ? 


What  is  said  of  the  Badger's  teeth  ?  What  of  its  food  ?  What  of  its  size 
and  hair?  What  does  "badgering"  a  person  mean?  Where  is  the  animal 
found  ?  What  are  its  habits  ?  What  is  "  baiting  the  Badger?"  What  is  said 
of  the  flesh,  and  what  use  is  made  of  the  skin  ?  Wherein  does  the  Ameri 
can  Badger  differ  from  that  of  Europe  ?  Where  does  it  abound  ?  What  is 
said  of  its  Northern  and  of  its  Southern  range  ?  What  is  said  of  its  bur 
rows  ?  How  does  it  annoy  huntsmen  ?  How  long  arid  at  what  season  is  it 
torpid  ?  What  is  said  of  the  strength  of  its  fore  feet  and  claws  ?  How  are 
these  animals  easily  caught  in  the  spring  ?  How  do  they  appear  in  confine 
ment  ?  What  changes  does  the  fur  undergo  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Indian 
Badger  ?  What  does  the  genus  Gulo  include  ?  Give  the  characteristics  of 
these  animals.  How  many  species  ?  To  what  is  the  species  Gulo  arcticus 
intermediate  ?  What  is  it  sometimes  called?  Why  ?  How  do  these  animals 
injure  the  fur  trade?  Upon  what  does  the  Glutton  feed?  What  animal 
does  it  resemble  ?  What  more  is  said  of  it  ?  How  is  the  Grison  marked, 


CARNIVORA.  91 

and  where  most  numerous?     Describe  the  Rattel?     Where  is  the  Panda 
or  Wah  found  ?     What  animals  does  it  resemble  ?     What  are  its  resorts  ? 

SECTION  XV. 


SUB-ORDER  AMPHIBIA,  (Gr.  'afuplGios,  amphibios,  having  a  double 
life.)  , 

The  term  Amphibia,  is,  strictly  speaking,  applicable  only  to 
such  animals  as  have  double  sets  of  lungs,  or  gills,  giving  them 
the  power  of  living,  indifferently,  at  the  same  time,  either  upon 
land  or  water;  but  it  is  commonly  given  to  seal,  otters,  beavers, 
etc.,  and  to  many  reptiles  whose  habits  are  at  once  terrestrial  and 
aquatic.  (PL  VI.  fig.  11.) 

PHOCIDAE,  (Gr.  qDcox?/,  PhoM,  a  sea-calf  or  seal.)  This  tribe 
df  animals,  belonging  to  the  carnivorous  order,  show  a  peculiar 
adaptation  to  the  sphere  assigned  them  by  the  All-wise  Creator. 
None  of  the  four-limbed  mammalia  display  such  complete  adapta 
tion  to  residence  in  the  water.  Seals  resemble  quadrupeds  in 
some  respects,  and  fishes  in  others.  They  have  round  heads,  and 
broad  noses,  not  unlike  those  of  dogs,  with  the  same  mild  and  ex 
pressive  physiognomy;  large  whiskers  ;  oblong  nostrils,  and  large, 
sparkling  black  eyes.  In  the  seal  there  is  no  external  ear;  but 
a  valve  exists  in  the  orifices  which  he  can  close  at  pleasure,  in 
order  to  keep  out  the  water;  a  valve  is  also  found  in  the  nostrils, 
which  is  useful  for  the  same  purpose.  The  body  is  covered  with 
stiff,  glossy  hairs,  which  are  closely  set  against  the  skin  ;  it  is 
elongated  and  conical  in  form,  gradually  tapering  from  the  shoul 
ders  to  the  tail.  The  feet  of  the  seal  differ  from  those  qf  all  other 
quadrupeds.  They  have  the  same  number  of  bones,  but  are 
covered  with  a  membrane  which  would  make  them  resemble  fins 
more  than  feet,  but  for  the  sharp,  strong  claws  with  which  they 
are  pointed.  The  limbs  may  be  viewed  as  a  sort  of  oars,  or  pad 
dles.  In  the  front  pair,  the  arm  and  forearm  are  very  short,  so 

|  that  but  little  more  than  the  forearm  advances  from  the  body  ; 
the  hind  limbs  are  directed  backwards  so  as  to  almost  seem  like 

I  a  continuation  of  the  body  ;  the  thighs  and  legs  very  short  ;  the 
tail  is  short  and  thick  ;  the  foot  is  formed  on  the  same  plan  as  the 

j  forepaw  ;  but  the  toes  are  in  contact;  the  web  is  folded  when  not 

!  in  use  as  a  paddle  ;  but  spread  out  when  the  animal  is  swimming. 

i  The  seal  moves  in  the  water  with  great  ease  and  rapidity,  but  on 

i  the  land,  or  on  masses  of  ice,  with  extreme  awkwardness.  It  is 
gregarious,  living  in  herds  more  or  less  numerous,  along  the  shores 
of  the  sea.  The  cellular  tissue,  situated  between  the  skin  and 

{  muscles,  is  very  loose  and  fibrous,  and  seems  to  be  a  receptacle 


92  CARNIVORA. 

for  the  blood,  during  the  suspension  of  breathing  under  water. 
It  can  remain  in  that  element  a  long  time  without  injury ;  when 
it  is  submerged,  the  blood  not  freely  circulating,  and  thus  accu 
mulating  in  the  larger  veins.  Its  tissue  appears  designed  in 
part  to  relieve  the  animal  from  the  pressure  of  the  superincum 
bent  water.  The  blood  is  abundant  and  dark  in  appearance, 
showing  that  it  has  less  oxygen  than  that  of  strictly  terrestrial 
animals. 

Seals  are  found  in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  but  they 
are  most  numerous  in  frozen  and  temperate  regions.  They  exist 
in  vast  numbers  in  the  seas  around  Spitzbergen,  and  on  the  coasts 
of  Labrador,  and  Newfoundland.  About  thirteen  species  are 
included  in  tho  genus  Phoca.  In  their  wide  range,  seals  are 
sometimes  found  within  the  waters  of  the  state  oi  New  York. 
About  the  middle  of  the  Spring  of  the  year  1857,  one  wa% 
taken  in  the  Hudson  river,  and  another  on  the  borders  of  Long 
Island.  Dr.  Dekay  (N.  Y.  State  Nat.  Hist.)  describes  a  female 
seal  caught  in  Long  Island  Sound,  near  Sand's  Point.  At  a  for. 
mer  period,  these  animals  were  abundant  in  our  waters.  "A 
certain  reef  of  rocks  in  the  harbor  of  New  York,  is  called  Robin's 
Reef,  from  the  numerous  seals  which  were  accustomed  to  resort 
thither;  robin,  or robyn,  being  the  name  in  Dutch  for  seal."*  In 
the  Kingston  (U.  C.)  Chronicle,  of  February,  1823  or  1824, 
there  was  a  notice  of  a  seal  taken  on  the  ice  of  Lake  Ontario, 
near  Cape  Vincent,  (Jefferson  county,)  N.  Y.  In  August,  18*24, 
a  seal  was  exhibited  alive  in  New  York,  which  had  been  taken 
in  a  seine  in  the  Chesapeake,  near  Elkton,  Maryland.  A  seal, 
said  to  have  been  beautifully  spotted  on  the  under  side,  was  taken 
some  years  since  near  Lynn,  Mass. 

The  length  of  the  common  seal,  Phoca  concolor,  or  P.  vitul.ina, 
(Lat.  calf-like,)  (see  Plate  VIII.  fig.  1.)  is,  on  an  average,  about 
five  feet;  the  color,  yellowish  gray,  clouded  with  brown  or 
yellow.  The  female  produces  her  young  during  the  winter, 
taking  care  of  them  at  the  place  of  birth  for  a  few  weeks,  until 
they  become  sufficiently  strong  to  be  taken  to  the  water,  to 
which  they  are  then  removed  by  the  parent,  not  without  solicitude 
for  their  safety.  By  her  they  are  taught  to  swim,  and  seek  for 
fish,  and  when  they  are  fatigued,  she  carries  them  on  her  back. 
As  might  be  expected  from  the  nature  of  its  food,  the  seal  has  a 
fishy  smell.  It  is  reported  that  when  assembled  in  numbers  on 
shore,  the  odor  is  perceivable  at  some  distance.  In  pursuing  their 
watery  prey,  seals  display  much  cunning  and  power  of  swimming. 

*  Nat.  Hist,  of  State  of  New  York. 


CARNIVORA.  93 

The  voice  of  the  animal  when  old,  is  a  hoarse,  gruff  bark ;  when 
young,  a  peculiarly  plaintive  whine.  "  With  a  good  glass,"  says 
Dr,  Kane,*  "you  may  study  these  animals  in  their  natural  habit 
udes,  undisturbed  by  suspicion.  As  thus  seen,  in  the  centre  of  a 
large  floe,  and  within  retreating  distance  of  his  hole,  the  seal  is  a 
perfect  picture  of  solitary  enjoyment,  rolling  not  unlike  a  horse, 
stretching  his  hide,  awkwardly  spreading  out  his  flippers,  and 
twisting  his  rump  towards  his  head.  Again  he  will  wriggle 
about  in  the  most  grotesque  manner;  the  sailors  call  it  'squirm- 
ing,7  every  now  and  then  rubbing  his  head  against  the  snow. 
The  shapes  of  a  seal,  or  rather  his  aspects,  are  full  oi  strange 
variety.  At  a  side  view,  with  his  caudal  end  slued  round  10  the 
side  from  you,  and  his  head  lifted  suspiciously  in  the  air,  he  is 
the  exnct  image  of  a  dog,  cluen  de  mer.  During  his  wriggles,  he 
resembles  a  great  snail ;  a  little  while  after,  he  turns  his  back  to 
you,  and  rises  up  on  his  side  flippers,  like  a  couching  hunter,  pre 
paring  for  a  shot,  the  very  image  of  an  Esquimaux."  The  seals 
are  proverbially  shy.  The  Esquimaux  and  Greenlanders,  to 
whom  these  animals  are  of  inestimable  importance,  as  furnishing 
them  with  the  chief  means  of  subsistence,  are  from  earliest  youth, 
trained  to  the  pursuit  of  them,  and  look  upon  the  most  successful 
hunters  of  them  as  their  great  men.  "No  one  can  pass  for  a 
right  Greenlander  who  cannot  catch  seals."  This  is  not 
strange,  considering  the  manifold  benefits  furnished  the  northern 
tribes  by  these  animals.  The  boat,  or  kajah  in  which  they  brave 
the  violence  of  a  northern  sea,  and  the  perils  of  the  chase,  con 
sists  of  the  skin  of  the  seal  placed  over  a  light  frame  work  of 
wood.  The  same  skin  furnishes  the  material  for  his  dress;  the 
flosh  of  the  animal  supplies  him  with  his  "most  palatable  and 
substantial  food ;  the  fat  gives  him  oil  for  lamp-light,  chamber 
and  kitchen  fire.  He  can  sew  better  with  fibres  of  seal's  sinews 
than  with  thread  or  silk.  Of  the  skins  of  the  entrails,  he  makes 
the  windows  of  his  house,  curtains  for  his  tents,  his  shirts;  and 
pnrt  of  the  bladders  they  use  at  their  harpoons,  and  he  makes 
train  bottles  of  the  maw  or  stomach."  Seal  skins  and  oil  are  to 
him  also  important  articles  of  commerce.  The  fishing  com 
mences  in  autumn,  and  is  practised  by  means  of  nets  stretched 
across  narrow  sounds  where  the  seals  are  in  the  habit  of  swimming. 
Only  the  young  ones  can  be  taken  in  these  nets ;  the  old  ones 
are  shot,  or  else  the  boatmen  enter  the  recesses  of  the  animals  at 
night,  with  torches  and  bludgeons,  and  despatch  them,  which  they 
do  easily  with  a  slight  blow  on  the  forehead  or  muzzle. 

*  Grinnell  Arctic  Expedition. 


9-1  CARNIVORA. 

x 

"To  shoot  seal,"  says  Dr.  Kane,  "one  must  practise  the  Esqui 
maux  tactics,  of  much  patience  and  complete  immobility,  tt  is 
no  fun  to  sit  motionless  and  noiseless  as  a  statue,  with  a  cold  iron 
musket  in  your  hands,  and  the  thermometer  10o  below  zero. 
Very  strange  are  these  seal !  a  countenance  between  the  dog  and 
the  ape;  an  expression  so  like  that  of  humanity,  that  it  makes 
gun-murderers  hesitate.  At  last,  at  long  shot,  1  hit  one.  The 
ball  did  not  kill  outright;  it  struck  too  low.  He  did  drown  finally 
and  sunk,  and  so  1  lost  him.  Curiosity,  contentment,  pain,  re 
proach,  despair,  and  even  resignation,  I  thought  I  saw  on  this 
seal's  face."  .  .  .  "A  Danish  boy  who  had  joined  us  by  stealth 
at  Disco,  told  us  that  the  animal's  sinking  was  a  proot  that  he  had 
no  blubber,  and  he  was  probably  right."  Though  the  orifice  of 
the  ear,  as  we  have  said,  contains  a  valve  which  closes,  yet  the 
seal  has  a  most  delicate  sense  of  hearing,  and  delights  in  musical 
sounds,  a  fact  not  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Laing,  in  his  ac 
count  of  a  voyage  to  Spitsbergen,  states  that  when  the  violin  was 
played,  "  a  numerous  audience  of  seals"  would  generally  collect 
around  the  vessel,  following  her  course  for  miles.  In  allusion  to 
this  peculiarity  of  the  seal,  Sir  Walter  Scott  says, 

"  Rude  Ilciskar's  seals,  through  surges  dark, 
Will  long  pursue  the  minstrel's  bark." 

The  seal  has  often  been  domesticated,  and  it  is  said,  made  use 
of  in  fishing.  The  following  is  among  the  anecdotes  illustrating 
this  remark.  "In  January,  1819,  a  gentleman  residing  in  the 
county  of  Fife,  Scotland,  completely  succeeded  in  taming  a  seal. 
Its  singularities  attracted  the  curiosity  of  strangers  daily.  It  ap 
peared  to  possess  all  the  sagacity  of  a  dog,  lived  in  its  master's 
house,  and  ate  from  his  hand.  In  his  fishing  excursions,  this 
gentleman  generally  took  it  with  him,  when  it  afforded  no  small 
entertainment.  If  thrown  into  the  water,  it  would  follow  for 
miles,  the  track  of  the  boat,  and  though  thrust  back  by  the  oars, 
it  never  relinquished  its  purpose.  Indeed  it  struggled  so  hard  to 
regain  its  seat,  that  one  would  imagine  its  fondness  for  its  master 
had  entirely  overcome  the  natural  predilection  for  its  native 
element." 

When  companies  of  seals  are  seen  at  some  distance  "  walking 
the  water,"  their  heads  peering  above  it,  they  assume  sometimes 
such  appearances  as  have  given  rise  to  the  stories  of  TRITONS, 
SIRENS  and  MERMAIDS,  concerning  which  many  marvelous  things 
have  been  written. 

The  P/wca  Grocnlandica,  or  HARP  SEAL,  is  about  six  feet  in 


CARMVORA.  95 

length,  and  noted  for  the  variations  of  its  color,  as  it  advances 
towards  maturity. 

The  Phoca  larbata,  (Lat.  bearded.)  is  larger,  and  has  thicker 
and  stronger  moustaches  than  the  others.  Its  length  varies  from 
seven  to  ten  feet.  Dr.  Kane  speaks  of  one  which  was  shot  by 
Capl.  Haven,  of  the  Grinneil  Arctic  Expedition,  measuring 
"eight  feet  from  tip  to  tip  ;  five  feet  eleven  inches  in  his  greatest 
circumference,  and  five  feet  six  inches  in  girth  behind  the  fore- 
flippers."  "His  carcass,"  says  the  Dr.  "was  a  shapeless  cylin 
der,  terminating  in  an  awkward  knob,  to  represent  the  head." 

P.  cristatus,  (Lat.  crested,)  or  Slemmaf.opus  cristat.us,  (Gr. 
stemma,  a  wreath;  &ps,  face,)  or  HOODED  SEAL,  is  distinguished 
for  having  a  globular  sac,  which  can  be  swelled  upon  the  top 
of  the  head,  in  the  male  animal.  This  species  reach  the  size 
of  seven  or  eight  feet,  and  live  in  the  seas  about  Greenland  and 
Newfoundland. 

The  ELEPHANT  SEAL,  or  SEA  ELEPHANT,  P.  Macrorhinus,  (Gr. 
makros,  long,  rhin,  nose,)  proboscideus,  (Gr.  proboskis,  a  trunk,)  is 
the  largest  known  species,  being  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  long, 
and  having  a  girth  at  the  largest  part  of  the  body,  of  eighteen  feet. 
A  full  grown  male  of  this  species  will  yield  seventy  gallons  of 
oil.  This  kind  of  seal  is  found  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Austra 
lia,  Juan  Fernandez,  and  the  neighboring  parts  of  South  Ameri 
ca.  Its  voice  is  like  the  lowing  of  cattle,  and  it  is  inert  in  its 
habits.  The  name  "  Elephant  Seal/'  is  given  to  the  animals  of 
this  species,  partly  on  account  of  the  large  size  of  their  tusk-like 
canines,  and  partly  from  their  power  of  lengthening  the  upper 
lip  into  a  kind  of  proboscis.  They  are  much  sought  after  on  ac 
count  of  the  quantity  of  oil  which  they  yield,  and  also  of  their 
strong  skins,  which  are  valuable,  for  harness  making. 

The  SEA  LION,  Plalyrhyncus  leoninus,  found  on  the  north  and 
south  coasts  of  the  Pacific,  is  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  length,  and 
of  a  yellowish  brown  color.  The  males  have  a  large  mane  upon 
their  necks,  partly  covering  the  head  and  shoulders,  and  a  very 
powerful  voice,  whence  their  name. 

The  SEA  BEAR,  Arctocephalus  ursinus,  is  so  called  from  the 
fur  and  shape  of  the  head.  It  grows  to  the  length  of  five  or  six 
feet,  and  has  small  external  ears.  The  membrane  of  the  hind 
feet  is  prolonged  into  as  many  lobes  as  there  are  toes,  and  the 
fore  feet  are  placed  very  far  back.  The  color  of  the  fur  is 
brown,  but  when  it  is  old,  assumes  a  grayish  tint.  This  species 
inhabits  the  coasts  of  the  South  Pacific,  and  is  also  said  to  be 
found  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

Trichccus   Roxmarus,  the    WALRUS,    MORSE,   or    SEA    Cow. 


93  CARNIVORA. 

This  animal  resembles  the  seal  in  its  general  conformation,  but  is 
much  larger,  and  more  thick  and  clumsy  in  its  proportions.  Its 
distinguishing  peculiarity  is  the  construction  of  the  skull.  The 
lower  jaw  is  without  incisor  and  canine  teeth,  and  is  compressed 
laterally  to  fit  in  between  two  enormous  canine  teeth,  or  tusks, 
which  arise  out  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  are  inclined  downwards 
with  a  gentle  curve.  The  length  of  the  tusks  is  sometimes  two 
feet.  The  alveoli,  or  sockets  of  these  tusks,  occupy  the  whole 
of  the  front  portion  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  give  a  roundness  to 
the  form  of  the  muzzle ;  the  nostrils  do  not  end  in  a  snout,  but 
are  far  above  the  mouth,  or  what  seems  the  middle  of  the  face. 
The  development  of  the  brain  is  less  in  the  Walrus,  than  in  the 
seal,  and  it  shows  less  intelligence.  The  ears  are  merely  two 
small  orifices ;  the  head  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the 
body;  the  neck  short;  the  lips  are  thick,  the  upper  one  divided 
by  a  longitudinal  furrow,  and  studded  with  strong  bristles ;  the 
skin  is  very  thick  and  impenetrable,  and  covered  with  smooth, 
yellowish  hair.  This  huge  animal  is  often  eighteen  or  twenty 
feet  in  length,  and  ten  or  twelve  in  circumference,  around  the 
chest. 

The  Walrus  is  found  in  the  icy  seas  of  the  north.  Like  the 
seal  it  is  gregarious.  It  is  not  a  ferocious  animal,  but  on  account 
of  its  great  strength,  and  formidable  tusks,  is  dangerous  when 
attacked ;  and  the  more  dangerous  because  many  hasten  to  the 
help  of  a  companion  when  in  trouble.  They  are  said  to  be  mo- 
nogamous.  The  females  defend  their  young  with  great  resolu 
tion  and  perseverance.  These  animals  resort  to  islands  of  ice, 
or  the  ice-bound  shore.  The  tusks  furnished  them  by  the  Crea 
tor,  assist  them  to  mount  the  slippery  acclivities,  or  ledges  of  ice, 
they  striking  the  points  of  the  tusks  into  the  glassy  surface  in 
order  to  secure  themselves  firmly,  and  drawing  up  their  unwieldy 
bodies.  It  is  said  their  hind  feet  are  furnished  with  suckers, 
which  act  on  the  principle  of  cupping  glasses,  exhausted  of  air, 
so  that  the  feet  adhere  to  the  ice,  and  thus  help  the  animals  to 
propel  themselves  forward.  Thus  the  Walrus  can  climb  the  ice 
berg  with  security,  pass  over  its  surface  and  betake  itself  at 
pleasure  to  the  waters  of  the  ocean. 

Captain  Cook,  in  his  Journal  of  his  Voyages,  speaks  of  meet 
ing  with  Walruses  off  the  northern  coast  of  America.  "They 
lie,"  says  he,  "in  herds  of  many  hundreds,  upon  the  ice,  hud 
dling  over  one  another  like  swine,  and  roar  and  bray  so  very 
loud  that  in  the  night,  or  in  foggy  weather,  they  gave  us  notice 
of  the  vicinity  of  ice  before  we  could  see  it.  We  never  found 
the  whole  herd  asleep,  some  being  always  on  the  watch.  These, 


CARNIVORA.  97 

on  the  approach  of  the  boatr  would  awaken  those  next  to  them, 
and  tjie  alarm  being  thus  gradually  communicated,  the  whole 
herd  would  be  awake  presently ;  but  they  were  seldom  in  a 
hurry  to  get  away  till  after  they  had  been  once  fired  at ;  they 
would  then  tumble  over  one  another  into  the  sea,  in  the  utmost 
confusion,  and  if  we  did  not  at  the  first  discharge,  kill  those  we 
fired  at,  we  generally  lost  them,  though  mortally  wounded.  The 
dam,  when  in  the  water,  holds  the  young  one  between  her  fore 
arms."  The  chief  use  of  the  walrus  to  man,  is  in  its  tusks, 
which  yield  the  finest  ivory,  and  in  its  abundant  blubber,  or  fat, 
which  yields  oil.  They,  and  indeed  all  the  marine  mammalia 
which  are  found  in  the  Arctic  seas,  have  abundant  fat,  as  their 
defence  against  the  cold.  A  beautiful  and  striking  evidence  of 
kind  and  intelligent  design,  of  which  numberless  instances  are 
presented  to  the  student  of  Natural  History,  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that  immediately  beneath  the  skin,  a  thick  layer  envelopes  the 
body,  and  being  a  bad  conductor  of  caloric,  besides  other  advan 
tages  already  referred  to,  prevents  the  vital  heat  from  passing  off. 
With  the  Polar  Bear,  U.  Maritimus,  the  Walruses  have  frequent 
and  desperate  conflicts.  They  feed  upon  shell  fish,  arid  marine 
vegetables,  and  perhaps  a  further  use  of  their  tusks  is  to  root  up 
their  food  from  the  spot  to  which  it  adheres.  Their  flesh,  like 
that  of  the  seal,  is  highly  valued  by  the  inhabitants  of  Arctic  re- 
gions,  and  northern  voyagers  have  often  found  it  a  most  accepta 
ble  repast. 

Give  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  AMPHIBIA.  To  what  animals  alone 
does  it  strictly  apply  ?  To  what  others  is  it  commonly  given?  From  what 
is  PHOCIDAE  derived  ?  What  is  said  of  their  adaptation  to  a  watery  resi 
dence  ?  Describe  the  Seal.  What  is  said  of  its  habits  ?  How  is  it  enabled 
to  remain  in  water  a  long  time  without  injury?  Where  are  Seals  most  nu 
merous?  How  many  species  does  the  genus  include?  Where  have  they 
been  found  in  this  country  ?  What  is  their  size  ?  What  does  Dr.  Kane  say 
of  these  animals?  To  what  people  are  they  of  inestimable  importance? 
Relate  the  particulars  which  are  given  respecting  them.  What  has  occa 
sioned  the  stories  respecting  Tritons,  Syrens  and  Mermaids?  What  is  said 
of  the  Harp  Seal  ?  Give  some  particulars  of  the  Bearded,  Hooded  and  Ele 
phant  Seals.  What  is  said  of  the  SEA  LION?  Why  is  it  so  called?  Give 
some  account  of  the  SEA  BEAR.  What  animal  does  the  Walrus  resemble  ? 
What  other  names  has  it  ?  What  is  its  distinguishing  peculiarity  ?  How 
long  are  the  tusks  ?  Give  its  general  characteristics.  What  is  said  of  its 
intelligence  ?  What  is  its  length  ?  Where  is'  it  found  ?  What  are  its 
habits  and  disposition?  With  what  are  its  hind  feet  furnished?  What 
docs  Captain  Cook  relate  respecting  Walruses?  Who  was  Captain  Cook? 
Ans.  A  celebrated  English  circumnavigator,  who  was  killed  by  the  natives 
at  0\vyheef  Sandwich  Islands,  in  1779.  What  is  their  chief  use  to  man  ? 
What  evidence  do  they  give  of  kind  and  intelligent  design  on  the  part  of  the 


93  CARNIVORA. 

Creator?    With  what  animal  doep  the  Walrus  have  severe  conflicts?    What 
is  its  food ?     What  is  said  of  its  flesh? 

* 

SECTION  XVI. 

SUB-ORDER  INSECTIVORA.  (Lat.  insecta,  insect,  voro,  to  eat.) 
The  INSECTIVORA,  as  the  term  denotes,  comprehends  those  ani 
mals  whose  food  is  especially  insects,  but  not  exclusively,  as 
sometimes  they  feed  on  other,  and  even  vegetable  substances. 
They  walk  on  the  sole  of  the  foot,  (plantigrada.)  The  sub-or 
der  includes  three  families.  Their  motions  are  feeble,  feet  short 
and  slender,  snout  lengthened.  In  cold  climates  they  pass  the 
winter  in  a  dormant  state. 

HEDGE-HOGS,  (Erinaceada,  from  erinaceus,  Lat.  for  hedge-hog.) 
The  true  hedge-hogs  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa, 
while  others  are  found  in  Madagascar  and  the  Oriental  Islands. 
They  are  slow  and  inoffensive,  but  are  self-defended  by  a  coat 
of  stiff,  tough  spines  or  prickles.  They  roll  themselves  up  into 
a  round  ball,  and  thus  the  spines  project  from  every  part  of  the 
surface,  and  are  a  defence  and  safeguard.  They  lie  concealed 
in  some  crevice  between  the  moss-grown  roots  of  a  tree,  among 
a  mass  of  withered  leaves,  or  in  a  hole  which  they  have  exca 
vated  ;  and  in  this  condition,  the  animal  remains  during  the  day, 
protected  from  injury  in  the  way  before  described,  should  its 
retreat  be  discovered.  As  the  dusk  of  evening  comes  on,  it 
issues  from  its  lurking  place  and  prowls  about  for  food.  If 
pursued  it  makes  no  defence,  but  rolls  itself  up  and  trusts  to  its 
spines  for  safety.  These  are,  indeed,  the  only  means  of  defence 
bestowed  upon  this  little,  weak  and  timid  animal.  It  feeds  upon 
insects,  frogs,  snails,  fruits,  and  esculent  roots.  It  is  useful  in 
gardens,  and  often  kept  in  large  kitchens  for  the  destruction  of 
beetles  and  cockroaches. 

The  TENREC,  (Centetes,  Gr.  xe^w,  kenteo,  to  sting  or  prick,) 
called  also  the  Asiatic  or  striped  hedge-hog,  of  Madagascar, 
has  no  tail,  but  is  covered  with  a  spiny  coat  of  mail.  It  rolls 
itself  up  in  the  way  of  the  hedge-hog  already  mentioned, 
though  not  so  easily,  is  nocturnal,  and  passes  three  months  of 
the  year  in  sleep.  Some  are  not  larger  than  a  mole. 

The  species  are  Tenrec  Centetes  acaudatus,  Lat.  a,  without, 
cauda,  a  tail.) 

C.  setosus,  (Lat.  bristly.)     Its  spines  are  short  and  rigid. 

Va lied  Tenrec,  C.semi-spinosus,  (Lat.  semi,  half,  spina,  spine.) 
Its  body  is  clothed  with  a  mixture  of  spines  and  bristles. 

SOREX,  (Lat.  shrew.}  The  SHREWS  have  usually  been  con 
sidered  a  kind  of  mice  and  of  the  order  Rodenlia.  They  are, 


CARNIVORA.  99 

however,  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  their  teeth,  and  the  con 
ical  form  of  the  head,  and  nose  tapering  to  a  long  point.  They 
place  the  entire  sole  of  the  foot  upon  the  ground,  which  makes 
their  legs  appear  short.  They  have  glands  along  the  side  of  the 
body,  which  secrete  a  humor  of  an  unpleasant  and  peculiar 
odor.  Their  shrill,  piercing  cry  may  often  be  heard  in  spring 
and  summer.  Water  shrews,  which  are  twice  the  size  of  the 
others,  are  found  upon  the  banks  of  rivers,  ponds,  and  marshes, 
and  appear  to  collect  their  food,  consisting  of  the  larvos  of  the 
ephemeral  flies,  from  the  loose  mud.  Stationing  themselves  at 
the  mouths  of  their  holes,  they  look  intently  on  the  water,  and  if 
a  shoal  of  minnows  pass  by,  they  plunge  in  among  them,  diving 
with  much  adroitness.  Their  fur  repels  the  water,  and  while 
submerged  they  appear  almost  white.  The  Common  Shrew,  S. 
araneuSj  (Lat.  Spiders,)  is  covered  with  soft  velvety  fur,  is  easily 
distinguished  from  the  mouse  by  its  long,  tapering  and  cartilagin 
ous  snout;  the  eyes,  too,  are  very  minute,  almost  hidden  in  the 
surrounding  hairs,  and  the  ears  are  round  and  close.  It  is  usu 
ally  of  a  reddish  mouse  color  above,  grayish  beneath,  and  some 
times  tinged  with  yellow.  Its  entire  structure  is  well  adapted 
to  burrow  under  the  earth,  but  it  can  also  move  rapidly  upon  the 
surface.  Its  length,  from  the  snout  to  the  tail,  is  about  five 
inches ;  its  tail  is  one  inch  long ;  it  feeds  upon  insects,  worms 
and  grubs. 

Sorex  fodiens,  (Lat.  digging.)  The  WATER  SHREW  closely 
resembles  the  common  shrew  in  its  conformation.  Its  feet  are 
rather  broad  and  formed  for  swimming,  having  a  lock  of  stiff 
hairs  on  the  end  of  the  toes ;  its  tail  is  rather  slender  and  fringed 
with  stiff  hairs.  Its  swimming  is  principally  effected  by  the  al 
ternate  action  of  the  hind  feet.  The  appearance  of  these  ani 
mals,  and  their  motions  in  water  are  quite  amusing.  A  sort  of 
musk  is  expressed  from  the  region  about  the  tail,  and  the  skins 
are  put  into  chests  and  wardrobes,  among  clothes,  to  preserve 
them  from  moths. 

The  DESMAN  or  MUSK  RAT,  Mygale  (Gr.  spider -mouse,)  mos~ 
cliata.  This  is  known  as  the  Russian  Musk  Rat,  is  about  the 
size  of  a  hedge-hog  and  distinguished  from  the  shrews  by  its 
long  scaly  tail,  flattened  at  the  sides.  Under  the  tail  of  the  Des 
man  are  two  small  follicles,  containing  a  kind  of  unctuous  sub 
stance  of  a  strong  musk  odor,  from  which  the  name  of  musk 
rat  is  given  to  it. 

The  SCALOP,  to  which  Linnaeus  gave  the  name  of  Sorex 
aqtmticus,  is  a  native  of  Canada  and  is  now  separated  from  the 
true  shrews. 


100  CARNIVORA. 

We  come  now  to  notice  the  MOLE  (Ta/pa) — Family,  Tatyida. 
This  animal  is  five  or  six  inches  in  length  and  formed  for  an  un 
derground  life.  Its  body  is  thick  and  cylindrical ;  the  he  id  is  pro 
longed,  especially  the  muzzle,  which  projects  far  beyond  the 
jaws,  and  is  very  flexibile  and  strong,  serving  to  convey  the  food 
to  the  mouth  ;  it  has  no  external  ears,  but  the  auricular  appara 
tus  is  highly  developed,  and  the  sense  is  very  acute  ;  its  eyes 
are  very  small  and  concealed  by  its  fur,  so  that  it  is  a  vulgar 
opinion  that  it  is  deficient  in  these  important  organs.  The  head 
is  not  distinguished  from  the  body  by  any  appearance  of  neck  ; 
the  legs  do  not  project  perceptibly  from  the  body. 

The  mole  is  accustomed  to  burrow  for  its  food,  forming  its 
abode  or  "encampment"  under  ground,  and  raising  a  larger  hil 
lock  than  the  rest  for  the  reception  of  its  young.  Its  subterra 
nean  excavations  are  most  distinctly  and  determinately  made, 
having  passages  or  "  high  roads  "  from  one  part  of  its  domain  to 
another.  Into  these  roads  open  the  excavations  in  which  it  daily 
searches  for  food.  In  this  home,  which  is  separated  from  that  in 
which  its  nest  is  formed,  it  dwells  from  autumn  to  spring.  The 
mole  is  essentially  an  accomplished  miner,  and  unlike  most  of 
the  mammalia,  finds  his  happiness  and  his  home  in  the  subterra 
nean  (underground)  galleries  which  he  excavates  with  admirable 
skill  and  industry.  Its  fore  feet,  which  are  broad  and  muscular, 
are  constructed  like  hands  and  form  complete  paddles  for  throw 
ing  the  soil  behind  the  animal.  (See  Plate  VI,  fig.  4  of  Mole's 
foot.) 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  there  is  no  external  conch  to 
the  ears,  as  the  auditory  opening  concealed  by  the  fur  is 
small.  "A  valve,  capable  of  being  raised  or  lowered  like  an 
eye-Kd,  the  mechanism  of  which  is  visible  if  the  fur  be  shaved 
away,  closes  this  aperture  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  so  as  to  ex 
clude  any  particle  of  earth  or  sand."  The  eyes,  too,  which  are 
exceedingly  small  and  buried  in  the  fur  for  protection,  may  be 
uncovered  at  pleasure,  when  it  emerges  to  the  light.  The  Crea 
tor  has  given  it  the  power  of  vision,  but  in  a  very  limited  degree  ; 
in  fact  it  is  in  the  very  lowest  stage  of  development,  but  it  has 
all  in  this  respect  that  is  needed.  Its  keen  sense  of  smell  is  its 
chief  guide  in  searching  for  food,  and  dwelling  as  it  does,  in 
darkness,  this  sense  is  remarkably  perfect. 

The  structure  of  the  mole  is  such  as  to  concentrate  the  whole 
force  and  energy  of  the  animal  in  the  anterior  portion,  and  thus 
is  adapted  to  its  habits  and  mode  of  life ;  the  hands  are  large, 
bread,  and  thick;  the  bones  knit  firmly  and  solidly  together;  the 
claws  are  enormous — these  are  the  organs  by  which  it  throws 


CARNIVORA.  101 

up  the  earth  ;  the  head  is  an  organ  for  boring  or  digging,  very 
long  and  flat,  with  the  cartilages  of  the  nose  ossified  ;  the  liga 
ment  of  the  neck,  which  in  other  animals  is  elastic,  is  here 
bone  also,  so  that  the  strain  in  digging  is  hotter  borne  ;  the  pelvis 
is  very  small  ;  the  bones  of  the  hind  limbs  are  small  and  slender 
and  rhe  hind  feet,  though  having  claws,  are  feeble  in  comparison 
with  the  spade-like  hands,  thus  hindering  not  its  course  through 
its  under-ground  roads,  but  yet  having  sufficient  strength,  and 
not  in  the  way. 

In  short,  were  we  called  upon  for  striking  evidence  of  the  de 
sign  and  attentive  care  of  GOD,  we  would  point  to  the  habits  and 
manners  of  the  MOLH,  and  the  fitness  and  adaptation  of  the 
means  and  instruments  with  which  it  is  provided.  The  mole 
does  not,  of  its  own  accord,  emerge  from  its  subterranean  abode, 
except  to  seek  for  some  more  favorable  soil  in  which  to  construct 
its  halls  and  winding  galleries.  Rich  and  cultivated  meadows, 
abounding  in  worms  and  other  insects,  are  its  favorite  localities 
in  which  it  makes  its  burrows. 

Unlike  the  dormouse  or  marmot,  it  is  not  less  active  in  winter 
than  in  summer  ;  the  twilight  hours  of  morning  and  evening  are 
its  period  of  labor. 

The  nest  where  the  female  mole  nurses  her  helpless  young, 
(of  which  she  has  one  brood  yearly,  generally  four  or  five,  some 
times  as  few  as  three,  rarely  six,)  is  formed  in  a  vault,  carefully 
constructed  at  the  center  of  diverging  passages,  made  soft  with 
leaves,  grass,  and  scales  of  bulbous  roots.  '•  The  parents  afford 
a  pattern  of  mutual  affection  and  assistance." 

The  food  consists  of  worms,  insects,  and  when  it  can  obtain 
them,  small  birds  or  quadrupeds,  to  which  roots  are  also  added. 
It  is  impatient  of  hunger,  and  cannot  endure  a  fast  of  more  than 
six  hours'  duration  ;  an  abstinence  of  twelve  hours  is  said  to 
produce  death. 

Agriculturists  complain  that  they  suffer  injury  from  the  young 
corn  which  moles  carry  off  for  constructing  their  nests ;  but  its 
turning  up  and  lightening  the  soil,  and  its  destruction  of  insects, 
earth  worms  and  noxious  creatures  found  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  so  hurtful  to  grass,  corn  and  other,  plants,  furnish 
advantages  to  the  farmer  which  probably  more  than  counter 
balance  any  injuries  which  he  suffers  from  the  doings  of  the 
mole  ;  at  the  same  time,  we  should  guard  the  undue  increase  of 
these  mining  animals. 

CONDYLURA,  (Gr.  xovdvlrj,  kondule,  a  knob,  otf^d,  oura,  a 
tail  ;  knobbed  tail.)  CRESTED  or  S>TAR-NosED  MOEE.  This 
name  was  given  to  this  animal,  by  Illiger,  under  an  erroneous 


102  CARNIVORA. 

impression  that  the  tail  is  "  knobbed."  There  is  but  one  spe 
cies  well  known,  cristata,  (crested,)  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  nostrils  are  surrounded  by  movable  carti 
laginous  points  that  radiate  like  a  star  wlien  expanded.  The 
color  is  brownish  black  above,  a  shade  lighter  beneath.  The 
head  is  remarkably  large  ;  the  body  thick  and  short,  growing 
narrower  towards  the  tail,  which  is  smaller  at  the  root,  large  in 
the  middle,  and  tapering  to  a  fine  point  at  the  tip ;  the  fur  on  the 
body  is  very  fine,  soft  and  shining.  The  shape  of  the  body 
resembles  that  of  the  common  shrew  mole,  and  it  is  similar  in 
its  habits. 

The  BANXRINGS,  (Tupaida,)  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  are  remark 
able  insectivorous  animals.  They  are  nocturnal,  and  squirrel- 
like  in  their  appearance  and  habits. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  INSECTIYORA. 

How  many  families  does  the  INSECTIVORA  include  ?  On  what  do  they 
feed  ?  What  is  said  of  their  motions  and  habits  ?  Where  are  the  true 
Hedge-hogs  found  ?  Where  others  ?  How  are  they  self-defended  ?  How 
do  they  conceal  themselves  ?  How  is  the  day  spent  ?  When  does  it  seek 
its  food?  How  act  when  pursued?  For  what  is  it  useful?  Where  is  the 
Tenrec  found  ?  What  is  it  called  ?  How  covered  ?  What  are  its  habits  ? 
What  its  size  ?  How  many  species  ?  Give  their  names  and  derivation.  To 
what  order  have  Shrews  commonly  been  referred?  How  are  they  distin 
guished  from  mice  ?  How  do  they  tread  ?  What  have  they  upon  the  side 
of  the  body  ?  What  is  said  of  their  cry  ?  To  what  places  do  Water  Shrews 
resort  ?  What  do  they  use  for  food  ?  What  is  said  of  their  watching  for 
minnows?  What  effect  has  their  fur  upon  the  water?  How  is  the  shrew 
distinguished  from  the  mouse  ?  What  is  its  color  ?  For  what  is  it  well 
adapted  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Water  Shrew  ?  What  of  the  Russian  Musk 
Rat?  What  of  the  Scalop  ?  For  what  kind  of  life  is  the  mole  formed? 
Describe  the  animal.  How  does  it  obtain  its  food?  What  is  said  of  its  ex 
cavations  ?  How  are  its  fore  feet  constructed  ?  What  is  remarkable  about 
the  ear  ?  What  is  said  of  the  sight  and  smell  ?  In  what  part  of  the  body 
is  the  strength  concentrated  ?  Give  particulars  as  to  its  structure.  Wherein 
does  it  give  proof  of  divine  care?  Why  does  it  leave  its  subterranean 
abode  ?  In  what  respect  is  it  unlike  the  dormouse  or  marmot  ?  What  is 
said  of  its  nest  ?  What  of  its  abilities  to  fast  ?  Why  do  agriculturists  com 
plain  of  the  mole  ?  What  benefits  does  it  confer  upon  the  farmer  ?  From 
what  is  the  term  Condylura  derived  ?  Was  it  rightly  given  ?  Why  is  this 
animal  called  Crested  or  Star-nosed?  Describe  it.  What  is  said  of  its 
shape  and  habits?  What  is  said  of  the  Banxrings? 

OBS.  Here,  at  the  close  of  the  order  CARNIVORA,  and  every  other  order, 
let  the  teacher  have  a  general  review,  naming  the  sub-orders,  tracing  out 
the  genera,  families,  &c.,  giving  the  specific  name  to  each  as  he  describes 
the  animal,  pointing  them  out  when  on  the  chart,  telling  all  he  can  remem 
ber  about  them,  either  from  the  book  or  chart.  If  he  omits  anything,  let  it 
be  mentioned  by  other  members  of  the  class.  No  pupil  should  ever  be  per 
mitted  to  pass  the  name  of  a  person,  or  place,  or  even  a  word,  without 
knowing  who  the  person  was,  where  the  place  is,  and  what  the  word  means. 


MARSUPIALIA.  103 

SECTION  XVII. 
FOURTH  ORDER.     MARSUPIALIA,  OR  MARSUPIATA. 

(Lat.  marsupium,  a  purse  or  bag.) 

This  order  is  arranged  into  two  sections, — Marsupials  and 
Monotremata.  These  are  not  un frequently  regarded  as  separate 
orders,  constituting  a  sub-class  termed  Ovo-vivipara,  (Lat.  ovum, 
an  egg ;  vivo,  to  live,  and  pario,  to  produce,)  and  intermediate 
between  the  truly  viviparous  mammals  and  the  oviparous  birds 
and  reptiles.  The  animals  of  this  order  are  numerous  and  quite 
different  in  their  organs  from  all  other  mammals.  So  peculiar 
is  their  internal  structure  that  Cuvier  remarks  they  may  be  looked 
upon  as  containing  several  orders  running  parallel  with  the  or 
ders  of  ordinary  quadrupeds.  Their  rank  is  low  in  the  scale  of 
intelligence.  Of  the  two  sections  the  marsupials  show  the  least 
depaTture  from  the  general  type  of  the  Mammalia.  The  most 
striking  peculiarity,  common  to  them  all,  is  the  immature  state 
of  the  young  at  birth,  they  being  much  like  the  half  formed 
chick  in  an  egg  which  has  been  but  a  few  days  incubated  •,  and 
their  reception,  into  a  pouch  or  fold  of  a  skin  in  the  female,  in 
which  they  .are  nourished,  remaining  there  five  or  six  weeks, 
until  they  increase  in  size  and  are  able  to  take  care  of  them 
selves.  Even  for  some  time  after  the  young  one  can  procure  its 
own  living,  and  runs  and  plays  by  its  mother's  side,  it  instinct 
ively  flies  to  the  maternal  pouch  for  protection  from  threatening 
danger.  The  pouch  is  supported  by  two  bones  placed  amidst 
the  abdominal  muscles  and  called  the  marsupial  bones.  They 
are  found  in  the  male  as  well  as  in  the  female,  and  even  in  species 
where  the  pouch- formed  fold  of  the  skin  is  scarcely  perceptible. 
It  is  remarkable  that  these  mammals  are  confined  almost  entirely 
to  Australia,  including  New  Guinea  and  the  islands  immediately 
adjacent,  excepting  the  Opossums,  whose  home  is  South  America, 
but  which  are  also  found  abundantly  in  the  United  States,  resid 
ing  in  woods  and  thickets  near  hamlets  and  villages.  Appear 
ances  of  secondary  rocks  seem,  however,  to  indicate  that  at  for 
mer  periods  they  were  more  widely  spread  over  the  earth's  sur 
face  than  they  are  at  present. 

The  Marsupials  include  between  seventy  and  eighty  known  spe 
cies,  arranged  by  Prof.  Owen  into  sixteen  genera.  The  whole 
are  divided  into  five  families,  named  from  the  more  usual  char 
acter  of  their  food.  I.  The  SARCOPHAGA,  (Gr.  <7«dl,  sarx ; 

phagd,  to  eat.)     FLESH-EATERS. 
These   are   found  in  New  Holland  arid  Van  Diemen's  Land 


104  MARSUPIALIA. 

alone;  though  remains  of  them  have  been  found  in  the  Stonefield 
slate,  (England,)  and  in  the  gypsum  quarries  of  Paris,  (France.) 
They  show  great  varieties  of  size,  from  that  of  a  small 
wolf  to  a  mouse,  the  larger  ones  being  considerably  fierce,  des 
troying  sheep,  and  even  making  their  way  into  houses ;  others 
attack  poultry  and  suck  their  blood.  Those  of  the  smallest  size 
show  a  likeness  to  the  Insectivora,  and  live  on  trees.  Prof. 
Owen  enumerates  three  genera  of  the  Sarcophaga,  viz. :  Thyla- 
cinus,  Dasyurus  and  Phascogale.  These,  with  others  of  the  or- 
der,  show  a  tendency  to  the  multiplication  of  teeth,  and  peculiar 
ities  of  the  arterial  system  and  bodily  organs.  The  Thyladnus, 
(Gr.  Oukaxo;,  thulacos,  a  sac ;  Tvig,  inis,  offspring,)  has  incisors, 
£;  Canines,  {'-r  >  Molars,  ffi  =46.  The  species  T.  cynocephalus, 
(Gr.  xvuiVy  kudn,  a  dog  ;  xeqpu&q,  kephale,  head,)  Dog-headed  Thy- 
lacinus,  Tasminianor  Zebra  VVolf,  is  an  extremely  active  animal, 
of  the  size  of  a  young  wolf;  has  short  smooth  hair,  of  a  dusky 
brown  above,  but  barred  or  zebraed  on  the  lower  part  of  the  back 
with  about  sixteen  jet-black  transverse  stripes.  This  has  to  the 
other  animals  of  the  group,  relations  similar  to  those  which  the 
lion  and  tiger  have  to  the  larger  quadrupeds  of  Africa  and  Asia. 
Formerly  it  preyed  chiefly  upon  Phalangers  and  Kangaroos,  re 
jecting  the  flesh  of  the  Wombat,  an  animal  common  in  the  dis 
trict  which  it  inhabits.  Since  sheep  have  been  introduced,  its 
favorite  food  is  mutton,  which  puts  shepherds  on  the  alert  to  des 
troy  these  animals  by  every  possible  means.  The  Dasyurus, 
(Gr.  daauz,  dasus,  thick  ;  oi^d,  dura,  tail,)  has  a  conical  shaped 
head,  and  on  the  hind  feet  the  great  toe  is  reduced  to  a  tubercle, 
or  entirely  absent.  It  has  four  less  molar  teeth  than  the  Thyla- 
cinus,  making  the  number  forty-two.  One  species  is  named  D. 
ursinus,  (Lat.  ursus,  a  bear,) — Ursine  Dasyurus — having  very 
strong  muscular  jaws,  and  in  its  movements  resembling  the  bear. 
Its  vulgar  name  is  "Native  Devil."  The  Dasyurus  is  very 
destructive  to  poultry,  eats  raw  flesh  of  all  kinds  and  probably 
dead  fish  and  blubber,  as  its  tracks  are  found  on  the  sea  shore. 
In  confinement  it  appears  untamably  savage,  biting  severely, 
and  uttering  at  the  same  time  a  low,  yelling  growl.  The  Phas 
cogale,  (Gr.  qptt^xwAtoj',  pliaskolion,  a  bag;  */«^£,  gale  a  weasel.) 
has  seven  molars  instead  of  six,  on  each  side,  above  and  below, 
making  the  whole  number  forty-six.  The  species  P.  penicillata, 
(Lat.  penicillus,  a  little  tail,)  lives  on  trees,  has  fur  short,  woolly 
and  thick,  and  is  rather  larger  than  the  brown  rat. 

II.  FAMILY,  the  ENTOMOPHAGA,  (Gr.  fcVro,u«,  entoma,  insect; 
qpayw,  to  eat.)  INSECT  EATERS. 

These   have  three  kinds   of  teeth  in  both  jaws  and  a  simple 


MARSUPIALIA.  105 

stomach,  like  the  preceding  family,  but  more  complicated  in 
testines.  This  family  includes  three  branches,  or  sub-fami 
lies;  Ambulatories  (walking;)  Saltatoria,  (leaping;)  Scan- 
sorid)  (climbing.)  The  only  genus  of  the  Ambulatoria,  or 
Walking  section,  is  Myrmecobius,  (Gr.  fiugp]$,  murmex,  an  ant ; 
@IOM,  biod,  to  live.  The  only  species  is  M.  fasciatus,  (Lat. 
swathed,)  which  feeds  on  ants  and  has  the  reddish  black  of  the 
body  adorned  with  nine  white  bands,  whence  the  specific  name. 
Its  length  is  ten  inches.  The  Perameles,  (BANDICOOTS,)  is  of  the 
Leaping  section,  including  animals  which,  in  their  general  struc 
ture,  form  a  link  between  the  Opossums  and  the  Kangaroos,  evi 
dently  approaching  the  latter  in  their  form,  and  particularly 
in  the  development  of  their  hind  quarters  ;  with  the  Opossums 
they  agree  in  having  a  simple  stomach  and  ten  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw.  Some  species,  as  P.  lagolis,  (Gr.  laywg,  logos,  a 
hare,)  make  large  and  almost  exclusive  use  of  vegetable  food. 
In  most  of  this  family  the  pouch  opens  backwards,  the  reverse 
of  what  occurs  in  the  other  Marsupialia,  though  in  P.  lagotis  it 
opens  anteriorly.  The  species  are  found  in  Van  Diemens'  Land 
and  in  New  Guinea.  The  Scansoria,  or  Climbing  section,  include 
the  Didelphida,  or  OPOSSUMS,  in  their  geographical  distribution 
confined  to  this  continent.  These  animals  are  all  small,  the  larg 
est  being  about  the  same  size  as  the  domestic  cat,  while  some 
of  them  are  no  larger  than  mice.  They  number  about  thirty  spe 
cies,  ranging  from  Brazil  to  Virginia,  under  one  genus  THdelphis, 
(Gr.  Slz,  dis,  double  ;  Sskylg,  delpliis,  a  pouch,)  with  the  exception 
of  a  single  species,  found  in  Surinam,  in  size  larger  than  a  rat, 
and  from  its  aquatic  habits,  as  shown  by  its  broad  webbed  feet, 
ranked  as  a  sub-genus,  under  the  name  Cheironectes,  (Gr.  #e^> 
cheir,  hand  ;  vTjXfi}st  neklcs,  a  swimmer.)  The  true  OPOSSUMS, 
(Didelphis,)  have  fifty  teeth,  viz. :  ten  incisors  above  and  eight 
below,  four  canines,  twelve  false  molars,  sixteen  molars.  The 
incisors  are  small  and  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle ; 
the  canines  are  large  and  strong  ;  the  molars  are  crowned  with 
sharp  tubercles.  The  feet  have  each  five  toes,  armed  with  strong 
curved  claws  ,•  the  inner  toe  of  the  hind  feet,  however,  is  desti 
tute  of  a  claw,  and  is  so  placed  as  to  be  opposable  to  the  oth 
ers,  thus  constituting  a  true  thumb.  The  tail  is  more  or  less 
prehensile  at  the  tip,  and  hence  they  are  arboreal.  The  soles 
of  their  feet  are  covered  with  a  naked  skin  of  great  sensibility  ; 
the  ears  and  tip  of  the  muzzle  are  likewise  naked.  In  some 
species,  as  D.  dorsigerus,  (Lat.  dorsum,  a  back ;  gero,  to  carry,) 
the  pouch  exists  only  in  a  rudimentary  state,  or  slight  folds  of 
the  skin.  The  young  of  these  species,  when  of  sufficient  size, 


106  MARSUPIALIA. 

leave  the  pouch  of  the  parent  and  are  carried  on  her  back,  where 
they  hold  themselves  by  entwining  their  prehensile  tails  around 
thatofthe  parent.  (See  Plate  V.  fig.  7.)  The  species  best  known 
is  the  common  Opossum,  D.  Virginiana,  of  the  United  States, 
as  early  as  1649  thus  described  :  "  This  beast  hath  a  bagge  un 
der  her  bellie,  into  which  she  taketh  her  young  ones,  if  at  any 
time  they  be  affryghted,  and  carryeth  them  away."  The  food 
of  the  Opossum  is  roots,  poultry,  and  wild  fruits.  Like  the  spi 
der  monkeys,,  this  animal  uses  the  tail  for  climbing  and  swinging 
from  branch  to  branch ;  it  crawls  slowly  on  the  earth.  When 
attacked  it  will  feign  itself  dead,  and  no.  beating  will  induce  it  to 
show  any  signs  of  life.  Even  dogs  are  deceived,  and  turning  it 
over,  pass  it  by.  The  initiated  determine  whether  it  be  alive  or 
not  "  by  the  appearance  of  the  last  joint  of  the  tail,  which  is 
never  relaxed."  From  its  assuming  a  feigned  character,  any 
adroit  cheat,  or  sly  deceitful  acting,  is  said  to  be  *'  possuming," 
or  "  playing  possum."  It  has  been  said,  "  if  a  cat  has  nine  lives, 
this  creature  surely  has  nineteen  ;  for  if  you  break  every  bone 
in  their  skin  and  mash  their  skull,  leaving  them  for  dead,  you 
may  come  an  hour  after  and  they  will  be  gone  quite  away,  or 
perhaps  you  may  meet  them  creeping  away." — (Lawson.)  The 
color  of  the  Opossum  is  greyish  white,  darker  along  the  sides ; 
the  flesh  is  very  white  and  well  tasted ;  for  this  it  is  hunted,  but 
not  for  its  fur.  *  When  disturbed  or  alarmed  it  gives  out  a  very 
unpleasant  odor. 

The  Virginia  Opossum  is  about  the  size  of  a  domestic  cat.  Its 
hair  is  of  two  kinds  ;  the  lowest  a  long  woolly  down,  brownish  at 
the  tip,  through  which  pass  the  long  hairs  of  a  pure  white  on 
the  head,  neck,  and  upper  parts  of  the  body.  The  tail 
is  not  so  long  as  the  body,  covered  at  the  base  by  long  hairs,  but 
only  scantily  furnished  with  bristles  which  come  out  from  be 
tween  the  whitish  scales  that  protect  it  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
length. 

III.  Family,  the  CARPoniAGA,  (Gr.  xagnog,  karpos,  fruit ; 
qpayo;,  phago,  to  eat.)  FRUIT  EATERS  have  large  and  long  inci 
sors  in  both  jaws ;  the  canines  sometimes  wanting,  and  a  still 
longer  intestinal  canal.  They  resemble  the  squirrel  tribe,  but 
are  more  closely  related  to  the  Kangaroos,  the  Kangaroo- rats, 
(Hypsiprimnus,  Gr.  "vymgvuvog,  hupsiprimnos,  high  extremity 
or  stern,)  affording  the  connecting  link. 

Of  this  family  are  the  PHALANGERS,  Phalangista,  (Gr.  qpaAaj'l?, 
phalanx,  plu.  yctlayyeg,  phalanges,  small  bones  of  the  hands  or 
toes,  (see  Plate  III.  figs.  3  and  4.)  Those  are  so  named  because 
they  have  the  second  and  third  toes  of  the  hind  feet  united  as  far 


MARSUPIALIA.  107 

as  the  \astphalanx,  (or  small  bone,)  in  a  common  skinny  sheath. 
They  have  short,  woolly  fur,  and  a  long  prehensile  tail.  Among 
these  are  the  COESCOES,  (sub-genus  Cuscus,}  of  the  Molucca 
Islands,  said  to  suspend  themselves  by  the  tail  at  the  sight  of  a 
man. 

The  Petaurus,  (Gr.  petad,  to  fly ;  aura,  air,)  has  thirty-eight 
teeth  ;  no  canines  ;  the  skin  expands  between  the  fore  and  hind 
limbs,  enabling  it  to  take  very  long  leaps,  supported  in  the  air  as 
by  a  parachute.  In  leaping,  it  is  aided  by  its  flattened  and 
bushy  tail. 

P.  sciureus,  the  NORFOLK  ISLAND  SUGAR  SQUIRREL,  or  FLY 
ING  SQUIRREL,  rests  by  day,  but  at  night  skims  through  the  air, 
half  leaping,  half  flying  from  branch  to  branch,  feeding  upon 
leaves  and  insects. 

The  IV.  Family  is  the  Poephaga,  (Gr.  7t6rj,  poe,  grass,  qoayw, 
phago,  to  eat,)  GRASS  EATERS. 

Sub-family  Macropida,  (genus  Macropus,  Gr.  long-footed.) 
The  KANGAROOS.  The  aspect  of  these  animals  is  singularly 
striking — the  front  parts  are  light  and  graceful,  while  the  hinder 
parts  of  the  body,  limbs  and  tail  are  very  stout  and  muscular  ; 
the  head  is  lengthened  ;  the  ear.  very  large ;  the  upper  lip  cleft ; 
the  whiskers  very  short  and  few  ;  the  hind  limbs  have  very  long 
tarsi,  like  those  of  the  Kangaroo-rat,  but  are  much  longer  and  more 
robust ;  the  tail  is  long,  triangular  and  very  muscular.  The  teeth 
are  comparatively  few,  viz. :  incisors,  f ;  canines,  0 ;  molars, 
£:£=24.  The  species  are  numerous.  The  one  best  known  is 
the  Macropus  major,  the  GREAT  KANGAROO.  The  natural  posi 
tion  of  these  animals  is  sitting  upon  their  hind  legs,  in  which 
attitude  they  are  supported  by  the  strong,  muscular,  and  tapering 
tail.  Their  movement  on  all  fours  is  awkward  and  constrained, 
but  they  bound  or  hop  along  on  their  hind  limbs  with  great  facil 
ity,  each  leap  being  about  fifteen  feet.  They  easily  clear  obsta 
cles  seven  or  eight  feet  high.  M.  Brunii,  Le  Brun's  Kangaroo, 
is  the  first  of  the  Marsupials  with  which  naturalists  became  ac 
quainted.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  New  Guinea,  and  was  described 
by  Le  Bran  as  early  as  1711.  The  Kangaroo  was  discovered 
by  Capt.  Cook  in  his  first  voyage.  Since  that  period,  (1770,)  it 
has  been  brought  over  in  abundance  to  Europe  and  this  country; 
has  bred  freely  and  might  become  an  associate  of  deer  in  parks 
and  forests.  The  conical  and  tapering  form  of  the  body  at  once 
suggests  to  the  beholder  the  idea  of  great  muscular  power  in  the 
loins  and  lower  limbs,  just  the  opposite  to  the  mole.  Its  fore 
limbs  are  of  little  use  in  its  forward  movements.  The  defensive 


108  MARSUPIAL1A, 

weapon  of  these  animals  consists  of  the  large  claw  of  the  hind 
foot,  which  is  lengthened,  strong,  and  armed  with  a  hoof-like 
nail.  With  this  they  can  inflict  a  severe  blow  ;  their  eves  are 
full  and  bright;  the  mouth  small  ;  the  ears  large  and  pointed  ; 
the  fore  paws  are  divided  into  five  fingers,  armed  with  nails  for 
scratching  or  digging ;  the  hind  feet  have  five  toes,  but  the  two 
inner  ones  are  very  small,  and  so  united  in  their  whole  length 
under  the  skin  as  to  appear  but  one.  The  Great  Kangaroo  in 
habits  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  is  about  five 
feet  without  the  tail,  the  length  of  which  is  about  three  feet. 
The  female,  like  the  Opossum,  carries  the  young  about  in  its 
pouch,  from  which  they  emerge  when  they  desire  exercise,  and 
leap  back  again  on  the  least  alarm.  The  largest  weigh  140  to 
150  pounds.  The  Kangaroo's  flesh  is  much  esteemed ;  it  is 
hunted  in  Australia  with  a  breed  of  dogs  between  the  rnastifF  and 
greyhound. 

The  V.  family  is  the  Rhixopkaga,  or  ROOT  EATERS,  (Gr.  V£a> 
rliiza,  root;  <p«yu),  phago,  to  eat.)  In  this  we  find  the  WOMBAT, 
Phascolomus,  (Gr.  (fuam&iov,  phaskdlioji,  a  pouch;  [tv$,mus,a, 
mouse,)  Sub-family  Phascolomyidoe. 

This  animal  has  been  described  as  follows  :  "The  Wombat, 
or  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives  of  Port  Jackson,  the  Womback, 
is  a  squat,  short,  thick,  short-legged,  and  rather  inactive  quadru 
ped,  with  great  appearance  of  stumpy  strength,  and  somewhat 
bigger  than  a  large  turnspit  dog.  Its  figure  and  movements,  if 
they  do  not  exactly  resemble  those  of  the  bear,  at  least  strongly 
remind  one  of  that  animal.  Its  length  from  the  tip  of  the  tail  to 
the  tip  o'f  the  nose  is  thirty-one  inches.  The  hair  is  coarse  and 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  thinly  scattered  ;  thinly  set 
upon  the  belly,  thicker  upon  the  back  and  head,  and  thicker  upon 
the  loins  and  rump  ;  the  color  is  of  a  light  and  sandy  brown  of 
various  shades,  but  darkest  along  the  back."  The  Wombat  will 
not  compare  with  the  Kangaroo  in  swiftness  of  foot,  as  most  men 
could  run  it  down.  Its  pace  is  a  hobbling  or  shuffling,  something 
like  the  awkward  gait  of  a  bear.  The  flesh  is  said  to  be  excel 
lent  meat,  and  as  it  is  nearly  three,  feet  in  length,  it  is  suggested 
that  it  might  be  worth  naturalizing  in  other  climates,  specimens 
which  have  been  taken  to  Europe  having  lived  for  years. 

The  whole  of  the  Marsupialia,  though  some  are  active  and 
sprightly  in  their  manners,  present  but  little  appearance  of  real 
docility  and  intelligence  ;  and  this  fact,  connected  with  the  low 
degree  of  development  of  their  brain,  points  to  their  inferior 
rank  among  the  placental  Mammalia.  To  denote  this  inferiority 
the  boundary  lines  of  this  Order  are,  on  the  chart,  bent  round  to- 


MARSUP1ALIA.  109 

wards  the  CETACEA.  The  earliest  mammiferous  animals  whose 
remains  are  found  in  the  secondary  and  tertiary  formations,  are 
those  of  this  order. 

Sub-order  MONOTREMATA,  (Gr.  fiovog,  monos,  one  ;  r^wa,  trema, 
perforation.)  The  animals  of  this  sub-order  have  given  occasion 
to  naturalists  for  much  discussion  concerning  their  proper  affini 
ties  and  their  appropriate  position  among  the  MAMMALIA.  They 
are  truly  unique,  both  in  their  external  form  and  their  anatomi 
cal  and  internal  arrangements,  the  details  of  which  cannot  be 
given  in  this  work.  We  will  only  say  that  "in  the  form  of  the 
skull,  the  construction  of  the  shoulder  and  the  breast-bone,  but 
particularly  in  the  whole  reproductive  system  of  organs,  the 
Monotremata  present  a  manifest  departure  from  a  mammalian 
type,  and  a  corresponding  approach  to  that  of  the  oviparous  Ver 
tebrae,  tending  to  the  reptiles  more  than  to  the  birds."  But  how 
ever  anomalous,  it  is  evident  they  should  have  a  place  among  the 
mammals  ;  and  also,  though  without  any  external  pouch,  that 
the  marsupial  bones  in  the  skeleton  require  that  they  be  placed 
next  in  order  to  the  Marsupialia,  "of  which  they  constitute  the 
lowest  and  most  aberrant  type." 

These  singular  animals  have  no  true  teeth,  but  those  of  one 
genus  have  horny  substances  in  the  jaw  which  represent  those 
organs.  The  muzzle  is  prolonged  into  a  flat  beak,  more  or  less 
like  that  of  a  duck ;  the  eyes  are  small ;  the  ears  are  merely 
minute  orifices  and  without  any  external  conch  ;  the  limbs  are 
short  and  strong,  suited  for  digging  ;  the  feet  have  each  five  toes, 
furnished  with  stout  claws,  and  on  the  hind  foot  is  a  kind  of  sharp 
spur. 

The  order  includes  but  two  genera,  viz. ;  Echidna  and  Orni 
thorhyncus.  Both  are  found  exclusively  in  New  Holland  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land. 

Echidna,  (Gr.  "e^tdra,  echidna,  a  fabulous  monster  or  viper.) 
Of  this  there  is  but  one  species,  changing  its  name  vvi'th  the  varia 
tions  of  its  clothing  at  different  seasons,  viz. :  E.  histrix,  (Gr/*crjsp*$, 
a  porcupine,)  to  E.  setosa,  (Lat.  bristly.)  The  muzzle  of  this  ani 
mal  is  elongated  and  slender,  terminated  by  a  small  mouth,  having  a 
long  extensile  tongue,  similar  to  that  of  ant-eaters  and  pangolins ; 
it  is,  however,  more  beak-shaped.  The  skin  of  this  beak  is  thick 
and  without  hair.  The  animal  has  no  teeth,  but  the  palate  is 
armed  with  many  rows  of  small  spines,  directed  backwards. 
The  feet  are  very  large,  robust,  and  armed  with  claws,  being 
formed  for  opening  ants'  nests.  The  upper  surface  of  the  body 
and  of  the  sht)rt  tuberculous  tail  is  covered  with  stout  and  strong 
spines,  intermingled  with  stiff,  bristly  hairs,  and  when  alarmed, 


110  MARSUPIALIA. 

the  animal  can  roll  itself  up  like  a~hedge-hog  or  porcupine,  with 
which  latter  it  well  compares  in  point  of  size.  The  chestnut 
colored,  soft  and  silky  hair  is  so  abundant  at  a  certain  season  as 
to  half  cover  the  spines,  whilst  at  another,  the  hair  entirely  dis 
appears.  It  lives  on  ants,  with  their  larvae  and  pupae.  It  takes 
them  with  its  extensile  tongue,  which  it  can  protrude  to  a  great 
distance,  and  which  is  always  covered  with  an  adhesive  secretion. 
The  Echidna  digs  for  itself  burrows  in  which  it  remains  during 
the  dry  season,  coming  out  of  the  earth  only  during  the  rains. 
It  is  supposed  capable  of  enduring  a  long  abstinence,  and  it  has 
intervals  of  suspended  animation  which  continue  for  more  than 
three  days  at  a  time,  and  recur  frequently  when  the  animal  is 
kept  in  confinement.  Its  strength  has  been  thought  to  exceed, 
considering  its  size,  "that  of  any  other  quadruped  in  existence." 

Ornithorhyncus,  (Gr.  ogvig,  ornis,  a  bird,  and  'pity/os,  rhunchos, 
a  beak,  so  named  from  its  bird-like  bill.) 

Two  species  have  been  described,  O.fuscus,  (Lat.  dusky,)  and 
O.  riifus,  (Lat.  red,)  but  the  latter  differs -from  the  former  only 
in  having  the  fur  softer  and  of  a  redder  tint.  It  is  said  that  in 
looking  at  this  animal  one  would  imagine  that  the  beak  of  a  shov- 
eller-duck  had  been  artificially  fastened  on  the  front  of  the  head 
of  a  small  otter.  The  beak,  which  is  broader  at  the  tip  than  at 
the  base,  is  covered  by  a  thick  leathery  skin.  This  skin  projects 
in  the  form  of  a  loose  flap  from  each  mandible,  and  protects  the 
eyes  from  the  mud  in  which  the  animal  is  perpetually  dabbling 
for  food.  There  are  no  true  teeth,  yet  back  of  each  mandible 
are  two  horny  appendages  resembling  teeth,  but  without  roots, 
which  are  of  a  form  verging  to  a  square,  with  a  broad  uneven 
surface,  fitted  rather  for  crushing  than  grinding.  Beneath  the 
skin  of  the  face  are  capacious  cheek  pouches  for  the  carrying 
of  food.  The  eyes  are  bright,  but  very  small  and  high  set ;  the 
ears  mere  orifices  which  are  opened  and  closed  at  the  will  of  the 
animal ;  the  feet  have  five  well  developed  toes,  all  armed  with 
long,  curved,  and  pointed  claws,  connected  by  a  leathery  web, 
which  in  the  fore  feet  extends  considerably  beyond  the  tips  of 
the  claws,  presenting  a  broad  and  powerful  oar  when  in  the  wa 
ter,  but  folded  back  when  the  animal  is  digging  in  the  earth.  On 
the  hind  feet  the  web  re-iches  only  to  the  termination  of  the  toes. 
In  the  male  the  feet  are  also  armed  with  a  stout,  sharp,  movable 
spur,  formerly  regarded  as  highly  poisonous.  The  tail  is  broad 
and  depressed  ;  the  fur  combines  the  properties  of  an  aquatic  and 
also  of  a  burrowing  animal,  readily  expelling  both  water  and  dust. 
A  full  grown  ornithorhynchus  is  about  two  feet  long,  measuring 
beak  and  tail.  The  general  color  is  deep  brown,  with  a  white 


MARSUPIALIA.  Ill 

spot  in  front  of  each  eye.  These  animals  are  called  Water 
Moles  by  «the  colonists.  Their  favorite  resorts  are  the  borders 
of  some  stream  covered  with  aquatic  plants,  where  the  banks  are 
steep,  shaded,  and  convenient  for  burrowing.  They  burrow  in 
a  serpentine  direction,  sometimes  to  the  distance  of  fifty  feet, 
and  ending  in  a  small  chamber.  In  this  chamber  they  place 
their  nest  made  of  dry  grass. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MARSUPIALIA. 

From  what  is  the  term  MARSUPIALIA  or  MARSUPIATA  derived  ?  Into  what 
two  sections  is  this  order  arranged  ?  How  are  these  sometimes  regarded  ? 
What  does  Cuvier  remark  respecting  the  animals  of  this  order  ?  Which 
of  the  two  sections  deviates  least  from  the  general  type  of  mammalia? 
What  is  their  most  striking  peculiarity  ?  To  what  part  of  the  globe  are 
these  mammals  confined  ?  What  is  the  ground  of  their  division  into  fami 
lies  ?  What  is  said  of  the  first  family,  SARCOPHAGA  ?  How  many  genera 
of  this  family  does  Prof.  Owen  enumerate?  What  peculiarities  do  they 
show  ?  Describe  the  Dog-headed  Thylacinus  or  Zebra  Wolf?  What  rela 
tion  does  it  bear  to  the  other  animals  of  the  group?  What  is  said  of  the 
Dasyurus  ?  What  species  of  this  animal  is  mentioned  ?  On  what  does  it 
feed  ?  How  does  it  appear  in  confinement  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Phasco- 
galc?  What  species  is  named?  Give  the  names  and  characters  of  the 
second  family.  What  three  branches  or  sub-families  does  this  include  ?  To 
which  of  these  does  Myrmecobius  belong  ?  How  many  teeth  has  it  ?  What 
species  of  this  genus  is  named?  What  genus  of  the  leaping  section  is 
mentioned?  What  link  do  the  animals  of  this  genus  form?  In  what  re 
spects  do  they  agree  with  the  opossums?  What  species  is  named  and 
what  is  said  of  it  ?  What  animals  do  the  Scansoria  include  ?  How  many 
species  of  them  ?  To  what  region  are  they  confined  ?  How  is  the  term 
Didelphis  compounded  ?  What  sub-genus  is  named  ?  How  are  the  Opos 
sums  characterized  and  described  ?  Describe  the  best  known  and  only  spe 
cies  found  in  the  United  States.  Give  the  general  character  of  Fruit-eaters, 
or  the  third  family.  How  are  they  linked  to  the  Kangaroo  ?  What  genera 
and  species  are  mentioned  ?  Describe  and  characterize  the  Kangaroos,  or 
grass-eaters.  Which  is  best  known  ?  Where  is  it  found  ?  Which  of  the 
Root-eaters  is  mentioned  ?  How  Is  it  described  ?  How  do  the  MARSUPIALS 
rank  among  mammals  ?  Why  are  the  boundary  lines  of  this  order  carried 
round  next  Cetacea  ?  What  is  peculiar  in  the  MONOTREMATA,  and  what  is 
their  general  rank  ?  How  many  genera  do  they  include  ?  Where  found  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Spiny  Ant-eater  ?  Particularly  describe  the  Ornithor 
hyncus. 


What  is  said  of  this  order  along  the  branches  of  the  Chart  ?     Mention 
the  animals  of  this  order  named  or  figured  on  it,  tracing  each. 


112  EDENTATA. 

SECTION  XVIII. 
FIFTH  ORDER,  EDENTATA.     (Lat.  toothless.) 


This  name  was  originally  given  by  Cuvier,  to  the  animals  of 
this  order,  from  their  agreement  in  the  absence  of  incisive  teeth 
from  their  jaws,  and  in  the  length  of  their  claws.  Apart  from 
this  agreement,  they  appear  to  have  among  themselves  but  little 
natural  affinity.  To  several  of  the  ant-eating  tribe,  which  this 
order  includes,  the  name  Edentata  is  literally  applicable ;  but  in 
other  genera  it  is  limited  to  the  front,  or  incisor  teeth.  In  this 
order  Cuvier  included  the  Monotremata,  but  their  most  natural 
place  seems  to  be  with  the  Marsupials. 

I.  Family,  TARDIGRADA,  (Lat.  tardus,  slow,  gradior,  to  step;) 
also  named  Bradypodidae,  (Gr.  Syadtis,  bradus,  slow,  TTOVS,  poas,  a 
foot.)  This  includes  two  genera,  Bradypus  tridactylus,  (Lat. 
three-toed,)  the  Ai,  or  SLOTH,  and  Choloepus,  (Gr.  /wlo^,  cliolos, 
lame,  noi>$,  pous,  a  foot,)  didactylus,  (Lat.  two-fingered ;)  the 
UNAU. 

These  animals  have  no  incisor  teeth,  four  canines,  two  in  each 
jaw,  fourteen  molars,  eight  in  the  upper  and  six  in  the  lower  jaw. 
The  molar  teeth  consist  each  of  a  cylinder  of  bone,  covered  with 
enamel ;  hence  their  surfaces  are  always  concave,  the  enamel 
wearing  less  rapidly  than  the  soft  interior.  No  laminae,  or  folds 
of  the  enameled  substance  penetrate  the  body  of  the  teeth,  as  in 
most  other  animals ;  the  canines  are  somewhat  longer  than  the 
molars,  and  in  form  pyramidal.  When  these  animals  stand 
erect  upon  their  hind  legs,  their  fingers  can  reach  to  the  ground ; 
and  when  moving  upon  all  fours,  they  trail  themselves  slowly 
and  painfully  along  upon  their  elbows.  Their  claws  surpass  the 
whole  foot  in  length,  and  are  very  sharp  and  crooked.  (See  Plate 
VI.  fig.  5.)  In  a  state  of  rest,  they  are  drawn  down  upon  the  palm 
and  wrist,  and  can  be  extended  only  by  the  will  and  muscular  effort 
of  the  animal.  Sharp,  and  bent  in  form,  they  are  so  many  effective 
hooks  for  holding  on;  while  the  rigidity  of  the  limbs  gives  a  firm 
hold  ;  the  feet  and  thighs  are  jointed  obliquely,  which  adapts  them 
for  embracing  a  branch ;  and  the  great  length  of  the  arms  aids 
these  animals  in  seizing  a  fresh  hold,  and  drawing  twigs  and 
leaves,  their  usual  food,  to  their  mouths.  They  are  born  and  live 
on  the  trees,  and  never  leave  them,  unless  from  the  operation  of 
force,  or  accident,  resting  not  upon  the  branches,  like  the  squirrel, 
or  monkey,  but  under  them,  and  moving  and  even  sleeping  sus- 


EDENTATA.  113 

pended  from  them.  It  is  remarked  of  some  which  were  in  a  state 
of  captivity,  that  they  assumed,  during  sleep,  "a  position  of  per 
fect  ease  and  safety,  on  the  fork  of  a  tree,"  the  head  being  sup 
ported  between  the  arms  and  chest,  and  the  face  buried  in  the 
long  wool  which  covers  those  parts,  and  thus  protected  during 
sleep,  from  the  myriads  of  insects  which  would  otherwise  assail  it. 

The  animals  of  the  other  genus,  the  Unau,  or  Choloepus  didacty- 
lus,  the  two-fingered  sloth,  have  essentially  the  sa-me  singular 
conformation  and  habits  as  the  three-fingered  sloth,  and  are  with 
those  of  the  other  genus,  found  among  the  tropical  forests  of  South 
America, 

II.  EDENTATA  PROPER.  MYRMECOPHAGADAE,  ANT-EATERS. 
Myrmecophaga,  (Gr.  fttyurjZ,  murmex,  an  ant,  qo^'w,  phago,  I  eat.) 

The  Ant-eaters  are  distinguished  by  being  entirely  without 
teeth,  and  also  by  their  hairy  covering.  The  latter  peculiarity 
separates  them  from  the  Pangolins,  (Manis,)  or  Scaly  Ant-eaters, 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  which  animals,  in  other  respects,  they  closely 
resemble.  In  this  family,  the  jaws  are  produced  into  a  very  long 
and  slender  muzzle,  which  has  a  mouth  of  very  diminished  size. 
(See  Chart.)  The  phalanges,  or  small  joints  of  the  toes  (particu 
larly  the  last,)  which  bear  the  claws,  are  so  formed  as  to  allow 
them  to  be  bent  inwards  only  as  in  the  Sloths ;  and  to  this  end, 
have  very  powerful  ligaments,  which  keep  them  in  a  state  of  re 
pose,  bent  in  along  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  do  not  allow  the  hand 
to  be  opened  entirely,  but  only  half  extended,  as  seen  in  gouty  or 
rheumatic  people.  (Plate  VI.  -fig.  5.)  The  toes  are  of  unequal 
size,  and  vary  in  number,  in  different  species ;  as  in  the  Sloths, 
they  are  united  closely  together  as  far  as  the  claws,  and  are  not 
capable  of  separate  or  individual  motion ;  but  this  disability  is 
more  than  compensated  by  the  increased  strength  which  it  pro 
duces.  The  claws  are  all  large  and  powerful,  especially  that  of 
the  middle  toe,  which  is  enormous.  In  walking,  these  animals 
tread  upon  the  outer  edge  of  the  foot,  which  is  provided  with  a 
large  callous  pad  for  that  purpose  ;  whilst  their  toes  being  bent 
ih wards,  along  the  palms,  the  sharp  claws  are  preserved  from 
being  injured  by  the  friction  of  the  hard  ground. 

The  Ant-eaters  are  remarkable  for  their  very  long  and  round 
ed  tongues.  With  these,  they  take  the  ants  which  are  their  prin 
cipal  food.  On  approaching  an  ant-hill,  the  animal  scratches  it 
up  with  his  claws,  and  then  protrudes  his  slender  tongue,  which 
has  the  appearance  of  an  exceedingly  long  tape  worm.  The 
tongue  is  covered  with  a  glutinous  saliva;  it  is  nearly  twice  the 
length  of  the  whole  head  and  snout  together,  and  when  not  ex 
tended,  is  kept  doubled  up  in  the  mouth,  with  the  point  directed 


114 


EDENTATA. 


backwards.  The  ants  adhere  to  his  tongue  when  it  is  thrust  into 
their  hills,  and  by  retracting  it,  he  swallows  thousands  of  them. 
The  eyes  of  the  Myrmecophaga  are  exceedingly  small;  their 
ears  short  and  round ;  the  legs  robust  and  amazingly  powerful, 
but  so  unfavorable  for  locomotion,  that  these  animals  are  almost 
as  tardy  in  their  movements  as  the  Sloths  themselves,  except 
when  put  to  their  speed,  at  which  time,  their  motion  is  pretty 
rapid.  Of  the  Ant-Eaters  proper,  we  name  three  species.  1. 
M.  jubata,  (Lat.  maned  or  crested,)  the  GREAT  ANT-EATER. 
This  animal  is  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  from  the 
snout  to  the  tail,  which  is  three  and  one-quarter  feet  long,  so  that 
the  entire  length  of  the  animal  is  seven  and  three-quarters  feet; 
the  height  at  the  shoulders  is  three  and  three-twelfths  feet,  and 
but  two  and  ten-twelfths  feet  at  the  croup,  in  consequence  of 
which,  being  perfectly  plantigrade,  it  necessarily  stands  lower 
behind  than  before,  as  is  seen  in  the  bear  and  badger ;  the  toes 
are  four  on  the  front,  and  five  on  the  hind  extremities.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Ant-Bear,  from  its  mode  of  defence,  which 
resembles  that  of  the  bear.  When  assailed  by  a  dog,  he  seizes 
him  between  his  strong  fore  legs,  and  squeezes  him  to  death,  or 
else  deals  out  severe  blows  with  his  sharp  prehensile  claws. 
The  clothing  of  the  Great  Ant-Eater  consists  of  long,  coarse  hair, 
forming  a  mane  down  the  neck  and  back,  and  enveloping  the  tail 
in  a  thick  brush,  which  trails  upon  the  ground.  On  the  head  the 
fur  is  close  and  spare.  The  color  is  generally  a  grizzled  black ;  a 
dark  black  stripe,  bordered  with  white,  passing  obliquely  from 
the  side  of  the  neck,  to  the  upper  part  of  the  back.  This  singular 
animal  has  but  a  single  young  one  at  a  birth,  which  for  a  whole 
year  is  carried  about  with  the  mother  wherever  she  goes.  Its 
digestive  organs  seem  adapted  for  extracting  nutriment  from  ants 
alone.  In  its  habits,  it  is  solitary  as  well  as  slothful.  Like  all 
other  animals  living  upon  insects,  it  can  exist  a  long  time  without 
food.  Its  flesh,  though  black,  and  of  a  musky  flavor,  is  sometimes 
found  on  the  tables  of  Europeans,  and  by  the  Indians  is  highly 
esteemed. 

M.  Tamandua.  (Cuvier.)  The  TAMANDTTA. 
This  Ant-Eater  is  much  smaller  than  the  one  just  described, 
being  not  so  large  as  a  fox,  or  even  a  good  sized  cat ;  whereas 
the  Maned  Ant-Eater  exceeds  in  length  the  largest  greyhound, 
though  much  inferior  to  that  animal  in  height,  owing  to  the  short 
ness  of  its  legs.  In  the  conformation  of  its  extremities,  and  the 
number  of  its  toes  before  and  behind,  the  Tamandua  is  like  the 
Ant-Bear;  but  it  differs  from  that  animal  in  the  prehensile  power 
of  its  tail,  which  makes  it  essentially  an  arboreal  quadruped. 


EDENTATA.  115 

The  hair  differs  also,  being  short  and  shining,  and  of  a  consistence 
which  makes  it  a  medium  as  to  its  qualities,  between  silk  and 
wool.  The  colors,  are,  likewise,  more  variable  than  those  of  the 
Great  Ant-Eater.  The  Tamandua  is  found  in  the  thick  primeval 
forests  of  tropical  America,  living  on  trees,  upon  termites,  honey, 
and  according  to  D'Azara,  upon  stingkss  bees,  which  have  their 
hives  among  the  loftiest  branches  of  the  forest.  The  female  has 
but  a  single  cub  at  a  birth,  which  she  carries  about  with  her  on 
her  shoulders,  for  the  first  three  or  four  months. 

M.  didactyla,  (Lai.  two-fingered,  or  toed.)  The  LITTLE  or 
Two-ToED  ANT-EATER. 

This  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  two  species,  by  its 
size,  which  does  not  exceed  that  of  a  large  rat  or  squirrel ;  also 
by  the  number  of  its  toes,  four  on  the  hinder,  and  only  two  on  the 
front  extremities.  The  length  from  the  snout  to  the  tail  is  but 
six  inches;  that  of  the  tail  is  seven  and  one-quarter  inches;  to 
wards  the  point  the  tail  tapers,  and  becomes  naked,  and  it  is 
strongly  prehensile.  The  snout  is  not  so  long  in  proportion  to  the 
body,  as  in  the  other  two  species;  the  legs  are  stout  and  short; 
the  hair  very  fine  and  soft  to  the  touch.  Like  the  other  species, 
the  Little  Ant-Eater  has  but  one  young  at  a  birth,  which  it  con 
ceals  in  the  hollow  of  some  decayed  tree. 

Orycteropus  Cctpensis,  (Gr.  OQVXTJJQ,  orukter,  a  digger;  novg, 
pous,  a  foot.)  The  AARDtVARK,  or  EARTH- HOG. 

This  animal,  of  Southern  Africa,  is  also  to  be  numbered  with 
the  Ant-Eaters,  though  there  has  been  some  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  its  proper  location.  It  resembles  both  the  Ant-Eater  and 
the  Armadillo,  agreeing  with  the  former  in  its  general  habits; 
but  though  without  any  scaly  armor,  more  like  the  latter  in  its 
anatomical  structure.  Like  the  Armadillo,  it  has  large  and  pow 
erful  claws,  adapted  for  digging  up  roots  and  insects,  and  for 
making  burrows  in  the  earth.  When  full  grown,  it  is  five  feet 
long,  from  the  snout  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  which  is  about  half  the 
size  of  the  body.  Its  tongue  is  not  cylindrical  like  that  of  the 
Ant-Eaters  proper,  but  flat  and  slender,  and  cannot  be  protruded 
so  far.  The  flesh,  particularly  of  the  hind-quarters,  is  dried  for 
hams,  and  much  esteemed  as  food. 

Manis.     (Linnasus.)     The  PANGOLIN,  or  SCALY  ANT-EATER. 

The  name  Pangolin,  which  is  given  to  the  animals  of  this 
genus,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  word  Pangoeling,  signifying, 
in  the  Javanese  language,  "an  animal  which  rolls  itself  in  the 
form  of  a  ball."  The  Pangolins  are  limited  to  the  warmest  parts 
of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  common  with  the  Hairy  Ant-Eaters, 
they  are  without  teeth,  and  have  a  very  long  extensile  tongue, 


118  EDENTATA. 

covered  with  a  glutinous  mucus,  for  securing  their  insect  nutri. 
rnent,  but  they  differ  from  them  in  their  body,  limbs  and  tails, 
which  have  as  a  panoply,  their  scales  large,  imbricated,  (L  e. 
hollowed  like  a  roof,  or  gutter-tile,)  and  overlapping  each  other; 
they  differ  also  in  being  able  to  roll  themselves  up  when  in  dan 
ger,  by  which  means  their  trenchant  or  sharp  cutting  scales  be 
come  erect,  and  present  a  defensive  armor  against  their  enemies. 
These  animals  are  particularly  remarkable  for  the  strength  and 
number  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  tail,  (forty-seven  in  the  large  spe 
cies.)  By  some  they  are  regarded  as  a  kind  of  link  between 
viviparous  quadrupeds  and  the  Lizards. 

M.  macroura,  (Gr.  long-tailed,)  or  M.  tetradactyla,  (Lat,  four- 
fingered.)  (Linnaeus.) 

This  species,  found  in  Africa,  is  more  than  two  feet  in  length, 
and  the  tail  is  more  than  twice  as  long  as  the  body.  The  broad, 
striated  and  pointed  scales,  cover  the  whole  body,  except  the  un 
der  part ;  the  legs  are  very  short,  and  also  scaled ;  on  each  of  the 
feet  are  four  claws,  those  on  the  fore  feet  being  stronger  than  the 
others.  The  scales  are  of  a  uniformly  deep  brown  color,  with  a 
tinge  of  yellow,  and  a  glossy  surface. 

M.  brachyura,  (Gr.  figa/vs,  brachus,  short;  'oujxi,  oura,  tail,)  or 
M.  penladactyla,  (five-fingered.)  The  SHORT-TAILED  MANIS. 

This  Scaly  Ant-Eater  is  a  native  of  East  India,  where  it  re 
ceives  different  names,  Tiled-Cat,  Land-Carp,  Caballe,  &c.  It 
has  a  much  thicker  and  shorter  tail  than  is  found  in  the  preceding 
species;  the  body  is  stout,  and  shorter  than  the  tail.  Each  of  the 
feet,  as  the  specific  term  pentadactyla  denotes,  has  five  toes ;  those 
on  the  fore  feet,  except  the  outer  one,  which  is  small,  being  very 
strong.  The  scales  differ  in  shape  from  those  of  the  Long-Tailed 
Manis,  and  are  much  larger  and  wider  in  proportion  to  the  body 
and  the  tail ;  they  are  so  impenetrable  that  when  the  animal  rolls 
itself  up,  the  tiger,  panther,  or  hyaena  attempts  to  force  it  in  vain. 
The  middle  claw  of  the  fore  paws,  far  exceeds  the  others  in  its 
proportions,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  destruction  of  the 
nests  of  termites,  or  white  ants,  which  are  a  great  part  of  its  food. 
It  is  said  the  natives  "  have  a  method  of  making  a  hole  in  its  skin 
with  a  knife,  and  thus  of  guiding  and  governing  the  animal  at 
their  pleasure,  the  point  of  the  knife,  which  is  kept  in  the  hole, 
goading  and  irritating  him."  It  is  numerous  in  Ceylon. 

III.  Dasypodidae,  (Gr.  duavg,  dasus,  hairy  ;  novg.  pous,  a  foot.) 
The  ARMADILLOS. 

This  remaining  family  are  arranged  by  Cuvier  into  five  groups. 
They  are  distinguished  by  having  molar  teeth  alone,  and  appear 
to  have  a  place  between  the  Sloths  and  Ant-Eaters,  the  latter 


EDENTATA.  117 

being  without  teeth,  and  the  Sloths,  in  addition  to  the  molars, 
having  large  and  powerful  canines.  Ant-Eaters  differ  from  the 
Sloths  and  Armadillos,  not  only  by  being  without  teeth,  but  also 
by  the  want  of  clavicles,  or  collar  bones.  The  most  prominent 
distinction  of  the  Armadillos,  is  the  peculiar  nature  of  their  ex 
ternal  covering.  This  consists  of  a  bony,  tessellated  crust,  in 
which  their  bodies  are  enveloped ;  the  hips  and  shoulders  being 
covered  by  large,  broad  bucklers,  while  the  intermediate  back  is 
shielded  by  transverse  movable  bands,  similar  in  form  and  ap 
pearance  to  the  plate  armor  of  the  middle  ages.  Hence  the  name 
Armadillos,  (from  Armada,  armed,  and  of  Spanish  origin,)  has 
been  given  to  these  animals.  The  transverse  bands  which  are 
separated  by  narrow  strings  of  membrane,  overlap  each  other,  as 
in  the  ancient  coats  of  mail,  so  as  to  give  greater  freedom,  and 
some  degree  of  lateral  motion.  The  tail,  with  the  exception  o>f 
one  species,  is  covered  with  a  series  of  rings;  the  limbs  are  in 
cased  in  a  hardened,  tuberculous  sort  of  skin,  and  are  very  short 
and  strong;  the  toes  have  strong  claws,  adapted  for  digging  or 
burrowing,  a  process,  which,  in  the  light  sandy  soil  traversed  by 
them,  they  accomplish  with  surprising  celerity.  The  molar 
teeth  with  which  they  are  furnished,  are  never  less  than  twenty- 
six  in  the  whole;  and  in  one  species  amount  to  ninety-eight  I 
those  of  one  jaw  fitting  into  interstices  of  the  other  as  in  the  Dol 
phins.  (See  Plate  IV.  fig.  11.)  The  eyes  are  very  small;  the 
ears  large  ;  the  long  and  slender  tongue,  like  that  of  the  Ant-Eaters 
proper,  is  lubricated  with  a  viscid  saliva,  by  means  of  which  it 
readily  takes  up  ants  and  similar  insects,  upon  which  it  chiefly 
subsists.  It  however,  also  feeds  on  farinaceous  roots,  and  on  car 
rion,  so  that  in  Paraguay,  deceased  persons  who  are  "interred  at  a 
distance  from  the  usual  place  of  sepulture,  are  obliged  to  be  pro 
tected  by  a  lining  of  strong  boards."  In  searching  for  food,  it  is 
guided  chiefly  by  the  sense  of  smell ;  its  sight  is  poor,  but  this  is 
compensated  by  the  acuteness  of  its  hearing.  The  Armadillos 
burrow  with  such  rapidity  that  they  soon  disappear  in  the  earth, 
when  suddenly  surprised.  Their  movement  is  a  sort  of  waddling 
run,  but  rather  rapid,  most  of  them  easily  outstripping  a  man.  In 
captivity,  this  is  kept  up  by  the  hour  together,  and  without  any 
apparent  motive.  The  greater  portion  of  them  are  nocturnal, 
never  moving  abroad  while  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon,  but  re 
maining  concealed  in  their  burrows.  The  female  bears  annually, 
and  frequently  six,  eight,  or  even  ten  at  a  birth.  The  Armadillos 
are  able,  more  or  less  perfectly,  to  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball. 
These  hardy  animals  thrive  and  breed  rapidly,  with  a  moderate 
portion  of  care,  in  most  temperate*  countries,  but  their  proper  hab- 


118  EDENTATA. 

itat  is  the  tropical  and  temperate  portions  of  South  America.  Of 
the  nine  or  ten  species,  we  particularize 

1.  Dasypus  Peba,  or  D.  novemcinctus,  (Lat.  nine-banded.) 
The  PEBA  or  BLACK  TATU.  PI.  VI. 

This  species,  found  in  Paraguay,  Guiana  and  Brazil,  varies  in 
the  numbers  of  its  bands,  so  that  it  is  sometimes  called  D.  octo- 
cinctus,  (Lat.  eight-banded,)  and  D.  septemcinctus,  (Lat.  seven- 
banded.)  Its  length,  from  the  snout  to  the  tail,  is  sixteen  inches ; 
that  of  the  tail  is  fourteen  inches,  and  its  circumference  at  the 
base,  six  inches.  It  is  much  hunted  on  account  of  the  delicacy 
of  its  flesh,  which  when  roasted  in  the  shell,  is  fat  and  well  tasted ; 
said  to  resemble  that  of  a  sucking-pig.  Of  individuals  of  this 
species,  found  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  England,  it  is  re 
marked,  "they  are  fed  on  vegetable  diet,  and  appear  to  be  in  ex. 
cellent  health.  During  the  summer,  they  are  allowed  the  liberty 
of  a  little  paddock,  where,  by  the  singularity  of  their  actions,  they 
attract  a  crowd  of  spectators,  and  come  in  for  a  share  of  the  in 
terest  excited  by  the  gambols  of  their  fellow  countrymen,  the 
Spider  Monkeys."  (Martin's  Quadrupeds.) 

D.  Apar.     The  MATACO. 

The  animals  of  this  species  are  distinguishable  from  all  others 
of  the  genus,  by  "the  faculty  which  they  possess  of  rolling  them 
selves  up  like  a  hedgehog,  into  a  round  ball,  in  which  situation 
they  may  be  tumbled  about,  or  even,  it  is  said,  thrown  over  preci 
pices,  without  receiving  any  material  injury."  They  are,  how 
ever,  less  common  than  some  of  the  other  species. 

D.gigas,  (Lat.  a  giant.)     The  GREAT  ARMADILLO. 

This  species  have  unequal  toes  and  enormous  claws,  but  what 
most  distinguishes  the  animals  of  this  group,  is  their  possession  of 
from  eighty-eight  to  ninety-six  teeth,  a  number  greater  than  is 
found  in  any  other  mammal.  (PI.  VI.  fig.  6.) 

The  Great  Armadillo  is  about  three  and  one-quarter  feet  long, 
from  the  nose  to  the  tail,  which  is  one  foot,  five  inches.  It  is  sep 
arated  from  the  other  species  of  this  genus,  not  only  by  its  supe 
rior  size,  but  by  various  remarkable  characteristics.  Its  head  is 
proportionably  smaller;  the  forehead  more  protuberant;  the  face 
rather  cylindrical  in  form,  like  that  of  the  Peba;  the  ears  are 
not  very  large,  pointed,  and  crouched  backwards;  the  bucklers 
of  the  shoulders  and  croup  have  nine  and  eighteen  rows  of 
plates  respectively,  and  are  separated  by  movable  bands  to  the 
number  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  formed  of  rectangular  scales,  about 
half  an  inch  square.  At  the  root,  the  tail  is  as  much  as  ten  inch 
es  in  circumference,  and  covered  with  ring  plates,  at  the  base, 
and  with  crescent-shaped  lines*throughout  the  rest  of  its  length. 


EDENTATA.  119 

The  claws  are  very  large  and  powerful.  This  animal  confines 
itself  to  the  great  forests,  and  burrows  with  surprising  facility, 
being  assisted  in  this  by  the  strength  of  its  claws.  "Those 
who  are  employed  in  collecting  the  Jesuit's  bark,  frequently  meet 
with  it  in  the  woods,  and  report  that  when  any  of  their  compan 
ions  happen  to  die  at  a  distance  from  the  settlements,  they  are 
obliged  to  surround  the  body  with  a  double  row  of  stout  planks,  to 
prevent  it  from  being  scratched  up  and  devoured  by  the  Great 
Armadillo." 

Chlamyphorus,   (qpo^ew,  phoreo,    I    bear;    xAa^,    chlamus,  a 
cloak.)     The  PICHIAGO. 

This  edentate  animal  seems  to  blend  in  itself  the  characteris 
tics  of  several  distinct  tribes.  Like  the  Armadillos,  it  has  a  tes 
sellated  shield  ;  this,  however,  is  not,  as  in  them,  attached  by  integ 
uments,  to  the  entire  under  surface,  but  is  connected  with  the 
back  only,  by  a  ridge  of  skin  along  the  spine,  and  with  the  skull 
by  two  bony  prominences  from  the  forehead,  the  margins  of  which 
are  beautifully  fringed  with  silky  hair.  Its  feet,  eyes  and  snout, 
exhibit  resemblances  to  the  mole.  From  the  appearance  of  the 
hind  part  of  the  tesselated  shield,  this  animal  has  the  specific 
name  truncatus,  (Lat.  truncated,  or  cut  off.)  Naturalists  have 
designated  resemblances  in  it  to  the  Sloth,  the  Aard-Vark,  the 
Creator  Maned  Ant-Eater,  the  Echidna,  and  the  Ornithorhyncus ; 
and  to  the  Ruminants  and  Pachyderms.  Dr.  Buckland  regards 
it  as  "one  of  the  nearest  approximations  to  the  Megatherium,  par 
ticularly  in  regard  to  its  coat  of  mail,  and  in  the  adaptation  of  the 
animal  for  digging."  Dr.  Harlan  says,  "taken  collectively,  it 
furnishes  us  with  an  example  of  organic  structure,  if  not  unpar 
alleled,  not  surpassed  in  the  history  of  animals."  The  Pichiago 
is  quite  small,  the  total  length  of  the  animal  being  only  five  inches 
and  a  quarter.  "It  is  a  native  of  Chili,  but  is  so  rare  even  there, 
as  to  be  regarded  by  the  natives  as  a  curiosity." 

IV.  Me.gatherida,  (Gr.  jus-yctS)  megas,  great ;  Ortalov,  therion, 
wild  beast.)  FOSSIL  SLOTHS. 

This  is  a  group  of  animals  of  such  gigantic  size,  and  massive 
proportions,  that  even  their  fossil  remains  strike  the  beholder  with 
wonder  and  astonishment.  Of  such  a  character  are  these  re 
mains,  that  we  are  constrained  to  bestow  more  space  upon  them 
than  can  be  given  to  other  fossil  tribes.  These  are  the  MEGATH- 
EROIDS  of  Professor  Owen,  whose  descriptions  of  them  are  ex 
ceedingly  elaborate  and  interesting.  Of  these  fossils,  the.  follow 
ing  genera  have  been  enumerated  by  him,  viz.,  Megatherium, 
Mcgalonyx,  Glossotherium,  Mylodon,  and  Scelidotherium,  all  of 
which  are  found  in  South  America  alone.  Of  the  Megatherium, 


120  EDENTATA. 

nearly  the  whole  skeleton  has  been  considered,  by  comparing 
different  imperfect  specimens,  found  after  three  unusually  dry 
seasons,  in  the  river  Salado,  running  through  alluvial  plains,  to 
the  south  of  Buenos  Ayres.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  not  im 
probable  "suggestion,"  that  the  long  continued  drought  brought 
these  extinct  gigantic  animals  to  a  slender  stream,  running  be 
tween  mud  banks,  and  that  they  may  have  been  "engulphed  in 
their  efforts  to  reach  the  water." 

The  Megatherium  gives  evidence  in  its  remains,  that  it  was 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  Sloths  and  Ant-Eaters,  than  to  the 
Armadillos.  The  skull  is  thought  to  resemble  the  former  two; 
the  rest  of  the  body  was  adapted  partly  to  the  former  and  partly 
to  the  latter.  When  full  grown,  it  is  judged  this  enormous  ani 
mal  must  have  been  not  far  from  eighteen  feet  in  length,  and  nine 
feet  in  height.  (See  fig.  on  the  chart.)  The  thigh  bone  twice 
the  thickness  of  the  largest  elephant's;  the  fore  foot  more  than 
three  feet  in  length,  and  more  than  one  in  width,  and  terminated 
by  an  enormous  claw.  The  width  of  the  upper  part  of  the  tail, 
could  not  have  been  less  than  two  feet.  The  entire  structure  of 
this  extinct  animal,  must  have  been  admirably  adapted  for  digging 
in  the  earth,  so  as  to  enable  it  to  obtain  the  succulent  roots  which 
probably  constituted  the  principal  part  of  its  food.  Dr.  Buckland, 
in  his  "Bridgewater  Treatise,"  says,  "The  size  of  the  Megatherium 
exceeds  that  of  the  existing  Edentata,  to  which  it  is  most  nearly 
allied,  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  fossil  animal  exceeds 
its  living  congeners.  The  entire  frame  must  have  been  an  appa 
ratus  of  colossal  mechanism,  adapted  exactly  to  the  work  it  had 
to  do;  strong  and  ponderous  in  its  proportions,  as  its  work  was 
heavy,  and  calculated  to  be  the  vehicle  of  life  and  enjoyment  to  a 
gigantic  race  of  quadrupeds,  which,  though  they  have  ceased  to 
be  counted  among  the  living  inhabitants  of  our  planet,  have,  in 
their  fossil  bones,  left  behind  them  imperishable  monuments  of  the 
consummate  skill  with  whic'i  they  were  constructed." 

Megalonyx,  (Gr.  [teyus,  megas,  great ;  "oi>v$,  onux,  nail  or  claw.) 
To  the  remains  of  this  animal,  this  name  was  given  on  account 
of  the  size  of  its  claws.  Mr.  Jefferson  described  it  from  some 
bones  found  in  caverns  in  Western  Virginia,  and  considered  it  to 
be  carnivorous.  Ele  supposed  it  the  largest  of  unguiculated  ani 
mals,  and  probably  the  enemy  of  the  Mastodon.  Dr.  Wistar,  of 
Philadelphia,  afterwards  saw  in  the  bones  of  the  fossil  foot,  resem- 
blances-to  those  of  the  Sloth.  Cuvier  showed  that  it  belonged  to 
the  Edentata.  Professor  Owen  reviewed  the  whole  subject,  and 
arranged  the  animal  as  a  distinct  genus. 


EDENTATA.  121 

Glossotherium,  (Gr.  ylwucra,  gldssa,  a  tongue  ;  Or^lov,  tlierion, 
a  wild  beast.) 

Tiiis  genus  is  based  "  on  a  fragment  of  a  cranium  found  in  Mr. 
Damin's  collection,  discovered  in  the  bed  of  the  same  river,  in 
Banda  Oriental,  with  the  skull  of  the  Toxodon."  Reasoning 
from  this  fragment,  Professor  Owen  found  decisive  evidence  that 
the  cranium  was  that  of  an  extinct  Edentate,  and  related  to  the 
genera  Myrmecopliaga  and  Manis. 

Mylodon,  (Gr.  ^uAr],  mul£t  a  grinding  mill;  odovs,  odous,  a 
tooth.) 

This  fossil  Edentate,  according  to  Professor  Owen,  "holds  an 
intermediate  place  between  the  Ai  and  the  Great  Armadillo."  It 
must  have  had  the  size  and  proportions  of  a  Rhinoceros,  but  with 
the  limbs  still  more  massive.  So  great  was  probably  its  muscular 
strength,  it  could  overthrow  trees ;  and  as  it  was  a  leaf-eater,  and 
too  bulky  and  ponderous  for  climbing,  it  could  thus  feast  at  its 
ease,  on  the  abundant  foliage. 

Scelidotherium,  (Gr.  axeA^,  skelis,  a  haunch,  or  thigh ;  tlierion, 
a  wild  beast.) 

This  large  extinct  Edentate  was  allied  to  the  Megatherium,  and 
the  Orycteropus,  Cape  Ant- Eater. 

What  is  the  fifth  Order  of  the  MAMMALS  ?  Why  did  Cuvier  give  this 
name  to  the  animals  of  this  order  ?  Is  it  strictly  applicable  to  all  the  genera? 
To  which  is  it  applicable  ?  Name  the  first  family.  What  is  its  meaning  ? 
Give  the  other  name  of  this  family  and  its  significations.  How  many  genera 
does  it  include  ?  What  are  the  leading  characters  and  habits  of  the  Sloth 
or  Ai?  What  gives  them  a  firm  hold  on  the  branches  of  trees ?  Do  they 
ever  leave  them  ?  On  what  part  do  they  rest  ?  What  is  said  of  their  sleep 
during  captivity  ?  What  is  said  of  the  habits  of  the  Unau  and  other  tropical 
Sloths?  Where  are  they  all  found?  Give  the  name  of  the  second  family. 
What  is  its  derivation  ?  How  are  the  ANT-EATERS  distinguished  ?  What 
peculiarly  separates  them  from  Pangolins  ?  What  is  said  of  their  jaws, 
phalanges  (small  bones  of  the  fingers  and  toes,)  and  toes?  Are  the  toes 
capable  of  separate  motion  ?  How  do  they  walk  ?  Describe  the  tongue 
and  its  uses.  What  is  said  of  the  other  parts  of  the  animal?  How  many 
species  of  the  ANT-EATERS  PROPER  are  named?  What  is  said  of  the  size  of 
the  animal?  How  many  toes  has  it?  Why  is  it  sometimes  called  Ant- 
Bear?  Why  Jubata  or  crested?  What  more  is  said  of  it?  What  is  said 
of  the  size  of  the  Tamandua  ?  In  what  respect  does  it  differ  from  the  Great- 
Ant-Eater  ?  How  is  the  Little  or  Two-  Toed  Ant- Eater  distinguished,  and  in 
what  particular  respect  or  feature  does  it  differ  from  the  other  two  spe 
cies?  Where  is  the  Aard-Vark  or  Earth-Hog  found?  What  animals  does 
it  resemble  ?  What  is  its  size  ?  Does  its  tongue  differ  from  that  of  the  A. 
E.  Proper?  Why  was  the  name  Pangolin  given  to  the  Scaly  Ant-Eaters? 
To  what  region  is  it  confined?  How  does  it  resemble  the  Hairy  Ant-Eaters, 
and  how  differ  from  them  ?  For  what  are  these  animals  particularly  remark 
able  ?  Where  is  the  Long-tailed  species  found  ?  What  is  said  of  the  scales  ? 
Where  is  the  Short-tailed  species  found?  What  names  has  it  received? 

6 


123  RODENTIA. 

How  does  it  differ  from  the  Long-tailed  species?  What  more  is  said  of  it? 
What  is  the  name  of  the  Third  Family?  How  does  Cuvier  arrange  it? 
Has  it  teeth  ?  What  is  the  chief  distinction  of  the  Armadillos  ?  Describe 
them.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  ?  What  is  said  of  the  tail  ?  How 
doe?  the  number  of  the  teeth  vary  ?  How  do  they  resemble  those  of  the 
Dolphin?  What  further  is  said  of  these  animals?  Where  is  the  Peba 
found?  How  long  is  it?  On  what  account  is  it  hunted?  What  is  said  of 
animals  of  this  species  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  England  ?  What  dis 
tinguishes  the  Mataco  from  all  others  of  the  genus  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
toes  and  claws  of  the  Great  Armadillo  ?  What  is  its  size  ?  How  is  it 
separated  from  the  other  species  ?  What  is  reported  by  the  collectors  of  the 
Jesuits'  bark  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  Chlamyphorus  ?  What  does  Dr. 
Harlan  remark  ?  What  is  its  size  ? 

What  is  the  Fourth  Family  ?  What  is  said  of  the  size  and  proportions  of 
these  animals  ?  What  of  their  fossil  remains  ?  How  many  species  does 
Prof.  Owen  name  ?  How  has  the  structure  of  this  animal  been  made  out  ? 
What  suggestion  has  been  made  respecting  it  ?  To  what  animals  were  they 
most  nearly  allied  ?  What  is  said  of  their  size  ?  What  of  its  fore  feet  and 
tail  ?  For  what  was  it  adapted  ?  Give  the  quotation  from  Dr.  Buckland. 
Define  the  term  Megalonyx.  Why  was  this  name  given  ?  State  Jefferson's 
views  of  this  animal.  What  did  Cuvier  show  ?  Who  arranged  it  as  a  dis 
tinct  genus?  What  is  the  import  of  the  term  Glossotherium  ?  Upon  what 
was  this  genus  based  ?  How  did  Prof.  Owen  determine  their  relation  to  Ant- 
Eaters  ?  Explain  the  term  Mylodon.  What  place  does  Prof.  Owen  assign  it  ? 
What  is  said  of  its  size  ?  Define  the  term  Scelidotherium.  To  what  does 
it  relate? 


What  is  said  of  the  MEGATHERIUM  on  the  chart  ?  Give  its  dimensions  and 
trace  it  from  its  position  among  the  Sloth  Family,  BRADYPIDAE,  through  all 
its  grades.  Trace  the  Armadillo  in  the  same  way. 

SECTION  XIX. 
SIXTH  ORDER. — RODENTIA.     (Lat.  rodo,  to  gnaw.) 

RODENTS  or  GNAWERS.  The  GLIRES  of  Linnaeus. 
The  animals  of  this  order  may  be  at  once  known  by  their  hav 
ing,  for  the  most  part,  two  incisors  or  front  teeth  in  each  jaw, 
remote  from  the  back  teeth  or  grinders;  (the  Hare  family  have 
two,  four,  and  sometimes  six  in  the  upper  jaw.)  There  are  no 
canine  teeth,  but  a  vacant  space  appears  between  the  front  and 
back  teeth.  The  greatest  number  of  cheek  teeth  is  twenty-two. 
The  incisors  have  no  roots,  but  are  deeply  inserted  in  their  sock 
ets.  The  enamel  of  the  front  side  being  more  durable  than  the 
other  bony  matter  of  the  teeth,  always  preserves  their  chisel- 
like  edge.  The  jaws  are  so  articulated  that  the  lower  jaw,  (be 
sides  opening  and  shutting.)  simply  moves  backwards  and  for 
wards,  or  horizontally ;  so  that  the  front  teeth  serve  to  file  down, 
or  reduce  to  fine  particles,  the  hard  substances  which  are  brought 


RODENTIA.  123 

under  their  action.  To  meet  the  wear  of  the  enamel  and  other 
parts,  the  teeth  constantly  grow  in  a  ratio  corresponding  with  the 
decrease  or  wear.  Should  one  tooth  be  lost  by  accident,  or  dis 
placed,  the  counter  one  of  the  opposite  jaw  becomes  enormously 
long,  so  as  to  impede  its  feeding,  as  is  seen  in  rabbits.  The  mo 
lar  teeth  have  flat  surfaces,  with  ridges  of  enamel  running  trans 
versely  across,  so  as  to  be  opposed  to  the  horizontal  movement  of 
the  jaw,  and  thus  more  readily  grind  their  food.  The  entire 
dental  arrangement  evinces  admirable  beauty  and  simplicity  of 
design. 

The  Rodentia,  according  to  De  Kay,  include  not  far  from  300 
species,  spread  over  the  globe,  (except  Australia,)  of  which 
seventy  are  found  in  North  America.  They  are  generally  inof 
fensive,  being  of  a  gentle  and  timid  disposition,  and  trusting  for 
protection  to  flight  or  concealment ;  seldom  more  than  of  a  mod 
erate  size,  while  a  portion  of  them  are  the  smallest  of  the  mam 
mals.  Of  these  last  the  Harvest  Mouse  is  an  example  ;  the  lar 
gest  Rodents  are  .the  Beaver,  Capybara,  and  Porcupine.  The 
Rodents  feed  upon  the  harder  sort  of  vegetable  matter,  as 
nuts,  grain,  roots,  twigs,  etc.,  (except  rats  and  mice,  which  are 
omnivorous,  eating  anything  that  comes  in  their  way,  as  most 
house-keepers  know  to  their  sorrow.)  The  Rodents  have  gener 
ally  six  or  eight  young  at  a  birth,  and  this  two,  three,  and  even 
four  times  in  a  year.  They  are,  however,  kept  from  overrun 
ning  the  earth  by  the  rapacity  of  beasts  and  birds  that  live  upon 
them. 

Many  are  remarkable  for  their  soft  and  beautiful  fur.  The 
Beaver,  Chinchilla  and  Grey  Squirrel  are  valuable  in  commerce. 
Some  of  them,  as  the  squirrel  and  dormouse,  use  the  fore  paws 
to  convey  food  to  the  mouth,  to  hold  an  object,  and  to  climb. 
The  form  of  the  body  is  usually  more  or  less  conical,  the  chest 
and  shoulders  being  small,  whilst  the  loins  and  haunches  are 
robust  and  muscular;  the  hinder  limbs  are  longer  than  the  fore 
i>nes,  whence  their  movement  is  that  of  leaping  or  hopping 
along.  "Most  of  them  are  nocturnal  or  crepuscular  in  their 
habits;  many  dwell  in  burrows  ;  some  conceal  themselves  amidst 
herbage,  some  among  the  foliage  of  trees,  and  some  build  for 
themselves  habitations  which  have  ex'cited  the  interest  and  admi 
ration  of  men."  (Pict.  Museum.) 

We  arrange  the  nutnerous  animals  of  this  order  into  eight  fam 
ilies,  viz.  :  1.  SCITTRID^E,  (Squirrels,)  2.  ARCTOMYDJE,  (Marmots;) 
3.  GERBILLIDJE,  (Jerboas;)  4.  CASTORIDJE,  (Beavers;)  5.  HYS- 
(Porcupines;)  6.  MURID^E,  (Rats  and  Mice;)  7.  CAVI- 
(Cavies  ;)  8.  LEPORID^E,  (Hares  )  Our  limits  will  not 


l'2l  RODENTIA. 

allow  us  to  do  more  than  to  give  brief  accounts  of  some  of  the 
principal  genera  and  species. 

T.  Family  Sciuridse,  (Lat.  Sciurus,  a  squirrel,)  SQUIRRELS. 

This  includes  between  sixty  and  seventy  species.  Audubon 
says  about  twenty  well  determined  species  are  found  in  North 
America.  They  are  arranged  into  two  groups,  viz.  :  I.  Squir 
rels  with  free  limbs;  II.  Squirrels  with  their  limbs  invested  in 
the  skin  at  the  sides.  These  are  not  only  the  most  elegant  and 
sprightly,  but  the  most  numerous  and  widely  scattered  of  the 
Rodents.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  simple  grinders,  hav 
ing  tuberculous  summits,  and  the  lower  front  teeth  paired  and 
much  compressed  at  the  sides.  The  toes  are  long  and  accompa 
nied  with  sharp  and  hooked  claws,  and  the  rudiments  of  a  thumb. 
There  are  four  claws  on  each  fore  foot  and  five  on  the  hind.  The 
full  development  of  the  collar  bones,  (clavicles,)  gives  them 
much  facility  in  using  their  paws  as  hands.  In  eating,  the  squir 
rels  usually  sit  upon  their  haunches,  and  holding  the  food  be 
tween  the  rudimentary  thumbs  of  both  paws,  nibble  it  away  un 
til  the  whole  is  consumed.  The  head  is  proportionably  rather 
large  ;  the  eyes  full  and  prominent  ;  the  tail  long,  with  the  fur 
disposed  on  its  sides  like  a  feather  ;  the  ears  in  many  species 
are  tipped  with  a  pencil  of  hairs.  These  animals  are  easily 
tamed,  and  from  their  playful  and  graceful  manners,  often  be 
come  great  pets.  Most  of  the  species  resort  to  trees,  but  the 
Ground  Squirrel,  (Tamiasor  S.  striatus,}  burrows  in  the  ground. 
The  generic  name,  Sciurus,  or  Shadow-tail,  is  derived  from  Gr. 
o-xJa,  (skia,}  a  shade,  and  OVQU,  (oura)  a  tail.  Of  this  name  the 
English  term  squirrel  is  a  corruption ;  it  refers  to  the  fact  that 
when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  its  long  and  bushy  tail  is  turned  over 
the  back  and  shades  it. 

I.  GROUP. 

S.  vulgaris,  COMMON  RED  SQUIRREL.  This  graceful  and  ac 
tive  little  animal  is  generally  about  fifteen  inches  long  from  the 
nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  having  the  ears  terminated  by  long 
tufts  of  hair  ;  the  color  of  the  head,  body,  tail  and  legs  of  a 
bright  reddish  brown  ;  the  belly  and  the  breast  white  ;  the  eyes 
large,  black  and  sparkling  ;  the  fore  feet  strong,  sharp  and  well 
adapted  to  hold  its  food  ;  the  legs  short  and  muscular  ;  the  toes 
long  and  the  nails  sharp  and  strong  ;  the  lip  is  cleft ;  the  fur 
short  and  silky.  It  lives  in  pairs,  constructing  in  the  hollow  of 
a  tree,  or  in  the  fork  between  two  branches,  a  water-proof  nest 
of  curiously  interwoven  moss,  twigs  and  dry  leaves.  In  May 


RODENTIA.  125 

or  June  it  commences  to  rear  a  young  family,  usually  four  or 
five  in  number.  In  the  fall  of  the  year  it  carefully  hoards  up 
its  winter  stores,  which  are  concealed  in  holes  and  crevices  of 
trees  not  far  from  its  retreat.  In  Sweden  and  Lapland,  the  color 
of  the  Common  Squirrel  becomes  gray  in  the  winter  season  ;  in 
Siberia  it  is  often  seen  entirely  white ;  in  other  regions  slight  va 
riations  of  color  are  also  noticed. 

In  the  varieties  found  on  this  continent,  the  pencil  of  hairs 
which  tufts  the  Common  Red  Squirrel  is  wanting.  The  Gray 
Squirrel,  (S.  Carolinensis,  or  S.  migratorius,  Lat.  migratory,) 
is  one  of  the  most  common  American  species,  found  along  the 
Atlantic,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Carolina.  Of  this  De  Kay  enu 
merates  five  varieties.  It  is  about  the  same  length  as  the  Com 
mon  Squirrel,  (15  inches.)  One  of  the  most  remarkable  pecul 
iarities  of  this  species  is  a  propensity  to  distant  emigration  in 
large  numbers. 

The  Northern  Migratory  or  Gray  Squirrels  are  as  much  dreaded 
by  the  farmers  of  the  West,  as  the  devouring  locust  by  the  East 
ern  nations.  Everything  suited  to  their  taste  vanishes  before 
them,  and  no  obstacle  can  withstand  their  progress.  It  is  be- 
lieved  by  many  that  they  pass  rivers  seated  on  a  piece  of  bark 
brought  by  them  for  the  purpose,  and  their  tails  hoisted  for  a 
sail.  Audubon  saw  troops  of  squirrels  cross  the  Hudson  river 
at  different  places  between  Waterford  and  Saratoga,  in  the  au 
tumn  of  1808  or  1809,  but  said  they  appeared  to  him  unskillful 
sailors  and  clumsy  swimmers. 

£  vulpinus,  (Lat.  vulpes,  fox.)  The  Fox-SquiRREL  abounds 
in  the  pine  forests  of  the  Southern  States,  feeding  upon  the  seeds 
of  the  cones  of  the  long-leaved  pitch  pine,  (pinus  palustris, 
Lat.  marshy,)  acorns  and  other  nuts.  It  makes  long  journeys 
to  visit  corn  fields  when  the  corn  is  in  the  milky  state,  and 
often  erects  a  temporary  summer  house  in  their  vicinity. 

<S.  Palmarum,  (Lat.  of  palms.)  The  Palm-Squirrel,  usually 
seen  frisking  about  palm  trees,  is  said  to  be  remarkably  fond  of 
palm  wine.  They  are  often  taken  to  England  alive. 

S.  lilineatus,  (Lat.  marked  with  double  lines.)  The  Plantain  - 
Squirrel,  kept  by  the  Javanese  as  a  pet ;  the  tail  trails  gracefully 
upon  the  ground ;  when  angry  it  bristles  up  like  an  irritated  cat ; 
when  asleep,  rolls  itself  up  like  a  dormouse,  with  its  tail  encir 
cling  its  body. 

S.  niger,  (Lat.  black.)  The  Black  Squirrel  of  a  glossy  black 
with  a  lighter  shade  beneath;  claws  covered  with  hair;  the 
hind  legs  have  a  few  scattering  hairs ;  the  fur  is  softer  and  finer 
than  that  of  the  little  Gray  Squirrel,  before  which  this  species  is 


120  RODENTIA. 

said  to  be  disappearing.  The  flesh  of  both  these  species  tastes 
like  that  of  a  rabbit,  but  is  more  juicy ;  it  is  nice  broiled,  and 
makes  excellent  meat  pies. 

S.  macrourus,  (Gr.  makros,  long,  oura,  tail.)  The  Long-tailed 
Squirrel,  of  Missouri,  is  22  inches  long,  the  tail  equaling  in 
length  both  the  body  and  head. 

S.  quadrivittatus,  (Lat.  four-striped.)  The  Four-Striped 
Ground  Squirrel  is  a  very  beautiful  species  found  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

S.  striatus,  (Lat.  streaked.  Tamias  of  Illiger.)  The  Striped 
or  Ground  Squirrel  is  characterized  by  its  reddish  brown  color, 
a  black  stripe  upon  the  back,  and  a  shorter  light  colored  stripe 
bordered  with  black  upon  the  sides ;  by  having  the  body  shorter 
and  more  robust  for  its  size  than  that  of  the  Red  Squirrel,  and 
eight  instead  of  ten  molars  in  the  upper  jaw.  It  is  also  known 
under  the  names  Chipping  Squirrel,  and  Chipmuck.  Usually  it 
is  seen  running  along  fences;  it  is  particularly  fond  of  stooe 
walls,  which  afford  this  animal  a  ready  retreat.  Under  these  it 
burrows  and  stores  its  winter  food.  Sometimes  it  makes  its  home 
in  the  center  of  a.  decayed  stump.  It  does  not  ascend  trees  ex 
cept  when  its  retreat  is  cut  off  from  its  hiding  place.  The  range 
of  this  squirrel  on  this  continent  is  from  33o  to  50o  N.  L. 

II.  GROUP. 

Pteromys,  (Gr.  7rtEQov,pteron,  wing;  /uvs,  mus,  winged- mouse.) 
FLYING  SQUIRREL.  This  genus  comprehends  ten  or  more  species 
found  on  this  continent,  in  Northern  Europe  and  in  Java.  Some 
of  them  are  nocturnal.  These  squirrels  are  distinguished  by  a 
membrane  adhering  to  the  sides,  extending  from  limb  to  limb,  so 
as  to  form  a  parachute,  by  the  agency  of  which  they  can  throw 
themselves  from  tree  to  tree  to  a  great  distance,  and  sustain  a  short 
flight.  In  the  sailing  movement,  they  are  aided,  and  perhaps  in 
part  guided  by  their  broadly  expanded  tail.  The  species  of 
Northern  Europe,  (P.  volans,  Lat.  flying,)  is  about  the  size  of  a 
large  rat,  and  of  a  gray  color.  P.  volucella,  (Lat.  dim.  of  volu- 
cer,  flying.)  The  Small  American  Flying  Squirrel  has  only  a 
rudimentary  membrane.  The  loose  skin  stretches  foiward  by 
his  fore  legs,  and  backward  by  his  hind  legs  as  he  springs,  so  as 
to  buoy  him  up  and  enable  him  to  leap  a  long  distance  at  one 
bound.  This  squirrel  is  about  ten  inches  long,  including  the  tail ; 
the  fur  of  a  brownish  ash,  tinged  with  cream  color,  very  fine,  soft 
and  silky.  It  is  found  in  all  the  Atlantic  States  and  in  Canada 
West.  In  Canada  East  it  is  replaced  by  a  species,  (P.  sabrinus,} 


RODENTIA.  127 

one  third  larger  than  P.  volucella.     P.  alpinus,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  is  still  larger. 

II.  Arclomydae,  (Gr.  UQXTOS,  arktos,  bear ;  fj-vg,  mus,  mouse.) 
MARMOTS. 

This  family  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Squirrels,  among  which 
Svvainson  places  them.  Sometimes  they  have  been  arranged 
with  the  RATS.  They  have  a  large  and  somewhat  flattened 
head,  ten  molars  above  and  eight  below,  heavy  body,  short  bushy 
tail  and  short  limbs.  Some  of  the  species  have  cheek  pouches. 
They  live  in  communities  and  all  burrow  and  hybernate. 

Spermophilus,  MARMOT  SQUIRRELS,  sometimes  ranked  as  a 
sub-genus,  (Gr.  aneoua,  sperma,  seed  ;  and  cpdog,  philos,  lover.) 

This  includes  animals  so  named  by  Cuvier  from  their  fondness 
for  seed,  and  furnished  with  cheek  pouches.  Of  them  there  are 
several  species.  One  of  these  is  S.  ludovicianus,  (Lat.  ludo,  to 
sport  or  frisk ;  vicinia,  vicinity  or  neighborhood,)  so  named  be 
cause  living  and  sporting  together  in  large  communities.  This 
is  the  Prairie  Dog  of  Missouri  and  California,  an  appellation 
which  Audubon  says  was  probably  given  to  the  animal  from  its 
yelp, — "  c/izp,  chip,  chip  •  "  it  is  not  like  a  dog  in  its  form.  The 
numbers  of  these  animals  are  very  great ;  they  sit  on  their  little 
mounds  at  the  entrances  of  their  burrows,  "chirping  and  chatter 
ing  to  one  another  like  two  neighboring  gossips  in  a  village." — 
(Hon.  C.  A.  Murray.) 

Arctomys,  MARMOT.  Of  this  genus  there  are  also  several  spe 
cies,  which  have  the  form,  teeth,  and  habits  of  the  preceding, 
but  only  rudimentary  cheek  pouches.  A.  alpinus,  the  ALPINE 
MARMOT  is  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  of  a  grayish  yellow  color, 
approaching  to  a  brown  towards  the  head  ;  inhabits  the  mountains 
of  Europe,  particularly  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  just  below  the  re 
gion  of  perpetual  snow,  and  feeds  on  insects,  roots  and  vegeta 
bles.  Living  in  societies,  these  animals  post  a  sentinel  that  gives 
a  shrill  whistle  if  danger  approaches,  when  they  retire  for  safety 
into  their  ingeniously  contrived  burrows. 

A.  monax.  WOODCHUCK,  GROUND  HOG,  or  MARYLAND  MAR 
MOT.  This,  when  full  grown,  is  of  a  reddish  gray  color  and 
about  as  large  as  a  rabbit ;  the  young  are  reddish  or  of  a  uni 
form  black  ;  its  wool  is  intermixed  with  long  coarse  hair ;  it  has 
short  ears  and  cheek  pouches ;  the  length  is  a  little  more  than 
two  feet,  though  in  this  respect  as  well  as  color,  it  greatly  va 
ries.  The  range  of  this  marmot  extends  from  Maine  to  California. 
It  dwells  in  subterranean  abodes,  which  are  partitioned  into  cham 
bers,  feeds  on  clover  and  esculents,  is  easily  tamed,  and  very 
neat  and  cleanly  in  its  habits.  In  some  places  it  selects  forests 


128  RODENTIA. 

of  pine,  in  others  cleared  lands  and  old  pastures  for  its  residence. 
The  Woodchuck  is  awkward  and  slow  in  its  movements;  its 
safety  is  found  in  its  extreme  watchfulness  and  sharpness  of 
hearing.  When  at  all  alarmed,  it  flies  to  its  deep  and  long  bur 
rows,  "thirty  or  forty  of  which  have  been  seen  in  a  field  of  five 
acres."  To  these  its  dilated  cheeks  carry  its  winter  stores.  Its 
fondness  for  clover  often  renders  it  an  annoyance  to  the  farmer. 

3d.  GERBILLIDAE,  or  DIPODIDAE,  JERBOAS. 

This  family  of  the  Rodents,  sometimes  called  Jumping  Mice, 
are  apparently  formed  to  live  on  prairies  and  sandy  deserts. 
They  have  very  short  fore  feet,  and  the  hind  ones  very  long, 
beinsj  Kangaroos  in  miniature;  the  tail  is  generally  longer  than 
the  body,  and  used  in  leaping  or  walking ;  (Plate  V.  fig.  2.)  the 
forefeet  are  employed  in  conveying  food  to  the  mouth,  and 
seem  of  little  or  no  use  as  organs  of  progression  ;  the  fur  is  soft; 
there  are  two  cutting  teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  grinders  simple  or 
compounded,  six  or  eight  beneath  ;  parts  of  the  internal  structure 
are  bird-like.  As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Herodotus,  these  Ro 
dents  are  alluded  to  as  inhabiting  Africa. 

Dipus,  (Gr.  dig,  dis,  two;  nov±,pous,  foot.) 

The  animals  of  this  genus  have  compound  molars,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  an  intermediate  link  between  the  Squirrel  and  the 
Rat;  but  are  more  like  the  forme.r  than  the  latter.  The  fore  legs 
are  very  short,  and  scarcely  used  in  walking;  the  enormous  hind 
legs  and  tail  at  once  remind  the  beholder  of  the  Kangaroo. 
When  first  seen,  the  animal  seems  supported  in  its  rapid  bounds 
by  only  two  long  legs;  whence  the  name  Dipus,  two-footed.  At 
a  single  bound,  it  moves  four  or  five  yards,  and  sometimes  more ; 
it  feeds,  sitting  upon  its  haunches,  like  the  Squirrel  ;  is  found 
abundantly  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  the  north  of  Africa.  The  most 
common  species  is  D.  sagitt.a,  (Lat.  arrow,)  the  Gerbo,  or  Egyp 
tian  Jerboa,  about  the  size  of  a  large  rat,  living  in  large  societies, 
and  constructing  burrows  under  ground. 

Mbriones.  (Gr.  MQiov,meridn,  a  thigh.)  The  animals  of  this 
genus  are  small,  with  long,  slender,  and  nearly  naked  tails ;  they 
have  six  composite  molars  beneath;  their  fore  feet  have  a  rudi 
mentary  thumb,  with  a  small  nail.  They  hybernate,  and  are 
nocturnal. 

M.  Americanus,  or  Gerbillus  Canadensis.  The  Deer  Mouse ; 
Jumping  Mouse.  This  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  mouse, 
and  of  a  reddish  brown  color;  has  very  short  fore  legs,  long  hind 
ones,  and  a  scaly,  rat-like  tail.  It  leaps  ten  or  twelve  feet  at  a 
time ;  is  found  in  Canada  and  farther  north,  and  as  far  south  as 
Pennsylvania,  in  fields  of  grass  and  grain.  (PI.  V-  fig.  2  ) 


PI.Y 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  V. 

ORDER  RODENTIA,  FAMILY  MURID^E,  (Mice.) 
Jerboas,  or  Jumping  Mice. 

1.  Jumping  Hare,  Cape  Jerboa,  or  Grand  Jerboa,  Pedetes  Capensis,  in  the 

position  in  which  it  eats,  using  its  small  fore  feet  to  bring  the  food  to 
its  mouth.  With  these  feet  it  digs  its  burrow  so  expeditiously  as 
quickly  to  hide  itself;  the  hind  legs  are  proportionally  longer  than  in 
any  other  known  quadruped.  The  tail  is  a  most  efficient  organ;  if 
deprived  of  it  they  can  neither  leap  nor  sit  upright. 

2.  Labrador  Jumping  Mouse,  Meriones  Labrador ius.     a,  animal  sitting;  b, 

jumping. 

3.  Pouched-Rat,  or  Sand-Rat,  Geomys,  or  Pseudostoma  (false  mouth,)  burs- 

arius,  (of  skin.)  The  cheek  pouches  much  resemble  the  thumb  of  a 
lady's  glove  in  form  and  size,  and  hang  down  by  the  sides  of  the  head. 
In  the  Canada  Pouched  Rat,  or  Missouri  Gauffre,  or  Gopher,  they  are 
like  pockets,  extending  from  the  sides  of  the  mouth  to  the  shoulders, 
lined  with  short,  soft  hairs,  and  opening  on  the  outside  of  the  mouth. 

4.  Woodchuck,  Ground-Hog,  or  Maryland  Marmot,  Arctomys  monax. 

FAMILY  LEPORID.E,  (Hares.) 

5.  Common  Hare,  Lepus  iimidus,  showing  its  long  ears  for  collecting  and 

conveying  sounds,  like  an  ear  trumpet. 

FAMILY  CHINCHILLID^E,  (Chinchillas.) 

6.  Chinchilla,  Chinchilla  lanigera,  a  woolly  field  mouse  of  S.  America.     It 

feeds  in  a  sitting  posture,  conveying  its  food  with  its  fore  paws. 

ORDER  MARSUPIALIA,  FAMILY  DIDELPHID.E,  (Opossums.) 

7.  Virginia    Opossum,  Didelphis    Virginiana,  showing  the  retreat  of  the 

young  when  threatened  with  danger,  and  the  use  they  make  of  their 
prehensile  tails. 


132  RODENTIA. 


Helamys,  (Gr.  Allo^at,,  allomai,  to  leap;  fivg,  mm,  mouse;)  or 
Pedestes,  (Illiger,)  (Lat.  Pes,  a  foot;  sto,  to  stand.) 

The  animals  of  this  genus  have  eight  molar  teeth  beneath  ;  the 
front  legs  are  quite  short;  the  hind  ones  very  long,  and  both  armed 
with  exceeding  long  claws  ;  the  tail  is  Long  and  very  bushy.  This 
includes  the  P.Capensis,  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  largest  of 
the  Jerboas;  (length  from  nose  to  tail,  about  fourteen  inches;  of 
the  tail,  nearly  fifteen  inches;)  which  leaps  from  twenty  to  thirty 
feet  at  a  bound,  and  sleeps  in  a  sitting  posture,  placing  the  head 
between  the  legs,  and  holding  its  ears  over  its  eyes,  with  its  fore 
legs.  It  is  a  very  strong  and  rapidly  burrowing  animal.  (Plate 
V.  fig.  1.) 

Myoxus,  (Gr.  /LIVO$OS,  muoxos,  a  Dormouse.) 

The  DORMOUSE  is  intermediate  between  the  Squirrels  and 
Mice  ;  is  found  in  temperate  and  warm  countries,  and  lives  en 
tirely  on  vegetable  food.  It  has  the  two  cutting  teeth  of  the  fam 
ily,  in  each  jaw,  and  the  grinders  simple,  with  divided  roots;  four 
toes  before,  and  five  behind,  (the  reverse  of  the  preceding  genus;) 
and  naked  ears.  When  in  its  winter  retreat,  this  animal  rolls 
itself  up,  and  becomes  torpid,  occasionally  rousing  itself  and  par 
taking  of  its  stores  of  food.  Of  this  genus  there  are  several  spe 
cies.  M.  aveUanarius,  (Lat.  avellana,  a  filbert,)  is  the  Common 
Dormouse,  about  as  large  as  a  common  Mouse,  but  more  plump, 
with  a  less  sharp  nose,  and  large  black  eyes  ;  its  color  is  a  tawny 
red  ;  the  fur  remafkably  soft. 

Chinchilla.  This  genus  is  regarded  as  a  connecting  link  be 
tween  the  Hares  and  Jerboas.  C.  lanigera,  (wool-bearing,)  is 
found  in  the  valleys  along  the  line  of  the  Andes  ;  inhabiting  re 
gions  where  the  temperature  is  below  a  moderate  degree.  It 
lives  in  companies,  making  burrows  in  the  earth.  Its  food  is  en 
tirely  vegetable,  and  principally  consists  of  bulbous  roots.  The 
Chinchilla  has  an  exquisitely  fine  downy  fur.  The  Creator  has 
thus  protected  it  against  severe  frosts.  The  length  of  the  fur  well 
adapts  it  for  spinning  ;  and  the  ancient  Peruvians  manufactured 
it  into  stuffs  as  articles  of  clothing.  Numbers  of  these  animals 
are  annually  destroyed  for  the  sake  of  their  skins.  In  size  and 
appearance,  they  are  like  young  rabbits;  but  the  tail,  like  that 
of  the  squirrel,  is  usually  held  turned  up  over  the  back,  and  the 
ears,  though  long,  are  naked,  broad,  round  and  open.  The  color 
of  the  fur  varies  in  depth,  in  different  individuals;  is  of  a  dark, 
clear  gray,  lighter  beneath.  The  Chinchilla  is  mild  and  inoffen 
sive,  but  does  not,  in  captivity,  exhibit  mucfi  sprightliness,  or  in 
telligence.  Its  length  is  about  nine  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  measures  about  five.  (Plate  V.  fig.  6.) 


RODENTIA.  133 

4th.  The  BEAVER  FAMILY. 

Castoridae,  (Gr.  xdarow,  kastor,  a  Beaver.) 

The  animals  of  this  family  have  bodies  covered  with  two  sets 
of  hair,  viz.,  fine  and  soft,  down,  and  long  and  rather  rigid  hairs. 
The  tail  is  flattened  and  covered  with  rounded  or  hexagonal 
scales.  The  hind  feet  are  the  longest ;  the  ears  short.  In  hab 
its,  these  animals  are  aquatic  and  social.  Some  species  have 
webbed  feet,  and  all  a  musky  smell.  The  range  of  these  animals 
on  this  continent  is  more  limited  than  in  former  periods,  when  it 
extended  from  680  to  30o.  N.  L.  They  are  still  common  on  the 
Euphrates,  and  along  some  of  the  larger  European  rivers,  as  the 
Rhone  and  the  Danube.  In  England,  they  have  not  been  seen 
since  1188. 

Castor  fiber,  (Lat.  Beaver.)  The  beaver  is  of  a  yellowish 
brown  color,  and  from  two  to  three  feet  long;  it  has  four  incisor 
teeth  in  both  jaws;  no  canines,  and  sixteen  molar  teeth.  The 
toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  webbed.  It  has  also  a  glandulous  follicle 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  producing  an  article  called  castor, 
(not  castor  oil,)  and  which  is  used  in  medicine.  The  flattened 
and  scaly  tail,  it  uses  as  a  kind  of  paddle.  By  this,  it  is  enabled, 
when  loaded  with  a  mass  of  timber,  to  stem  a  rapid  current ;  and 
by  making  strokes  up  and  down  with  its  tail,  it  can  dive  or  rise 
with  great  celerity :  tradition  says,  but  untruly,  that  the  Beaver 
uses  its  tail  in  plastering  its  habitation.  It  moves  more  easily  in 
water  than  on  land ;  the  eye  is  small,  better  suited  to  twilight 
than  the  glare  of  the  sun.  The  external  openings  of  the  ear  and 
of  the  nostrils  are  capable  of  being  closed,  which  is  a  divine  pro- 
vision  suited  to  its  diving  habits,  and  its  continuance  under  water. 
The  Beaver's  great  incisor  t^eth  are  his  only  tools ;  and  most 
effective  they  are,  for  with  them  "  he  can  divide  a  common  sized 
walking  stick  at  a  bite,  as  cleanly  as  if  severed  with  a  knife.'* 
In  doing  his  work,  he  goes  up  the  stream  from  the  site  which  he 
has  chosen  for  his  dwelling,  so  as  to  have  the  advantage  of  the  cur 
rent.  Summer  is  the  season  ;  night  the  time  of  his  labors.  The 
skill,  perseverance  and  toil  which  he  exhibits  in  constructing  his 
habitation,  and  storing  it  with  food,  have  given  to  this  animal 
great  celebrity.  In  this,  its  instinct  begins  and  ends ;  in  other 
respects,  it  is  very  stupid,  not  comparing  well  with  the  Dog,  Ele 
phant  and  other  quadrupeds.  The  fur  of  the  Beaver  is  highly 
valued,  especially  for  the  manufacture  of  hats;  and  is  an  article 
of  extended  commerce.  In  one  year,  (1808.)  Quebec  alone  ex-' 
ported  nearly  127,000  furs,  worth  eighteen  shillings  sterling, 
each.  C.  fiber,  (Americanus.)  is  a  variety  of  this  animal. 

Fiber,  (Illig^r.)     Th.3  animals  of  this  genus  hava  long,  nar- 


134  RODENTIA. 

row,  and  somewhat  flattened  tails ;  twelve  molar  teeth ;  and  the 
toes  of  the  hind  feet  partially  webbed.  The  species  F.  Zibethi.cus, 
is  the  MusK-RAT,  called  in  Canada,  MUSQUASH  ;  about  the  size 
of  a  small  rabbit,  and  of  a  reddish  brown  color  ;  sometimes  black, 
or  black  and  white.  This  animal  has  four  strong  cutting  teeth, 
of  which  those  in  the  under  jaw  are  nearly  an  inch  long  ;  in  in 
stincts  and  disposition,  it  is  similar  to  the  Beaver.  It  receives  its 
name  from  its  strong  musky  odor,  deposited  in  glands,  near  the 
origin  of  the  tail.  Its  length  varies  considerably,  but  is  generally 
from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches,  while  the  tail  alone  is  from  seven 
to  ten  inches.  The  Musk  rat  frequents  swamps  and  low,  marshy 
grounds  ;  and  is  specially  fond  of  the  calamus  root,  and  of  fresh 
water  muscles,  or  clams.  Its  utility  consists  in  its  fur,  which  is 
soft  and  glossy,  and  used  in  hat  making.  The  territorial  range 
of  this  animal  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Beaver. 

5th  FAMILY,  PORCUPINES. 

Hystricidae,  (Gr.  'Wr^£,  hustrix,  a  porcupine  ;  avar§i|,  from 
"vg.  huS)  a  hog;  Ogi£t  thrix,  a  bristle.) 

We  have  already  contemplated  in  the  Insectivora,  a  group  of 
animals  (Hedgehogs,)  protected  by  a  coat  of  spines.  In  the  pres 
ent  family,  this  spinous  defence  is  more  strongly  and  decidedly 
exhibited.  The  hollow  tubes  of  the  Porcupines  are  somewhat 
like  the  quills  of  feathers.  They  usually  terminate  in  a  fine 
point  of  hard  enamel,  but  sometimes  open  at  the  end,  as  if  cut 
off  at  their  greatest  thickness.  These  quills  seem  to  be  a  smooth, 
glossy  envelope  of  horn,  with  an  inner  pith  or  marrow  of  soft 
texture,  and  pure  white.  "They  grow  from  a  bulbous  root, 
formed  within  a  cell  below  the  true  skin,  or  cutis,  and  containing 
also  a  portion  of  fat,  in  which  the  vessels  supplying  its  pulp  and 
capsule,  are  imbedded.  The  capsules  consist  of  three  mem 
branes,  of  which  the  innermost  secretes  the  horny  envelope,  while 
the  pulp  supplies  the  pith  of  the  spine."  The  spines  vary  in 
size ;  some  are  very  long,  slender  and  weak  ;  generally,  they 
are  from  four  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  very  strong;  thick  in 
the  middle,  and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  extremity.  (See  fig.  on 
the  Chart.)  They  are  less  thickly  set  in  the  tail,  which  is  short; 
their  place  there  is  supplied  by  numerous,  open,  hollow  quills, 
raised  on  slender  stalks,  so  as  to  vibrate  with  every  movement. 
When  angry,  the  porcupine  clashes  these  hollow  quills  together, 
making  a  rustling  noise,  resembling  that  of  a  rattlesnake.  In  his 
undisturbed  state,  the  spines  lie  down  in  regular  order,  with  the 
points  all  directed  backwards;  but  when  he  is  angry,  they  are 
raised  up  by  means  of  a  peculiar  muscular  expansion  under  the 
skin,  and  joined  to  it,  which  by  its  action,  influences  their  elevation 


RO'DENTIA.  135 

and  depression.  When  clashed  violently  together,  one  or  two 
more  loose  than  the  rest,  may  be  disengaged  and  fall ;  but  the 
story  that  they  dart  out  their  spines  like  javelins,  is  pure  fable ; 
however,  by  pushing  backwards  or  sidevvise,  quickly  and  with 
violence,  the  Porcupine  can  both  defend  itself,  and  inflict  wounds 
on  its  enemies. 

The  head  of  this  animal  is  thick ;  his  eyes  small ;  his  face 
very  round  or  convex  ;  and  his  muzzle  blunt.  His  cutting  teeth 
are  very  large  and  strong,  so  that  he  can  gnaw  through  the  thick 
est  and  hardest  boards.  He  is  unsocial  in  his  habits;  when 
taken  captive,  is  "  neither  familiar  nor  intelligent ;  in  his  native 
state,  digs  burrows  in  dry  and  barren  situations,  as  far  removed 
as  possible  from  the  haunts  of  men.  These  burrows  have  several 
entrances  leading  to  a  chamber  in  which  it  passes  the  day  in 
silence  and  in  solitude."  As  the  light  recedes,  it  cautiously 
ventures  out  in  search  of  food,  such  as  birds,  roots,  fruit  and  other 
vegetables.  In  winter,  it  goes  out  only  occasionally  for  food. 

The  CREATOR  has  given  to  the  Porcupine  special  endowments 
for  his  course  of  life.  The  animal  burrows  in  hard  and  stony 
soil,  and  for  that  purpose  is  provided  with  digging  implements; 
his  limbs  are  short,  strong  and  thick ;  and  his  toes,  four  before 
and  five  behind,  on  each  foot,  have  thick  and  powerful  nails  or 
claws ;  the  tongue  is  roughened  with  scaly  prickles,  directed 
backwards.  The  length  of  the  Porcupine  is  about  two  feet ;  his 
general  color  a  grizzled  black,  the  spines  being  elegantly  ringed 
with  alternate  black  and  white,  and  the  limbs  entirely  black. 
This  family  of  animals  was  originally  introduced  from  Africa 
into  Europe  and  America.  The  description  above  given  is  that 
of  the  COMMON  PORCUPINE,  viz.,  Hystrix  cristata,  (Lat.  crested.) 
The  Hystrix  dorsata,  (Lat.  ridged,)  (or  Hystrix  Hudsonius,  of  De- 
Kay,)  otherwise  called  the  Canada  and  North  American  Porcu- 
•  pine,  ranges  as  far  north  as  67o  N.  L.,  and  in  New  York,  Penn 
sylvania,  the  northern  parts  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  west 
as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  said  to  be  increasing  in  the 
western  parts  of  New  York  ;  in  this  species,  which  is  from  two 
to  two  and  a  half  feet  long,  the  spines  are  almost  concealed  by 
the  hair  with  which  they  are  intermingled;  the  fur  of  a  soft  and 
dusky  brown  color,  is  remarkable  for  its  length  and  fullness;  that 
of  the  Canadian  animal  is  almost  black.  The  incisors  are  of  a 
deep  orange  color.  This  Porcupine  is  inoffensive,  and  of  gentle 
manners ;  in  size  well  comparing  with  that  of  a  fox ;  it  feeds  on 
the  leaves  and  bark  of  hemlock,  bass-wood  and  ash  trees;  is  fond 
of  fruit  and  maize;  and  when  confined,  eats  almost  every  kind 
of  vegetable.  The  spines  or  quills  vary  in  length  from  one  to 


133  RODENTIA. 

four  inches;  by  a  strong  muscle  in  the  skin,  those  of  the  back, 
when  the  animal  is  irritated,  are  erected  and  extended  in  various 
directions;  the  tail  is  also  erected,  and  by  a  quite  sudden  move 
ment,  he  is  enabled  to  strike,  leaving  the  loosened  spines  in  the 
body  of  his  assailant.  The  flesh  of  the  Porcupine  resembles 
young  pork,  and  is  by  the  Indians  very  highly  esteemed.  Spines 
dyed  of  various  colors,  form  ornaments  for  their  dresses.  (De 
Kay.) 

6th.  THE  MICE  FAMILY. 

Murida,  (Gr.  pvg,  mus,  a  mouse.) 

This  numerous  family  have  in  each  jaw,  besides  the  two  cut 
ting  teeth  common  to  the  Rodentia,  six  molars  (usually)  in  each 
jaw,  surmounted  by  blunt  tubercles.  The  teeth  of  the  upper 
jaw  shelve  backwards;  those  of  the  lower,  forwards;  the  feet 
are  neither  webbed  nor  fringed  with  stiff  hairs,  but  several  spe 
cies  swim  with  much  ease.  The  tail  is  round,  usually  naked  or 
thinly  haired.  Most  of  this  family  are  small  burrowing  ani 
mals ;  some  genera  are  furnished  with  cheek  pouches.  Dr.  De 
Kay,  (N.  H.  S.  N.  Y.,)  arranges  all  into  two  groups,  I.  those 
having,  II.  those  not  having  cheek  pouches.  The  ordinary  food 
of  these  animals  is  grain,  seeds,  and  other  farinaceous  matter, 
for  bruising  which  their  teeth  are  well  fitted ;  but  they  ,are  really 
omnivorous. 

Musdecumanus,  (Lat.  tenth.)  The  NORWAY  or  BROWN  RAT  is 
of  a  grayish  brown  color  above  and  white  beneath ;  in  length, 
from  the  head  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  about  twenty  inches,  having 
the  tail  quite  as  long  as  the  body.  It  was  originally  introduced 
into  Europe  from  the  southern  parts  of  Asia ;  from  its  superior 
strength  and  ferocity,  has  in  some  places  almost  entirely  expelled 
the  Black  Rat,  (M.  ratlus.)  It  came  to  the  United  States  with 
the  foreign  mercenaries  during  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and 
is  now  spread  over  the  United  States  and  Canadas.  It  infests 
wharves  and  has  been  called  the  WHARF  RAT,  or  DOCK  RAT  ;  the 
name  decumanus  alludes  to  the  tithe  or  tenth  of  everything  taken 
by  this  voracious  creature. 

M.  musculus,  (Lat.  dim.)  The  COMMON  MOUSE  is  of  a  dusky 
gray  color,  has  ears  about  half  the  length  of  the  head,  a  long, 
bare  and  scaly  tail,  and  in  constitution  and  disposition  is  similar 
to  the  rat.  It  breeds  at  various  seasons  of  the  year,  from  six  to 
ten  at  a  litter  ;  is  omnivorous,  but  prefers  vegetable  food.  The 
young  are,  in  about  a  fortnight,  strong  enough  to  collect  their 
own  food.  The  mouse  is  said  to  be  very  susceptible  to  the 
power  of  music.  An  anecdote  is  related  of  a  gentleman  who  was 
playing  a  violin,  seeing  a  mouse  run  along  the  floor  and  jump 
a.bout  as  if  distracted.  He  continued  the  strain,  and  after  some 


RODENTIA.  1 37 

time  the  mouse,  apparently  exhausted  with  its  exertions,  dropped 
dead  on  the  floor. 

M.  leucopus,  (Gr.  levxog,  leukos,  white  ;  novg,  pous,  foot.) 
This  little  animal  is  of  a  brownish  color  above ;  the  feet  and 
all  beneath,  white;  the  ears  large;  the  tail  hairy  and  as  long 
as  the  body.  The  whole  length  is  six  inches.  The  colors  and 
proportions  give  this  mouse  a  delicate  and  beautiful  appearance. 
Like  the  Deer  mouse,  it  is,  from  its  agile,  jumping  movement, 
called  the  "  Jumping  Mouse."  It  feeds  on  grains  and  grasses. 
M.  messorius,  (Lat.  messis,  a  harvest.)  This  is  the  smallest 
and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  mammalia,  called  the  HAR 
VEST  MOUSE.  It  is  scarcely  half  the  size  of  the  common  mouse. 
The  color  is  of  a  reddish  brown  or  squirrel-like  aspect  above  ; 
the  under  parts  white  ;  its  eyes  are  dark  ;  its  action  lively.  In 
winter  it  lives  under  ground  in  burrows,  but  it  breeds  in  grassy 
compact  nests  of  the  size  of  a  cricket-ball,  like  those  of  a  bird, 
made  among  the  stalks  of  the  standing  corn,  and  supported  oa 
two  or  three  straws.  The  principal  food  of  the  harvest  mouse 
is  corn ;  but  it  is  also  fond  of  insects. 

Armcola,  (Lai.arva,  corn-fields;  cob,  I  inhabit.)  This  genus 
includes  many  species  known  under  the  names  of  FIELD  MICE 
and  FIELD  RATS,  differing  from  the  mice  proper  in  the  structure 
of  their  teeth,  and  the  length  and  hairy  covering  of  the  tail. 

A.  amphibius  is  the  Water  Rat  common  on  the  banks  of  riv 
ers,  brooks,  &c. 

Geomys,  (Gr.  77,  ge,  earth  ;  fivg,  mus,  mouse.)  POUCHED  RAT, 
SAND  RAT.  (See  Plate  V.,  fig  3.) 

Of  this  genus  there  are  several  species,  having  eyes  small  and 
far  apart ;  small  ears ;  ten  molars  above  and  ten  below  ;  large 
and  pendulous  cheek  pouches,  opening,  (according  to  Audubon.) 
outside  of  the  mouth,  and  extending  in  some  species  along  the  neck 
to  near  the  shoulders.  These  pouches  are  cold  to  the  touch  and 
of  an  oblong  form  when  distended.  This  animal  has  been  seen 
"  when  in  the  act  of  emptying  its  pouches  into  its  paws  like 
a  Marmot  Squirrel,  and  squeezing  its  sacs  against  the  breast  with 
its  fore  paws." 

7th  FAMILY. 

Caviada  of  Tropical  America. 

The  Cavies  seem  to  hold  a  middle  rank  between  the  Mouse 
and  the  Rabbit. 

Hydrochoerus,  (Gr.  'vdwy,  hudor,  water ;  xoigog,  choiros,  a  hog.) 
CAPYBARA,  or  WATER-HOG,  of  South  America. 

This  animal  attains  to  the  size  of  a  hog  of  two  years  old ; 
lives  on  vegetables,  sugar-cane  and  fish.  To  procure  the  latter, 


138  RODENTIA. 

it  betakes  itself  to  rivers,  swimming  as  readily  as  the  otter. 
Like  the  Peccary,  it  is  without  a  tail,  and  instead  of  a  cloven 
hoof,  its  feet  are  partly  webbed,  thus  fitting  it  for  its  aquatic  life. 
In  its  manner  of  walking  and  its  color,  this  animal  resembles  the 
pigs ;  but  when  seated  on  its  haunches  and  watching  any  object 
with  one  eye,  it  has  the  appearance  of  the  Cavies.  The  Jaguar 
destroys  it  in  great  numbers. 

Cavia  Cobaya.  The  COMMON  CAVY  or  GUINEA  PIG.  This 
animal,  which  is  about  as  large  as  a  rat,  is  distinguished  for  the 
beauty  and  variety  of  its  colors,  and  the  neatness  of  its  appear 
ance  and  habits.  It  is  a  native  of  South  America,  but  has  been 
introduced  into  the  Eastern  Continent.  It  is  the  most  prolific  of 
all  the  mammalia,  producing  every  two  months  from  six  to  twelve 
young.  A  single  pair  soon  multiply  to  the  number  of  1,000. 
It  has  no  tail  ;  its  flesh  is  tasteless  and  its  skin  of  little  value. 

C.  Patachonica,  the  PATAGONIAN  CAVY,  or  HARE-LIKE  CAVY, 
is  a  burrowing  animal,  producing  two  or  three  young  at  a  time  ; 
in  its  essential  details  of  structure  is  a  Cavy  ;  but  its  long  legs, 
long  erect  ears,  combined  with  the  general  form  of  the  head,  lead 
casual  observers  to  mistake  it  for  the  Hare,  which  in  size  it  sur 
passes,  sometimes  weighing  twenty  or  thirty  pounds. 

Dasyprocta,  (Gr.  daavg,  dasus,  hairy  or  bristly,  nQuwwSjprdc* 
tos,  anus.)  The  yellow-nosed  Cavy  or  AGOUTI  of  Brazil.  This 
animal  is  found  in  great  numbers  in  South  America.  It  exhibits 
some  resemblances  in  form  and  mode  of  living  to  the  Hare  and 
Rabbit,  and  indeed  is  called  the  Rabbit  of  that  region.  The 
toes  have  large  and  powerful  claws.  The  Agouti,  when  eating, 
sits  upon  its  hind  quarters,  using  the  fore  paws,  like  squirrels,  to 
hold  its  food.  This  consists  ordinarily  of  yams,  potatoes  and 
other  roots,  though  it  is  almost  omnivorous.  It  does  not  burrow, 
but  takes  shelter  in  hollow  trees.  These  animals  are  quite  pro 
lific,  and  very  destructive  to  sugar  cane,  arid  therefore  are  caught 
and  killed  by  the  planters. 

Leporida,  (Lat.  lepus,  a  hare.)     HARE  FAMILY.  (PI. V.  fig.  5.) 

The  most  remarkable  difference  between  this  family  and  the 
other  Rodents,  consists  in  their  having  behind  the  two  incisor 
teeth  common  to  the  group,  two  additional  ones  of  smaller  size 
in  the  upper  jaw,  making  four,  which  in  young  ones  are  increased 
to  six  ;  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  hairy  ; 
the  tail  is  very  short  or  wanting;  the  eyes  are  large  and  promi 
nent  ;  the  hind  legs  are  usually  more  developed  than  the  fore 
ones;  the  clavicles  wanting;  the  fur  soft  and  copious. 

Lepus.  This  genus  includes,  among  other  species,  Lepus  tim- 
idus,  (Lat.  tiinid.)  The  Common  Hare.  L.  cuniculus,  (Lat. 


RODENTIA.  139 

Little  Rabbit.)  L.  Totai,  the  TOTAI,  of  Siberia ;  L.  Capensis, 
of  North  and  South  Africa ;  on  the  American  Continent,  L.  na- 
nus,  (Lat.  dwarf,)  or  Americanus,  the  American  Gray  Rabbit. 
L.  Americanus,  the  Northern  Hare  of  America ;  L.  variabilis, 
the  Alpine  Hare ;  L.  Hibernicus,  the  Irish  Hare.  Upwards  of 
thirty  species  are  known,  of  which  half  belong  to  this  continent, 
all  agreeing  in  having  a  short  erected  tail,  and  the  hind  larger 
and  more  muscular  than  the  fore  limbs. 

The  HARE,  L,  timidus,  is  as  large  as  a  fox,  of  a  grayish  brown 
color,  has  long  pointed  ears,  and  is  a  native  of  Europe.  The 
fur  of  this  animal  is  an  important  article  in  the  hat  manufacture, 
and  its  excellent  flesh  often  found  in  the  market.  This  ani 
mal  is  remarkable  for  its  extreme  vigilance.  Its  senses  are  most 
acute  and  its  fleetness,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  unrivaled.  These 
are  its  means  of  defence.  The  general  length  of  the  animal  is 
about  two  feet ;  the  color  verges  towards  an  iron  gray,  with  the 
chin  and  belly  white.  The  eyes  are  placed  laterally,  and  they 
are  said  to  be  constantly  open,  even  during  sleep.  The  usual 
and  favorite  residence  of  the  Hare  is  in  rich  and  rather  dry  and 
flat  grounds.  It  feeds  principally  by  night  and  remains  con 
cealed  during  the  day ;  its  food  consists  of  herbage  of  various 
kinds.  Of  parsley  it  is  especially  fond.  Sometimes  it  does  great 
injury  to  wheat  and  other  grains.  So  timid  is  it  that  it  flees  on 
the  slighest  alarm  if  disturbed  while  feeding.  Acting  like  tubes 
applied  to  the  ears  of  deaf  persons,  its  long  ears  carry  to  it  re- 
mote  sounds.  In  their  flight,  these  animals  are  apt  to  exhaust 
their  powers  at  their  first  efforts,  and  hence  are  more  easily  taken 
than  the  slower  but  more  wily  foxes.  Its  voice  heard  when  in 
distress  or  wounded,  is  like  the  sharp  cry  of  an  infant.  In  addi 
tion  to  the  persecutions  of  mankind,  it  is  assailed  instinctively  by 
every  kind  of  dogs,  and  by  the  cat  and  weasel  tribes:  even  birds 
of  prey,  snakes,  adders,  etc.,  drive  it  from  its  summer  lodging 
place.  This  lessens  the  increase  of  these  animals,  which  from 
their  prolific  tendencies,  would  otherwise  be  greatly  multiplied. 

The  L.  variabilis,  sometimes  called  the  SCOTCH  HARE,  is  found 
not  only  on  the  Alps,  but  on  the  mountains  of  Scotland.  Its 
tawny  gray  color  in  summer,  is  in  winter  changed  to  white,  ex 
cept  the  tips  of  the  ears,  which  are  black.  In  portions  of  Russia 
there  is  a  variety  called  the  Russak,  which  in  Siberia  is  always 
white,  but  sometimes  is  entirely  coal  black.  The  winter  dress 
of  the  American  Hare  is  white,  or  white  tinged  with  brown ;  the 
summer  dress  is  more  reddish  brown  with  white  beneath ;  the 
ears  are  but  little  shorter  than  the  head ;  the  length  is  twenty  to 


140 


RODENTIA. 


twenty-five  inches.     It  is  said  to  be  found  from  Canada  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  though  its  range  is  not  well  determined. 

L.  cunicul-us,  (Lat.  a  little  rabbit.)  The  RABBIT  resembles  the 
Gray  Squirrel  in  size  and  shape ;  but  when  domesticated  varies 
in  these  respects.  It  is  native  to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Eastern 
Continent;  is  well  known  as  a  burrowing  animal,  and  every 
where  domesticated.  The  most  common  kind  of  the  Albinos 
are  the  white  with  red  eyes.  The  flesh  of  the  Rabbit  is  insipid 
and  its  skin  of  no  value,  but  its  fur  is  made  into  gloves,  stockings 
and  hats.  It  has  a  litter  of  five  or  six  young  ones  every  month, 
and  its  great  fecundity  is  in  some  places  nothing  short  of  a  ca 
lamity. 

L.  silvali'cusj  (Lat.  woody,  wild,)  is  the  AMERICAN  GRAY  RAB 
BIT,  in  its  wild  state,  having  a  color  similar  to  that  of^the  Euro 
pean  burrowing  Rabbit,  but  it  does  not  change  to  the  different 
colors  which  the  European  Rabbit  shows  when  domesticated. 
L.  callolis,  (Gr.  xakos,  kalos,  beautiful ;  ovgy  ous,  an  ear.) 
The  BLACK-TAILED  HARE,  of  Mexico  and  adjacent  parts,  mottled 
with  gray  and  yellowish  brown  above,  and  white  beneath  ;  it  has 
very  long  ears  and  long  and  slender  legs  and  body,  fitting  it  for 
long  and  rapid  leaps.  This  is  a  very  interesting  species,  and  on 
account  of  the  length  of  its  ears,  called  in  Texas,  the  Jackass 
Rabbit. 

Lagomys,  (Gr.  tar/ojj,  lagds,  a  hare ;  juvg,  mus,  a  mouse.) 
This  is  a  genus  of  the  Rodents  which  is  separated  from  the 
Hares  proper,  and  includes  four  species;  "one,  the  Pika,  in  the 
northern  mountains  of  the  Old  World,  one  in  Mongolian  Tartary, 
one  in  the  south-eastern  parts  of  Russia,  and  one,  (L.  princeps, 
the  Little  Chief  Hare,)  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  North  Amer 
ica." — (Audubon.)  They  lay  up  winter  stores,  which  is  never 
done  by  the  true  Hares. 

QUESTIONS  UPON  THE  RODENTIA. 

Give  the  derivation  of  Rodentia.  How  may  the  animals  of  this  order  be 
easily  known  ?  What  family  are  an  exception  to  this  ?  Give  some  further 
account  of  the  teeth  of  this  order.  How  is  the  wear  of  the  enamel  and 
other  part  of  the  teeth  counteracted  ?  What  is  the  result  if  one  tooth  be 
lost?  How  many  species  does  the  order  include?  How  many  in  North 
America  ?  Which  of  these  is  the  smallest  ?  Which  the  largest  ?  On  what 
do  the  Rodents  feed  ?  How  are  they  kept  from  overrunning  the  earth  ? 
Which  are  valuable  in  commerce  ?  Give  the  remark  of  the  Pictorial  Mu 
seum.  Into  how  many  families  is  the  order  divided  ?  Give  their  names. 

How  many  species  does  the  Squirrel  Family  include  ?  Into  what  two 
groups  is  the*  family  divided  ?  Describe  the  family.  Give  the  derivation 
of  the  generic  name.  Describe  the  Common  Red  S.  What  is  one  of  the 
most  common  American  species?  How  many  varieties  of  this?  What 


RODENTIA.  141 

characteristic  of  the  common  Red  S.  is  wanting  in  this  ?  What  is  ono 
of  its  most  remarkable  peculiarities  ?  Describe  the  Striped  or  Ground  S. 
By  what  other  name  is  it  known  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  its  name  ? 
Where  is  it  usually  seen  ?  In  what  respect  does  it  differ  from  other  S.  ? 
What  is  its  range  ? 

Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  Pteromys.  How  are  the  Flying  Squir 
rels  distinguished  "i  Give  some  account  of  the  American  species. 

Give  the  character  of  the  Marmot  Family.  What  is  the  derivation  of  the 
term  Spcnnojjhilus ?  What  animals  does  this  genus,  (or  sub-genus,)  in 
clude  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Ludovicianus  ?  What  is  the 
common  name  of  this  species  ?  What  is  said  of  these  animals  ?  Derive 
the  term  Arctomi/s.  In  what  respect  does  it  differ  from  the  preceding, ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Alpine  Marmo^?  Describe  the  Woodchuck.  Give  the 
character  of  the  Jerboas.  What  ancient  writer  alludes  to  them  ?  Derive 
the  term  Dipus.  What  is  said  of  the  animals  of  this  genus  ?  Which  is 
the  most  common  species?  Describe  the  second  genus.  What  is  said  of 
the  Jumping  Mouse  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  animals  included  in  the 
third  genus.  Describe  the  Dormouse.  What  is  said  of  the  common  D.  ? 
Of  what  animals  is  the  Chinchilla  the  connecting  link?  Describe  this  ani 
mal.  Describe  the  Beaver  Family.  Give  the  Greek  and  Lat:n  terms  for 
Beaver.  Name  the  most  striking  peculiarities  and  habity  of  the  B.  Where 
is  the  Musk-rat  found?  Why  is  it  so  called?  Give  some  account 
of  it.  Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  Hy&trix.  What  is  the  family  name  ? 
What  is  the  distinguishing  peculiarity  of  this  family  ?  Describe  its  spines. 
How  does  this  animal  defend  itself?  What  is  further  said  of  it? 

Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  Mwridcc..  What  is  said  of  this  family? 
Into  what  groups  does  Dr.  De  Kay  arrange  them?  What  is  said  of  the 
Norway  or  Brown  Rat?  Describe  tne  Common  Mouse.  Derive  the  term 
Icucof.hm.  Describe  thin  animal.  Why  is  it  called  the  Jumping  Mouse? 
Give  some  account  of  the  Harvest  Mouse.  What  is  said  of  the  species  in 
cluded  in  the  genus  Arviccla?  How  do  these  differ  from  the  Mice  proper? 
What  is  said  of  the  Geomys,  or  Pouched  Rat  ?  WHiat  is  said  of  the  Gavies  ? 
What  species  are  particularly  named  ?  Describe  the  Water  Hog  of  S.  A. 
What  is  said  of  the  Guinea  Pig  ?  What  of  the  Patagonian  or  Hare-like 
Cavy  ?  What  of  the  Agouti,  or  yellow-nosed  Cavy  ?  What  is  the  deriva 
tion*  of  the  term  Leporidae  ?  What  is  the  chief  difference  between  this 
family  and  other  Rodents?  What  species  are  particularly  named?  Give 
some  account  of  the  Common  Hare.  What  is  said  of  the  Rabbit?  What 
species  of  the  genus  Lcpus  is  referred  to  ?  What  is  the  derivation  of  the 
term  Layomys  ?  How  many  species  does  it  include  ?  Does  it  differ  from 
the  true  Hares? 

How  would  you  trace  the  Beaver  on  the  Chart  ?  Ans.  Fiber  is  the  spe 
cies,  Castor  the  genus,  Rodentia,  or  Glires,  the  order,  TJnguiculata  the  sub 
class,  Mammals  the  class,  Warm-blooded  the  first  division  of  the  sub-king 
dom  Vertebrates.  Trace  the  Squirrel  and  Porcupine  in  the  same  way,  giv 
ing  the  meaning  of  the  terms  at  each  step.  What  other  gnawing  animals 
are  mentioned  on  the  Chart? 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


142  PACHYDERMATA. 

SECTION  XX. 
SECOND  SUB-CLASS.     UNGULATA. 

ORDER  7.     PACHYDERMATA,  (Gr.  nax-f>g,  pachiis,  thick; 
derma,  skin.) 

The  animals  included  in  this  order  are  for  the  most  part  of 
large  size;  some  of  them  are  of  truly  gigantic  proportions,  being 
the  largest  of  all  land  animals.  They  are  called  PACHYDERMATA, 
on  account  of  the  massive  thickness  and  solidity  of  the  skin ;  a 
peculiarity  which  strikingly  distinguishes  the  more  prominent 
species.  These  animals  are  thinly  covered  with  bristly  hairs, 
or  else  almost  entirely  naked ;  and  their  external  appearance  is 
frequently  rough  and  coarse.  They  inhabit  the  warm  latitudes 
of  Asia,  Africa  and  America.  One  genus.  (Sus,)  the  Wild  Boar, 
is  found  wild  in  Europe;  and  two  or  three  others,  used  for  pur- 
poses  of  economy,  are  now  almost  universally  distributed  by  do 
mestication.  The  Pachydermata,  for  the  larger  part,  live  upon 
vegetable  food,  such  as  grasses  and  watery  herbage,  and  the  suc 
culent  plants  of  the  tropics.  Their  molar  teeth  are  compound, 
often  triple,  with  flattened  crowns;  in  many  there  is  a  peculiar 
development  of  the  canines  or  the  incisors  into  curved  and  pro 
jecting  tusks.  The  muzzle  is  frequently  produced  into  a  probos 
cis,  or  trunk,  as  in  the  Elephants,  Tapirs,  and,  in  a  less  degree, 
in  the  Hogs. 

I.  FAMILY  PROBOSCIDAE,  (Gr.  nQo6o;xlg,  proboscis,  a  trunk;) 
including  the  Elephant  Mammoth,  and  Mastodon.  These  are 
Multungu/ate,  (many-hoofed.) 

Elephas,  (Gr.  'sMpas,  elephas )     The  ELEPHANT. 

Of  this  magnificent  animal  there  are  two  species,  Elephas 
Indicus,  or  Asiaticus,  and  E.  Africus.  Both  species  are  distin 
guished  by  their  enormous  tusks,  which  project  downwards  from 
the  upper  jaw  of  the  male  Elephants,  of  India,  and  of  both  males 
and  females,  of  the  African  Elephants;  also  by  the  absence  of 
front  teeth  from  the  lower  jaw,-  and  by  having  five  hoofs  on  each 
fore  foot.  The  enormously  large  tusks  are  seated  in  the  bones, 
from  which  the  incisor  teeth  proceed  in  other  quadrupeds,  and 
continue  to  grow  while  the  animal  lives.  The  grinders  or  molar 
teeth  strongly  resemble  those  of  many  of  the  RODENTIA.  These 
are  made  up  of  a  certain  number  of  vertical  laminae,  each  formed 
of  bone,  covered  with  enamel,  and  held  together  by  a  third  sub 
stance,  called  the  cortical,  (Lat.  cortix,  bark.)  They  are  changed 
six  or  eight  times  in  the  course  of  the  Elephant's  life.  The 


PACHYDERMATA.  143 

manner  in  which  they  succeed  each  other  is  quite  peculiar.  The 
old  tooth  is  not  pushed  up  by  the  new  one,  as  is  usually  the  case  ; 
but  the  new  one  appears  behind  the  old  one,  urging  it  forward, 
so  that  the  latter  wears  away,  and  its  place  is  finally  taken  by 
the  new  comer.  The  teeth  are  of  immense  weight,  and  with  the 
tusk,  are  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  animal.  (PI.  IV.  fig.  7.  &  8.) 
The  tusk  is  hollow  for  a  great  part  of  its  length ;  the  cavity  con 
taining  a  vascular  pulp,  which  supplies  successive  layers  within, 
as  the  tusk  is  worn  down  without.  Blurnenbach,  (see  his  Compar 
ative  Anatomy.)  says  that  some  modern  naturalists  consider  the 
tusks  a  species  of  horn ;  and  that  balls  with  which  the  animal  has 
been  shot  when  young,  have  been  found  on  sawing  through  the 
tusks,  imbedded  in  their  substance,  in  a  peculiar  manner.  These 
organs,  especially  in  the  African  species,  are  extremely  large. 
Cuvier  has  a  table  showing  their  great  size.  The  largest  recorded 
in  the  table  was  a  tusk  sold  at  Amsterdam,  which  weighed  350  Ibs. 
O.ie  possessed  by  a  merchant  of  Venice,  was  fourteen  feet  in 
length.  The  largest  in  the  Paris  Museum  is  nearly  seven  feet 
long,  and  about  five  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  at  the  largest 
end.  Professor  Silliman,  during  his  last  tour  in  Europe,  measur 
ed  one  in  the  British  Museum,  which  was  ten  feet  in  length. 
One  described  by  Hartenfels,  in  his  Elephantographia,  (Gr.  Ele~ 
pkas,  Elephant ;  graplio,  to  write,)  exceeded  fourteen  feet.  Or 
dinarily,  the  tusk  of  the  Indian  Elephant  does  not  weigh  more 
than  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  pounds.  The  first  or  milk  tusks, 
never  attain  much  size;  but  are  shed  between  the  first  and  second 
year ;  and  the  permanent  tusks  of  the  female  are  very  small,  in 
comparison  with  those  of  the  male.  The  feet  have  five  toes, 
"  encrusted,"  as  Cuvier  says,  in  the  callous  skin  which  covers 
the  foot,  and  appearing  in  the  hoof  by  the  nails  alone  The  foot 
is  enclosed  in  a  horny  shoe  or  sock,  which,  when  detached,  pre 
sents  a  cavity  that  is  quite  t'ght,  and  used  by  orientalists  as  a  ves 
sel  to  contain  their  food  Professor  Silliman  measured  the  shoe 
of  an  Elephant,  in  the  British  Museum,  and  found  it  five  feet  in 
circumference.  (Plate  VI.  fig.  9.) 

The  immense  weight  of  the  head,  renders  indispensable  a  pow 
erful  muscular  apparatus,  and  to  that  end  a  large  surface  for  the 
insertion  of  muscles  is  necessary.  The  extended  surface  of  the 
head  gives  full  room  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the 
neck.  These  muscles  are  most  powerful,  not  only  supporting 
the  neck,  but  assisting  the  animal  in  digging  or  employing  the 
tusks  as  means  of  defence.  The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  more 
fully  developed  than  in  the  Ruminantia,  and  the  spinous  processes 
in  the  vertebrae  of  the  back,  are  lengthened  and  strong.  The 


114  PACHYDERMATA. 

entire  structure  is  well  compared  to  the  Cyclopean  walls  of  some 
ancient  city,  huge,  shapeless,  and  piled  over  against  each  other  as 
if  destined  rather  to  sustain  weight,  than  to  permit  motion.  The 
internal  organization,  as  a  whole,  is  more  simple  than  that  of  the 
Ruminants;  but  still  Elephants  feed  on  nearly  the  same  sort  of 
food.  The  stomach  is  of  a  very  lengthened  and  narrow  form,  its 
greatest  diameter  being  only  about  one-fourth  of  its  length. 
There  seems  to  be  a  receptacle,  though  less  extensive  than  that 
of  the  Camel,  to  enable  the  Elephant  to  retain  or  secrete  water 
that  may  be  used  for  moistening  its  food,  but  at  times  is  also  used 
to  disturb  the  insects,  which  during  a  march,  or  in  hot  weather, 
annoy  or  torment  it. 

^But  the  trunk  is  unquestionably  the  most  remarkable  part  of 
this  animal's  structure.  This  is  properly  a  continuation  of  the 
nose,  and  becomes  more  valuable  as  an  organ  of  prehension,  from 
the  unwieldy  size  of  the  head,  and  the  shortness  of  the  neck.  It 
is  an  organ  of  respiration,  as  well  as  prehension  ;  and  it  is  also  a 
delicate  organ  of  touch  and  smell.  The  short  neck,  made  neces 
sary  by  the  weight  of  the  head  and  tusks,  prevents  the  Elephant 
from  putting  its  head  to  the  ground,  or  from  stooping  to  the  water's 
edge;  but  for  this  disability  it  is  fully  compensated  in  the  advan 
tage  of  the  trunk.  This  extraordinary  organ  has,  according  to 
Cuvier,  not  much  less  than  40,000  muscles,  which  enable  the 
Elephant  to  shorten,  lengthen,  coil  up,  or  move  it  in  any  direction. 
Its  structure  is  cartilaginous,  and  composed  of  numerous  rings ; 
a  partition  runs  from  one  end  of  it  to  the  other,  so  that  although 
outwardly  it  appears  like  a  single  pipe,  it  is  inwardly  divided 
into  two.  "Endowed  with  exquisite  sensibility;  nearly  eight 
feet  in  length,  and  stout  in  proportion  to  the  massive  size  of  the 
whole  animal,  this  organ,  at  the  volition  of  the  Elephant,  will 
uproot  trees,  or  gather  grass ;  raise  a  piece  of  artillery,  or  pick 
up  a  comfit ;  kill  a  man,  or  brush  off  a  fly.  It  conveys  the  food 
to  the  mouth,  and  pumps  up  the  enormous  drafts  of  water,  which 
by  its  recurvature,  are  turned  into  it,  and  driven  down  the  capa 
cious  throat,  or  showered  over  the  body."  Through  the  trunk 
the  Elephant  uses  his  trurnpet-like  voice ;  the  end  has  two  open 
ings  or  nostrils,  like  those  of  a  hog,  and  also  a  finger-like  append 
age,  with  which  he  picks  up  small  objects.  His  skin  is  usually 
of  a  brownish  gray  color,  sometimes  slightly  mottled  with  flesh 
color  ;  generally  it  is  full  of  scratches  and  scars,  which  it  re 
ceives  in  its  passage  through  thick  woods  and  thorny  places. 
The  form  of  the  head  varies  with  the  animal's  age ;  and  it  in 
creases  immensely  in  those  of  full  growth.  The  tail  is  long,  and 
has  a  tuft  of  hair  reaching  nearly  to  the  ground.  The  strength 


PACHYDERM  ATA.  14") 

of  the  Elephant  in  union  with  its  capacity,  renders  it  a  most  effi 
cient  aid,  where  extraordinary  animal  force  is  required,  as  in 
dragging  ships,  heavy  stores  and  ordnance.  Its  ordinary  pace  is 
equal  to  that  of  the  horse  at  an  easy  trot.  A  consideration  of  the 
velocity  of  its  motion,  as  compared  with  the  mass  of  its  body,  may 
help  one  to  judge  of  its  very  great  force.  Many  arduous  and 
difficult  military  operations  in  the  East  have  been  much  indebted 
to  the  sagacity,  patience  and  strength  of  the  Elephant.  The 
height  varies  considerably.  The  East  India  Company's  standard 
for  serviceable  Elephants  is  "seven  feet  and  upwards,  measured 
at  the  shoulders,  in  the  same  manner  as  horses  are."  It  has 
been  said,  they  reach  the  height  of  seventeen  or  twenty  feet ;  but 
there  is  reason  to  believe  they  seldom  exceed  ten  feet  in  height. 
Those  from  Pegu  and  Siam  are  much  larger  than  those  of  Hin- 
dostan. 

The  Elephant  has  long  been  the  companion  of  the  Orientalist, 
in  great  hunting  parties,  (see  border  of  the  chart.)  and  from  a 
very  early  period,  has  been  made  to  minister  to  the  wanton  and 
cruel  pleasures  of  Eastern  princes,  by  being  stimulated  to  com 
bat,  not  only  with  other  Elephants,  but  with  various  wild  animals. 
The  ivory  of  these  animals,  which  is  now  sought  for  useful  pur 
poses,  and  also  for  minor  ornaments,  was  in  great  request  with  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  for  various  domestic  uses,  as  well 
as  for  the  Chrys-elephantine  Statuary,  (Gr.  Clirusos,  gold  ;  Ele- 
phas,  elephant,)  of  Phidias,  such  as  the  Minerva  of  the  Parthenon, 
and  the  Olympian  Jupiter. 

The  exports  of  the  tusks  from  the  East  have  been,  and  still 
continue  to  be,  large.  In  1831-23  those  to  Great  Britain  alone, 
amounted  to  4,130  cwt. ;  a  weight  of  ivory,  taking  the  average 
of  the  tusks  to  be  sixty  Ibs.  weight,  involving  the  destruction  of 
fwm  4.500  to  5,000  Elephants.  It  is  said  45,000  tusks  are  now 
annually  consumed  in  Sheffield,  (England.)  alone.  The  West 
ern  and  Eastern  coasts  of  Africa  ;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  Cey 
lon  ;  India ;  and  the  countries  to  the  east  of  the  straits  of  Malacca, 
are  the  marts  whence  the  supplies  of  ivory  are  obtained.  The 
chief  consumption  of  this  article  in  England,  is  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  handles  for  knives;  but  it  is  extensively  used  for  other 
purposes.  Ivory  articles  are  manufactured  to  a  greater  extent  at 
Dieppe,  on  the  French  sea-coast,  than  in  any  other  place  in  Eu 
rope.  In  preparations  of  ivory,  the  Chinese  excel.  No  Europe 
an  artist  has,  we  believe,  succeeded  in  cutting  concentric  balls 
after  the  manner  of  the  Chinese  ;  and  their  boxes  and  other  ivory 
articles  are  decidedly  superior  to  any  that  are  to  be  met  with 
elsewhere. 


146  PACHYDERM ATA. 

Though  captured  in  India,  and  reduced  to  servitude,  and  ex 
tensively  hunted  in  Africa,  on  account  of  his  tusks,  the  Elephant 
is  still  found  in  great  numbers  in  remote,  secluded  districts  of  the 
East,  where  large  streams  or  rivers  running  through  a  wide  and 
level  region,  are  fringed  by  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  A  traveler 
who  accompanied  some  Elephant  hunters  in  South  Africa,  was 
told  by  an  experienced  hunter  that  he  had  seen  as  many  as  three 
thousand  in  a  troop,  ranging  along  the  banks  of  the  Fish  river. 
"  A  herd  of  Elephants,"  says  Pringle,  "  browsing  in  majestic  tran- 
quility  amidst  the  wild  magnificence  of  an  African  landscape,  is 
a  very  noble  sight,  and  one  of  which  I  shall  never  forget  the  im 
pression."  Sometimes  they  "tear  up  immense  numbers  of  mi 
mosa  trees,  sprinkled  over  grassy  meadows,  which  border  the 
river's  margin."  Of  the  soft  and  juicy  roots  of  these  and  other 
trees,  they  are  very  fond.  In  overturning  the  trees,  they  some 
times  employ  their  tusks  as  we  do  a  crowbar,  thrusting  them  un 
der  the  roots  to  weaken  their  hold  of  the  earth,  and  facilitate  the 
work  of  tearing  up  the  trees  with  their  proboscis. 

The  Elephant  is  known  to  have  a  strong  relish  for  sweetmeats 
and  arrack,  a  spirituous  liquor  distilled  from  rice;  and  by  these 
things  is  occasionally  encouraged  to  perform  tasks  requiring 
great  skill  and  labor.  In  plantations  of  sugar  cane,  he  revels 
with  great  delight.  Sometimes  he  adopts  curious  methods  to  grat 
ify  his  love  of  sweet  things.  "It  chanced  that  a  Cooley,  laden 
with  jaggery,  which  is  a  coarse  preparation  of  sugar,  was  sur 
prised  in  a  narrow  pass  in  the  kingdom  of  Candy,  by  a  wild  Ele 
phant.  The  poor  fellow,  intent  upon  saving  his  life,  threw  down 
the  burthen,  which  the  Elephant  devoured;  and  being  well 
pleased  with  the  repast,  determined  not  to  allow  any  person  egress 
or  ingress  who  did  not  provide  him  with  a  similar  banquet.  The 
pass  formed  one  of  the  principal  thoroughfares  to  the  capital ;  and 
the  Elephant  taking  up  a  formidable  position  at  the  entrance, 
obliged  every  passenger  to  pay  tribute.  It  soon  became  known 
that  a  donation  of  jaggery  would  ensure  a  safe  conduct  through 
the  guarded  portal,  and  no  one  presumed  to  attempt  the  passage 
without  the  expected  offering." 

The  Elephant  possesses  all  the  senses  in  great  perfection  ;  that 
of  smelling  is  in  him  exquisite.  He  is  not  often  bred  in  captivity, 
it  being  found  more  advantageous  to  take  a  well  grown  animal 
from  a  wild  herd,  and  discipline  it  for  service.  In  captivity,  it  is 
very  docile  and  gentle,  but  when  provoked  will  take  full  revenge. 
This,  some  who  visit  menageries  have  found  out  to  their  sorrow. 
All  Elephants  are  fond  of  the  water,  and  sometimes  submerge 
themselves,  so  far  that  nothing  but  the  end  of  their  trunk  remains 


PACHYDERM ATA.  147 

above  the  surface.  There  are  various  modes  of  capturing  these 
animals.  One  of  these  is  by  decoy  Elephants,  which  are  well 
trained  to  their  work.  With  two  of  these  decoys,  the  hunters 
proceed  into  the  woods.  The  females  advance  quietly,  and  by 
their  blandishments  so  occupy  the  attention  of  any  unfortunate 
male  that  they  meet,  that  the  hunters  are  enabled  to  tie  his  legs 
together  and  fasten  him  to  a  tree.  His  treacherous  companions 
then  forsake  hirn.  At  length  he  is  subdued  by  hunger  and  the 
fatigue  of  efforts  to  free  himself  from  his  bonds,  and  then  the 
hunters  drive  him  home  between  their  two  tame  Elephants. 
When  once  captured,  he  is  easily  trained. 

When  in  captivity,  maternal  affection  does  not  seem  strong  in 
the  elephant;  but  in  the  wild  state,  the  animal  has  given  striking 
illustrations  of  such  affection,  as  well  as  of  marital  and  filial 
love.  The  young  animal  is  exceedingly  playful,  ft  becomes 
mature  when  between  18  and  24  years  of  age,  and  usually  lives 
to  a  great  age;  Aristotle  says,  "more  than  200  years;"  it  has 
sometimes  lived  even  more  than  400  years. 

The  Elephant  appears  deeply  susceptible  of  influence  from 
kindness.  The  natives  in  the  East  are  wont  to  address  him  with 
persuasive  and  endearing  epithets,  which  he  seems  to  compre 
hend  and  by  which  he  is  stimulated  to  exertion.  Sometimes  his 
actions  and  display  of  comprehension  appear  almost  the  result  of 
a  reasoning  process.  An  officer  who  served  in  India  remarks, 
"T  have  myself  often  seen  the  wife  of  a  mohont,  (for  the  officers 
often  take  their  families  with  them  to  the  camp,)  give  a  baby  in 
charge  to  an  Elephant  while  she  went  on  some  business,  and 
have  been  highly  interested  in  observing  the  sagacity  and  care 
of  the  unwieldy  nurse." 

Memory,  which,  as  well  as  instinct,  is  given  to  animals  for 
their  well  being,  seems  to  have  great  strength  in  the  Elephant. 
An  illustration  of  this  remark  is  given  by  Mr.  Corse,  in  the 
PhiL  Tran.,  and  quoted  by  Swainson  in  his  "Habits  and  In- 
stincts  of  Animals."  "An  Elephant  which  had  escaped,  and 
which  was  subsequently  captured  in  company  with  a  herd  of 
wild  Elephants,  after  an  interval  of  eighteen  months,  was  recog* 
nized  by  one  of  the  drivers.  When  any  person  approached  the 
animal,  he  appeared  wild  and  outrageous  as  the  other  animals, 
and  attempted  to  strike  the  person  approaching  him  with  his  trunk, 
until  an  old  hunter,  riding  boldly  up  to  hirn  on  a  tame  Elephant, 
ordered  him  to  lie  down,  pulling  him  by  the  ear  at  the  same  time, 
upon  which  the  animal  seemed  quite  taken  by  surprise,  and  in 
stantly  obeyed  the  word  of  command  with  as  much  quickness  as 
the  ropes  with  which  he  was  tied  permitted,  uttering,  at  the  same 

7 


143  PACHYDERMATA. 

time,  a  peculiar  shrill  squeak  through  his  trunk,  as  he  had  for- 
merly  been  known  to  do.  By  this  circumstance,  he  was  imme 
diately  recognized  by  every  person  who  had  been  acquainted 
with  his  peculiarity." 

When  bogged  in  swamps,  the  elephant  shows  a  sagacity  which 
is  remarkable.  "The  cylindrical  form  of  his  leg,  which  is 
nearly  of  equal  thickness,  causes  the  animal  to  sink  very  deep 
in  heavy  ground,  especially  in  the  muddy  banks  of  small  rivers. 
When  thus  situated,  the  animal  will  endeavor  to  lie  on  his  side, 
so  as  to  avoid  sinking  deeper ;  and  for  this  purpose  will  avail 
himself  of  every  means  to  obtain  relief.  The  usual  method  of 
extricating  him  is  by  supplying  him  liberally  with  straw,  boughs, 
grass,  &c.  These  materials  being  thrown  to  the  distressed  ani 
mal,  he  forces  them  down  with  his  trunk,  till  they  are  lodged 
under  his  fore  feet  in  sufficient  quantity  to  resist  his  pressure. 
Having  thus  formed  a  sufficient  basis  for  exertion,  the  sagacious 
animal  next  proceeds  to  thrust  other  bundles  under  his  belly  and 
as  far  back  under  the  flanks  as  he  can  reach ;  when  such  a  ba 
sis  is  formed  as  may  be  to  him  proper  to  proceed  upon,  he  throws 
his  whole  weight  forward  and  gets  his  hind  feet  gradually  upon 
the  straw,  &c.  Being  once  confirmed  on  a  solid  footing,  he  will 
next  place  the  succeeding  bundles  before  him,  pressing  them  well 
with  his  trunk,  so  as  to  form  a  causeway  by  which  to  reach  the 
firm  ground.  The  instinct  of  the  animal,  and  probably  the  ex 
perience  of  his.  past  danger,  actuate  him  not  to  bear  any  weight 
definitely,  until  by  trial  both  with  his  trunk  and  the  next  foot  that 
is  to  be  planted,  he  has  completely  satisfied  himself  of  the  firm 
ness  of  the  ground  he  is  to  tread  upon." — (Svvainson.) 

The  general  characters  and  habits  of  the  two  species  E.  Asi- 
aticus  and  E.  Africus,  are  the  same,  and  yet  there  are  some 
points  of  difference.  The  Elephant  of  India  has  a  head  or  skull 
almost  pyramidal  in  form  ;  that  of  the  African  species  is  more 
rounded  in  contour.  The  tusks  and  ears  of  the  latter  are  the 
larger.  So  enormously  large  are  the  ears  that  they  cover  the 
animal's  shoulders,  and  are  often  "  used  by  the  natives  as  a  sort 
of  truck,  upon  which  to  draw  various  loads."  The  teeth,  too, 
are  different  in  numbers,  the  African  species  having  eight  mo 
lars,  whereas  the  Asiatic  has  but  four,  and  they  are  in  the  for- 
mer  also  differently  marked  ;  the  Asiatic  is  the  larger  in  its  frame 
and  its  color  is  a  paler  brown,  and  it  has  four  nails  on  each  hind 
foot,  while  the  African  has  only  three  ;  it  is  considered  essential 
to  the  perfection  of  the  Asiatic  Elephant  that  it  have  eighteen 
nails,  five  on  each  fore  foot,  and  four  on  each  hind  one.  The 


PACHYDERM ATA.  149 

Asiatic  species  is  also  deemed  the  superior  of  the  two  in  point 
of  sagacity ;  though  Cuvier  was  of  the  opinion  that  even  this 
species  does  not  in  intelligence  surpass  the  dog,  an  opinion  that 
finds  corroboration  in  the  size  of  the  Elephant's  brain,  which  is 
estimated  to  be  only  ^£¥  part  of  his  body,  while  in  man  the 
brain  is  -Jj  part. 

E.  primigenius,  (Lat.  primus,  first ;  gigno,to  produce.)  The 
MAMBIOTH. 

This  is  the  name  of  an  extinct  species  of  Proboscidce,  remains 
of  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  tertiary  fresh  water  de 
posits  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Continents.  Abundant  re 
mains  of  this  species  have  been  found  in  the  frozen  mud  of  Rus 
sian  America  ;  they  have  also  been  traced  in  smaller  quantities 
as  far  south  in  the  United  States  as  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Missouri  and 
North  and  South  Carolina.  The  Chart  figures  one  of  these  ani 
mals  dug  up  at  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  twelve  feet  high  and  fourteen 
feet  long.  Mammoth  bones  and  tusks  occur  throughout  Russia, 
and  particularly  in  Eastern  Siberia.  The  skeleton  of  one  six 
teen  and  one-half  feet  in  length,  obtained  in  Siberia,  and  having 
the  skin  attached  to  the  head  and  feet,  is  preserved  in  the  muse 
um  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  hair  of  this  specimen  consists  of 
two  kinds,  common  hair  and  bristles;  showing  in  the  arctic  char 
acter  of  its  clothing  that  it  was  capable  of  living  in  high  northern 
latitudes,  like  the  Rein-Deer  and  Musk-Ox  of  the  present  day. 
It  is  inferred  from  the  teeth  of  these  animals  that  their  food  did 
not  probably  differ  much  from  that  now  used  by  their  survivors  in 
tropical  countries. 

E.  Americanus.     AMERICAN  ELEPHANT. 

Dr.  De  Kay,  (N.  Y.  S.  N.,  189,)  designates  a  species  under 
this  name  from  specimens  of  teeth  found  in  a  diluvial  formation 
near  the  Irondiquoit  river,  in  Munroe  County,  ten  miles  east  of 
Rochester. 

Mastodon,  (Gr.  fiaaTog,  mastos,  a  nipple  or  udder  ;  odovg,  odous, 
a  tooth.)  (Plate  IV.  fig.  9.) 

This  is  the  name  of  an  extinct  genus  of  gigantic  Pachyderms 
whose  remains  are  found  abundantly  in  tertiary  and  sometimes  in 
secondary  deposits.  The  animal  must  have  equaled  or  exceeded  the 
elephant  in  bulk,  and  greatly  resembled  him  in  shape  ;  the  tusks, 
proboscis,  and  the  general  conformation  of  the  body  and  the  limbs 
were  similar.  The  principal  distinction  between  the  two  genera 
was  formed  by  the  molar  teeth,  the  crown  of  which,  unlike  those 
of  the  elephant,  exhibited,  on  cutting  the  gum,  large  conical 
points  of  a  mammiform  structure,  whence  the  animal  derived  its 
name.  The  whole  number  of  teeth  was  twenty-six.  The  Mas- 


150  PACHYDERMATA. 

todon  was  probably  less  exclusively  herbivorous  than  the  ele 
phant.  "There  is  scarcely  a  state  east  and  south  of  the  Hudson 
River  which  has  not  afforded  specimens  of  the  Mastodon"  The 
gen'is  ejnbraces  species  which  "  have  been  found  in  almost  every 
partof  the  world,  and  in  all  latitudes."  The  term  mammoth,  which 
was;  specially  applied  by  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia  to  a  fossil 
elephant,  has  sometimes  been  improperly  given  to  this  animal. 

M.  gigontOUS)  now  one  of  the  attractions  of  the  British  Muse 
um,  was  found  near  the  banks  of  the  river  La  Pomme  de  Terre, 
a  branch  of  the  O.sage  River,  in  Burton  Co.,  Missouri,  imbedded 
in  a  brown  sandy  deposit,  full  of  the  remains  of  cypress,  tropical 
cane,  swamp  moss,  stems  of  palmetto,  &c.  Five  arrow  heads 
were  found  with  the  remains,  which  were  20  feet  2  inches  long, 
and  9  feet  6j|  inches  high.  These  remains  were  exhibited  in 
Lpndon  in  1842-3,  under  the  name  of  the  Missouri  Leviathan. 
At  the  Bi<j  Bone  Lick,  in  Kentucky,  were  discovered  the  re 
mains  of  I'OO  Mastodons  and  20  Mammoths,  with  bones  of  the 
Megalonyx  Stag.  The  grinders  have  been  dug  up  in  the  streets 
ot  London.  Mr.  Woodward,  in  his  Geology  of  Norfolk,  Eng., 
suys  that  "upwards  of  2,000  have  been  dredged  up  by  the  fisher 
men,  of  Happisburgh  in  thirty  years."  On  the  Hudson  River, 
remains  of  the  Mastodon  have  been  repeatedly  discovered.  About 
throe  years  atjo,  a  very  fine  specimen  was  discovered  in  the  in 
clined  side  of  a  marshy  declivity,  a  few  miles  from  the  city  of 
Poughkeepsie. 

II.  SUIOE,  (Lat.  sus,  a  swine  or  hog.)     (Four  hoofs.) 

The  SWINE  FAMILY. 

This  is  a  family  of  the  PACHYDERMS,  highly  valuable  to  man  as 
food.  The  animals  of  which  it  is  composed  are  characterized 
by  having  on  each  foot  two  large  principal  toes,  shod  with  stout 
hoofs,  and  two  lateral  toes  which  are  shorter  and  hardly  touch 
the  earth.  "The  incisor  teeth  are  variable  in  number,  but  the 
lower  incisors  are  all  leveled  forwards;  the  canines  are  pro 
jected  from  the  mouth  and  recurved  upwards."  The  mu-zzle 
terminates  in  a  truncated  snout  adapted  for  turning  up  theground. 
Ten  species  are  enumerated  as  belonging  to  this  family. 

Sus  scrofa,  (Lat.  scroju,  an  old  sow.)  The  HOG,  or  WILD 
BOAR. 

The  well  known  Hog  is  the  domesticated  descendant  of  the 
Wild  Boar,  an  animal  still  found  in  the  larger  forests  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  the  Northern  parts  of  Africa.  The  wild  race  may, 
however,  be  distinguished  from  the  domestic  breed  by  the  color, 


PACHYDERM  ATA.  151 

which  is  a  dark  grizzled  brown,  by  the  longer  limbs,  the  small, 
erect  ears,  the  greater  development  of  the  snout,  and  by  a  more 
bony  appearance. 

In  his  native  retreats,  the  Wild  Boar  is  a  truly  formidable  ani 
mal,  and  the  hunt  of  it  exciting  and  dangerous  ;  for  this  fierce 
and  powerful  animal  is  armed  with  long,  curved  and  sharp  tusks, 
capable  of  inflicting  severe  and  fatal  wounds.  After  he  has 
passed  his  fifth  year,  he  becomes  less  dangerous,  on  account  of 
the  increased  size  of  his  tusks,  which  so  turn  up  as  often  to  hin 
der  rather  than  assist  his  design  of  wounding  with  them.  In  the 
wooded  regions  of  Europe,  the.  chase  of  the  Wild  Boar  is  still 
continued,  and  it  is  also  one  of  the  most  exciting  sports  of  orien 
tal  countries.  It  is  not  now  found  in  its  natural  state  in  Great 
Britain,  but  formerly  it  there  rioted  in  the  dense  forests;  and  in 
so  high  estimation  was  the  chase  of  the  animal  held,  that  by  a 
forest  law  of  William,  the  Conqueror,  any  who  were  found  guilty 
of  killing  a  Wild  Boar  had  their  eyes  put  out !  The  lair  is  gen 
erally  in  some  wild,  retired  spot,  not  far  from  water,  and  com 
manding,  by  some  devious  path,  an  entrance  to  the  open  country. 
The  young,  or  Marcassins,  as  they  are  termed  by  the  French 
are  striped  with  longitudinal  bands. 

The  Domestic  Hog,  (Sus  scrofa,)  differs  from  the  wild  animal 
principally  in  having  smaller  tusks  and  ears  larger,  somewhat 
pendant,  and  of  a.  more  pointed  form.  It  is  known  that  it  varies 
considerably  in  color  as  well  as  in  size,  but  the  prevailing  cast  is 
a  dull  yellowish  white,  marked  or  spotted  irregularly  with  black  ; 
sometimes  it  is  perfectly  plain  or  unspotted,  sometimes  rufous,  and 
sometimes  totally  black. 

The  Hog  is,  of  all  quadrupeds,  the  most  gross  in  his  manners, 
and  is  generally  esteemed  the  very  image  of  impurity.  The 
Jews  were  forbidden  to  eat  his  flesh,  probably  from  the  tendency 
to  cutaneous  disease  growing  out  of  its  use  in  the  East ;  and  the 
Mahometans  follow  the  same  prohibition.  Late  experiments 
with  this  animal,  as  kept  for  domestic  uses,  go  to  show  that  some 
injustice  has  been  done  and  losses  incurred,  by  the  opinions 
which  have  been  long  entertained  as  to  its  proclivity  for  dirt  and 
mud.  If  fairly  treated,  it  is  by  no  means  a  dirty  animal,  and 
most  judicious  farmers  find  their  account  in  reforming  the  pens 
of  hogs  so  that  they  be  kept  in  a  cleanly  condition,  instead  of  be 
ing  saturated  with  filth.  However  fond  of  wallowing  in  the  mire, 
yet,  "  with  plenty  of  dry  litter,  space  and  water,  the  hog  will 
keep  himself  scrupulously  clean  and  will  thrive  all  the  better. 
Even  the  trouble  of  washing  and  currying  him  frequently  will 
be  well  repaid.  Wood's  Natmral  History  contains  an  imputa- 


152  PACHYDERM ATA. 

tion  against  the  Hog,  which  we  do  not  remember  to  have  seen  or 
heard  of  before.  "  I  have,"  says  he,  "  seen  pigs  suck  the  cows 
in  a  farm  yard,  while  they  were  lying  down  and  chewing  the 
cud,  nor  did  the  cows  attempt  to  repel  them." 

The  Hog  is  remarkably  prolific,  bringing  forth  two  litters  in 
the  year,  of  from  eight  to  twelve,  and  sometimes  fifteen  or  twenty 
each.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  they  would  soon  become  annoy - 
ingly  numerous  were  they  not  diminished  by  being  used  for  the 
support  of  man.  Though  perfectly  useless  during  life,  they  are 
among  the  most  important  of  the  animals  which  are  reared  for 
the  value  of  their  flesh  as  human  food.  None  convert  a  given 
quantity  of  corn  or  other  nutriment  so  soon  into  fat,  or  can  be 
made  fat  on  so  great  a  variety  of  food.  "Their  flesh,"  says 
Linnaeus,  "  is  wholesome  food  for  persons  of  athletic  constitu 
tions,  or  those  who  habituate  themselves  to  much  exercise,  but 
improper  for  such  as  lead  sedentary  lives."  It  is  an  article  of 
great  importance  to  us  as  a  naval  and  commercial  nation,  as  it 
takes  salt  better  than  any  other  kind  of  flesh,  and  hence  can  be 
longer  preserved.  "  The  largest  animals  are  not  the  best. 
Fertility,  a  capacity  of  fattening  with  rapidity  and  with  the  least 
expense,  the  smallness  of  the  bones,  and  the  firmness  and  sweet 
ness  of  the  flesh,  with  its  readiness  to  receive  salt,  are  objects 
of  higher  importance  than  mere  bulk."  The  introduction  of 
the  Chinese  Hog,  it  is  said,  has  in  some  places  made  great 
changes  in  the  native  breeds.  This  breed  is  remarkable  for 
productiveness.  Cuvier  believed  it  to  be  specifically  differ 
ent  from  the  wild  Boar.  It  is  of  "small  size,  short  and  thick; 
the  belly  deep,  and  when  fat  nearly  reaching  the  ground  ; 
the  legs  short  and  fine;  the  head  very  short;  the  neck  thick." 
The  pork  of  the  Chinese  animal  is  particularly  delicate ;  but 
the  common  breeds  are  said  to  "  yield  the  best  bacon  and 
hams." 

The  senses  of  the  Hog  are  acute,  especially  that  of  smelling. 
The  broad  snout  ploughs  up  the  herbage,  and  not  a  root,  an  in 
sect  or  a  worm,  escapes  the  olfactory  sense.  The  animal  is  not 
stupid  as  compared  with  many  quadrupeds,  and  when  treated 
with  kindness,  sometimes  evinces  strong  attachment.  That  it  is 
docile  is  proved  by  the  number  of  "learned  pigs,"  and  by  "the 
famous  sporting  sow  that  went  regularly  out  with  the  gun,  arid 
stood  her  game  as  staunch  as  any  pointer," 

iS.  Botbirussa,  (native  word,  Hog  deer.)     The  BABYROUSSA. 

This  animal  is  nearly  the  size  of  a  common  hog,  but  differs 
from  it  in  some  marked  respects.  The  form  is  longer  and  light- 


PACHYDETJMATA.  153 

er,  the  limbs  more  slender,  and  of  greater  length.  The  skin  is 
black,  naked  and  warty,  and  when  closely  "examined  found  to  be 
sparingly  set  with  short  bristly  hairs.  It  is  remarkable  for  pos 
sessing  four  tusks  The  two  recurved  tusks  of  the  upper  jaw, 
instead  of  passing  out  between  the  lips,  pierce  through  the  skin 
halfway  between  the  eyes  and  the  end  of  the  snout,  turning  up 
wards  towards  the  forehead,  like  the  horns  of  the  Ruminantia ; 
the  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw  are  also  very  long,  sharp  and  curved  ; 
but  not  of  equal  magnitude  with  those  of  the  upper.  The  tusks 
are  very  fine  ivory,  but  neither  so  hard  nor  so  durable  as  that  of 
the  Elephant;  the  eyes  are  small;  the  ears  erect  and  pointed; 
the  tail  rather  long  and  slender,  and  tufted  at  the  end  with  long 
hairs.  The  food  of  the  Babyroussa  consists  chiefly  of  vegeta 
bles,  and  the  leaves  of  trees.  When  hunted  closely,  and  in  ap 
parent  danger,  this  animal  takes  to  the  water,  and  by  facility  in 
swimming,  alternately  diving  and  rising,  is  frequently  able  to 
escape  from  its  pursuers.  It  is  said  that  it  "crosses  without  diffi 
culty  the  straits  that  intervene  between  neighboring  islands." 
It  is  capable  of  being  domesticated,  and  its  flesh  is  palatable  and 
well  adapted  for  food.  The  Indians  ascribe  these  animals  to  a 
union  of  the  Hog  and  the  Deer.  The  Babyroussas  abound  in  the 
Molucca  islands,  and  are  also  found  in  a  few  other  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago. 

Two  of  these  animals,  (one  of  each  sex,)  were  brought  to 
France,  some  years  since,  and  kept  in  the  Paris  Menagerie. 
"  The  female  was  much  younger,  and  more  active  than  the  male, 
which  was  aged  and  very  fat,  and  spent  his  short  life  in  eating, 
drinking  and  sleeping.  The  female  bred  once  after  her  arrival 
in  Europe.  When  the  male  retired  to  rest,  she  would  cover  him 
completely  over  with  litter,  and  then  creep  in  under  the  straw  to 
him,  so  that  both  were  concealed  from  sight.  They  died  of  dis 
eased  lungs,  aboat  three  years  after  their  arrival." 

Phacocfioerus,  (Gr.  cpaxbg,  phakos,  lentil ;  zoioog,  choiros,  hog.) 
The  WARTY  HOG. 

^This  genus  of  the  Pachydermata,  found  in  Africa,  is  allied  to 
the  Swine,  and  from  the  projecting  appendages  about  the  head, 
called  Warty-hog.  Its  feet  are  formed  like  those  of  the  True 
Hog.  Some  of  them  have  but  sixteen,  others  twenty-four  teeth, 
while  the  common  hog  has  forty-four,  and  the  Babyroussa  thirty- 
two.  Of  the  two  species,  one  has  incisors,  the  other  none;  both 
have  tusks,  lateral  and  directed  upwards.  Their  system  of  den 
tition  points  them  out  as  more  herbivorous  than  omnivorous. 

P.  Aeliani,  Aelian's  Wart-Hog,  is  a  native  of  the  north  of 
Africa.  This,  at  all  ages,  has  incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  and  the 


154  PACHYDERMATA. 

lower  jaw,  which  clearly  distinguishes  it  from  the  Wart-Hog  of 
the  Cape  Colony. 

The  skin  of  this  animal  is  scantily  bristled  and  of  an  earthy 
color.  A  mane,  commencing  between  the  ears,  runs  along  the 
neck  and  back,  made  up  of  long  bristly  hairs,  some  of  them  ten 
inches  long.  These  bristles  and  those  found  on  the  other  parts 
of  the  body,  are  light  brown.  With  the  exception  of  the  back, 
the  body  has  a  naked  appearance.  The  head  is  broad  along  the 
brow,  which  is  rather  depressed ;  the  eyes  are  small  and  very 
high  up  on  the  head  ;  and  two  large  warts  appear,  one  on  or  near 
the  cheek,  called  the  larger  wart,  and  the  smaller  one  along  side 
the  cheek.  These  warts  are  formed  of  thickened  skinny  tissue; 
are  smaller  in  this  species  than  in  the  Wart-Hog  of  the  Cape. 
The  eyes  are  small;  the  tail  thin,  and  nearly  bare,  with  a  tuft 
of  hair  at  the  end.  On  the  fore  feet  is  a  piece  of  thick,  hard, 
protuberant  skin.  These  animals  haunt  low  bushes,  and  forests, 
creeping  on  their  bent  fore  feet,  in  search  of  food,  and  in  this 
posture,  digging  up  the  roots  of  plants  on  which  they  feed  with 
their  enormous  canine  teeth  ;  the  hind  legs  pushing  the  body  for 
ward  as  it  moves  in  this  position. 

P.  Aethiopicus,  or  Aethiopian  Wart-Hog,  has  larger  warts  than 
the  preceding,  and  a  more  singularly  formed  head. 

Dicotyles,  (Gr.  dl;t  dis,  two;  xoivlr^  kotule,  hollow,  or  cavity.) 
The  PECCARIES. 

These  animals  are  native  to  South  America ;  of  a  short,  com 
pact  form,  thickly  covered  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  with 
large  and  strong  dark  colored  bristles,  and  marked  by  yellowish 
white  rings;  and  round  the  neck  is  usually  a  whitish  band  or  col 
lar.  By  their  general  appearance  and  propensities,  they  are 
closely  allied  to  the  True  Swine;  but  they  differ  from  them  in 
respect  to  their  teeth,  having  four  instead  of  six  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw,  and  six  instead  of  seven  molars  on  each  side ;  their 
tusks  also  differ  from  those  of  the  common  hog,  not  turning  up 
and  projecting  out  of  the  mouth,  but  having  the  usual  direction  as 
in  other  animals;  the  hind  feet  have  only  three  toes,  the  external 
toe  on  each  foot  being  absent;  and  the  limbs  are  more  slender, 
the  head  shorter,  and  the  snout  longer  than  in  the  common  ho<r. 
The  tail  is  merely  rudimentary,  and  not  visible.  The  most  deci 
ded  characteristic  is  its  having  a  glandular  opening  on  the  loins, 
which  secretes  a  fetid  and  disgusting  odor,  infecting  the  flesh 
when  the  animal  is  killed,  unless  immediately  cut  away ;  in  that 
case  it  is  tolerable  food.  There  are  two  species  of  the  Peccary. 

Dicotyles  lorquatiis,  (Lat.  torques,  a  collar.)  The  COLLARED 
PECCARY,  k  has  its  name  "  Collared"  from  a  line  of  white  which 


PACHYDERMATA.  155 

passes  from  the  fore  part  of  the  neck,  obliquely  upwards,  to  meet 
over  the  shoulders  ;  is  found  in  Mexico,  as  well  as  in  the  greater 
part  of  Soutli  America.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of 
acorns,  roots,  and  earth  worms,  and  similar  creatures,  bred  in 
moist  and  marshy  places.  The  Collared  Peccary  has  been  do 
mesticated  in  South  America,  and  some  of  the  West  India  islands, 
and  in  the  domestic  state  is  fed  upon  the  same  esculents  as  the 
common  hogs,  but  its  flesh  is  far  inferior  to  theirs,  both  in  flavor 
and  fatness.  "The  comparative  infertility  of  the  Peccary,  which 
only  produces  two  young  at  a  birth,  is  a  bar  to  its  superseding 
the  domestic  pig,  which  is  equally  fertile  in  all  climates  where  it 
has  been  introduced."  The  gland  also,  presents  a  strong  objec 
tion  to  the  Peccary,  as  a  domestic  animal,  however  "neat  and 
trim"  it  may  be  in  its  general  habits  and  appearance.  It  is  said 
that  D'Azara  "revelled  in  its  scent,  as  a  perfume,"  and  that  oth 
ers  have  considered  it  "agreeable  enough,"  but  to  most  persons  it 
proves  extremely  offensive.  These  animals  haunt  the  thickest 
and  largest  forests,  dwelling  in  hollow  trees,  or  holes  in  the  earth 
made  by  other  animals.  They  go  in  pairs  or  small  families, 
laying  waste  the  cultivated  fields  and  plantations  of  maize  or 
sugar  cane,  if  not  driven  from  them  ;  but  they  are  not  common  in 
the  vicinity  of  villages. 

D.  labiatus,  (Lat.  lipped.)     The  WHITE-LIPPED  PECCARY. 

This  is  larger,  stronger  and  heavier  than  the  Collared  Peccary, 
often  measuring  three  and  a  half  feet  long,  and  sometimes  weigh 
ing  one  hundred  pounds,  whereas  the  Collared  species  seldom  ex 
ceed  three  feet  in  length,  or  weigh  more  than  fifty  pounds.  The 
prevailing  color  is  brown  ;  the  lips  are  white.  The  White-lipped 
Peccaries  are  found  in  numerous  bands,  sometimes,  as  is  said, 
amounting  to  upwards  of  a  thousand,  spreading  over  a  league  of 
ground,  and  directed,  the  natives  say,  by  a  leader  who  takes  his 
station  in  front  of  the  troop.  They  cross  rivers,  and  ravage 
plantations  on  their  march.  "If  they  meet  with  any  thing  unu 
sual  on  their  way,  they  make  a  terrific  clattering  with  their  teeth, 
and  stop  and  examine  the  object  of  their  alarm.  When  they 
have  ascertained  that  there  is  no  danger,  they  continue  their  route 
without  further  delay." 


Rhinoceros,  (Gr.  giv  or  gig,  rin  or  ris,  a  nose  ;  xe^a?,  keras,  a  horn.) 

THE  RHINOCEROS. 

This  large  uncouth  looking  creature  is  a  native  of  the  hotter 
regions  of  the  Eastern  Continent,  and  next  to  the  Elephant,  the 
most  powerful  of  all  quadrupeds.  There  are  several  species  of 


15G  PACHYDERMATA. 

this  animal,  of  which  the  chief  peculiarity  is  the  horn,  consisting 
of  fibres  matted  together  like  those  of  whalebone. 

R.  unicornis,  (one-horned,)  or  R.  Indicus,  the  common  E.  In 
dian  Rhinoceros,  is  usually  about  twelve  feet  long,  and  seven  in 
height,  and  the,  circumference  of  the  body  is  nearly  equal  to  its 
length.  This  species,  as  the  name  unicornis  imports,  has  but  one 
horn,  slightly  curved,  and  sharpened  to  a  point,  not  far  from 
three  feet  in  length,  and  used  as  a  most  powerful  and  effective 
weapon.  The  upper  lip  protrudes  considerably,  and  from  its  ex 
treme  pliability,  answers  the  purpose  of  a  small  proboscis.  The 
skin  is  thick  and  coarse,  and  has  a  knotted  or  granulated  surface; 
it  is  disposed  in  several  folds,  on  the  neck  and  shoulders.  The 
legs  are  very  short,  strong  and  thick  ;  and  the  feet  divided  into 
three  large  hoofs.  (Plate  VI.  fig.  10.)  The  Rhinoceros  of  India 
leads  a  quiet,  indolent  life,  in  the  shady  forests,  or  wallowing  in  the 
marshy  borders  of  lakes  and  rivers,  in  the  waters  of  which  it  occa 
sionally  bathes.  Its  movements  are  usually  slow,  and  it  carries  its 
head  low  like  the  hog,  ploughing  up  the  ground  with  its  horn,  and 
forcing  its  way  through  jungles.  Pennant  and  others  are  of  the 
opinion  that  this  is  the  fjnicorn  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  female 
brings  forth  one  young  at  a  time.  The  ordinary  food  of  the  In 
dian  Rhinoceros  consists  of  herbage,  and  the  branches  of  trees. 
The  flesh  is  said  to  be  not  unpalatable.  One  of  these  animals, 
which  was  taken  to  England,  in  1790,  ate  twenty-eight  pounds 
of  clover,  the  same  quantity  of  ship  biscuit,  together  with  a  great 
quantity  of  greens,  each  day ;  and  twice  or  three  times  a  day, 
five  pails  of  water  were  given  to  him.  The  Asiatic  specimen  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens,  London,  is  fed  on  clover,  straw,  rice  and 
bran.  The  skeleton  of  this  animal  approximates  to  that  of  the 
Tapir  and  the  Horse ;  the  stomach  is  more  like  that  of  a  man  or 
a  hog.  It  has  thirty-six  teeth,  twenty-one  of  which  are  molar, 
but  none  of  them  canines. 

R.  Javanacus.  The  Rhinoceros  of  Java.  This  has  less  rough 
or  prominent  folds  than  those  of  the  Indian  Rhinoceros;  its  range 
extends  from  the  level  of  the  ocean  to  the  summit  of  mountains 
which  are  considerably  elevated.  Marsden,  the  Missionary,  in 
his  "History  of  Sumatra,"  says,  that  "both  the  one  and  the  two 
horned  Rhinoceros  are  natives  of  the  woods ;"  and  he  denies  the 
stories  which  have  been  told  "of  the  desperate  encounters  of  these 
two  enormous  beasts." 

R.  Sumatrensis,  or  Bicornis,  (Lat.  two-horned.)  The  Rhino 
ceros  of  Sumatra,  has  a  skin  covered  with  stiff  brown  hairs,  and 
almost  altogether  without  folds,  and  it  has  a  second  horn  behind 
the  ordinary  one,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  African  animal. 


PACHYDERM  ATA.  157 

The  Rhinoceros  is  not  uncommon  in  Sumatra,  but  is  very  shy, 
and  therefore  rarely  seen. 

R.  Africanus.  The  animals  of  this  species  range  over  a  large 
part  of  Africa.  They  were  formerly  common  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cape  Town,  but  their  present  limit  on  the  South  West  coast  is 
the  twenty-third  degree  of  latitude.  In  the  interior  of  the  conti 
nent,  the  tribe  is  still  very  numerous,  but  less  so  than  in  Asia. 
This  species  differs  from  the  Asiatic  in  having  a  comparatively 
smooth  hide,  while  almost  all  the  Asiatic  species  have  a  very 
coarse  one,  which  is  covered  with  large  folds,  not  unlike  a  coat 
of  mail.  Four  distinct  varieties  are  said  to  exist  in  South  Afri 
ca,  two  of  a  dark,  and  two  of  a  whitish  hue,  called  the  "black" 
and  the  "  white"  Rhinoceros.  The  common  Black  Rhinoceros, 
Rhinoceros  bico.rnis,  is  called  by  the  natives  the  "Boiele;"  the 
other,  the  "Keitloa,"  Rhinoceros  keitloa. 

The  upper  lip  in  both  species  of  the  black  Rhinoceros  is  capa 
ble  of  extension,  and  is  so  pliable  as  to  twist  round  a  stick,  collect 
its  food,  or  seize  any  thing  which  it  would  carry  to  its  mouth. 
These  animals  are  very  fierce,  and  except  the  Buffalo,  perhaps, 
the  most  dangerous  of  all  the  beasts  of  South  Africa. 

Of  the  white  Rhinoceros,  the  two  varieties  are  R.  simus,  the 
common  white  Rhinoceros,  called  Monoohoo,  by  the  natives,  and 
R.  Oswellii,  the  KOBAABA,  or  long  horned  White  Rhinoceros. 
The  chief  difference  between  these  two  species,  relates  to  the 
horns,  the  front  horn  of  the  Monoohoo  averages  about  two  feet  in 
length ;  that  of  the  Kobaaba  frequently  is  more  than  four  feet. 
The  latter  variety  is  least  often  found,  and  confined  to  the  more 
interior  portions  of  Southern  Africa. 

The  White  Rhinoceros  is  of  larger  size  than  the  black.  The 
head  is  so  prolonged  that  it  is  nearly  one-third  part  of  the  entire 
length  of  the  body,  which  is  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet;  the 
nose  is  square;  the  anterior  horn  is  longer;  the  disposition  of  the 
animal  milder,  and  the  flesh  better  tasted  than  that  of  the  black 
species.  Its  food  is  grass.  The  black  species  are  very  sullen 
and  savage  in  their  disposition.  Their  flesh  is  lean,  and  of  an 
acrid  taste,  given  to  it  by  the  "Wait-a-bit"  thorn  bushes,  on 
which  they  feed,  ploughing  them  up  with  their  short  horn. 

The  body  of  the  R.  Simus,  (between  fourteen  and  sixteen  feet 
long,  and  ten  or  twelve  round,)  is  exceeded  in  size  only  by  that 
of  the  Elephant ;  its  belly  is  large  and  hangs  near  the  ground ; 
the  legs  are  short,  round  and  very  strong ;  and  the  hoofs  divided 
into  three  parts,  each  pointing  forward.  The  head  is  Large;  the 
ears  long  and  erect ;  the  eyes  small  and  sunken,  or  deep  set  in 
the  head.  The  horns  are  not  affixed  to  the  skull,  but  attached  to 


153  PACHYDERM ATA. 

the  skin,  resting,  however,  in  some  degree,  on  a  bony  protuber 
ance  above  the  nostrils.  They  take  a  high  polish,  and  are  worth 
half  as  much  as  Elephant's  ivory,  being  much  used  for  sword- 
handles,  drinking-cups,  rifle-ramrods,  etc.  People  of  fashion  at 
the  Cape,  have  the  cups  set  in  silver  and  gold.  The  Turks  be 
lieve  these  cups  will  split  asunder  and  fly  into  pieces,  if  poison 
be  put  into  them!  Even  the  chips  and  turnings  of  the  horns  are 
carefully  preserved,  being  esteemed  of  great  benefit  in  convulsions, 
faintings,  and  many  other  illnesses.  The  Rhinoceros  is  noctur 
nal  in  his  habits,  commencing  his  rambles  at  dusk,  and  visiting 
the  pools  or  fountains  between  the  hours  of  nine  and  twelve 
o'clock  at  night.  Having  wandered  until  sunrise,  he  spends  the 
day  in  sleep,  under  the  shelter  of  some  rock  or  tree.  All  the 
beasts  dread  him — the  lion  avoids  him — even  the  elephant,  should 
they  meet,  retreats,  if  possible,  without  hazarding  a  combat,  and 
he  will  also  fight  his  own  species.  His  hearing  and  smell  are 
acute,  but  his  sight  is  not  good.  The  Rhinoceros  is  not  gregari 
ous,  but  yet  of  a  social  turn,  and  usually  goes  in  pairs;  some 
times  browses  and  pastures  in  droves  of  a  dozen. 

The  best  time  to  shoot  these  animals  is  when  they  go  to  the 
pools  to  quench  their  thirst  and  wallow  in  the  mire,  which  they 
always  do  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  Occasionally  the  Rhi 
noceros,  like  the  Elephant,  is  taken  in  pitfalls.  The  mother  is 
affectionate  and  guards  her  offspring  with  tender  care.  The 
young  also  show  strong  attachment  to  the  mother,  clinging  to  her 
for  days  after  she  has  been  killed.  The  general  appearance  of 
the  African  Rhinoceros  is  that  of  an  immense  hog,  with  the  bris 
tles  off,  excepting  a  tuft  at  the  extremity  of  the  ears  and  tail ;  it 
has  no  hair  whatever,  and  is  the  "very  image  of  ugliness." 
The  full  grown  male  of  the  common  white  species,  weighs  not 
less  than  four  or  five  thousand  pounds,  or  as  much  as  three  good 
sized  oxen.  The  Rhinoceros  is  long  lived,  attaining,  as  is 
thought,  the  age  of  one  hundred  years.  Unwieldly  as  he  ap 
pears,  he  is  still  swift  of  foot,  at  least  this  is  true  of  the  black 
species.  Gordon  Gumming,  in  his  "Adventures  in  Africa," 
says,  "that  a  horse  with  a  rider,  can  rarely  manage  to  overtake 
it."  The  food  of  this  animal  consists  of  vegetables,  grasses, 
shoots  of  trees,  and  all  kinds  of  grain  ;  but  it  is  not  a  voracious 
feeder.  The  statement  that  the  hide  of  the  rhinoceros  is  "  im 
penetrable  to  a  bullet,"  is  now  regarded  as  pure  myth  ;  for  "a 
common  leaden  ball  will  find  its  way  through  the  hide  with  the 
greatest  facility."  In  consequence  of  the  solid  structure  of  the 
head,  and  the  great  thickness  of  the  hide  in  that  part,  and  the 
smallnessof  the  brain,  a  shot  aimed  at  the  head  rarely  proves  fatal. 


PACHYDERM  AT  A.  159 

The  cavity  of  the  brain  in  this  animal  holds  but  one  quart,  while 
that,  of  the  human  skull  will  contain  nearly  three  pints.  How. 
ever  severely  wounded,  the  Rhinoceros  seldom  bleeds  externally ; 
the  hide  being  so  thick  and  elastic  and  not  firmly  attached  to  the 
body,  but  constantly  moving,  the  hole  made  by  a  bullet  almost 
immediately  closes  up.  Very  many  of  these  animals  are  an 
nually  destroyed  in  South  Africa.  Anderson,  from  whom  we 
gathered  many  of  the  particulars  here  given,  states,  in  bis  "Lake 
Ngami,"  that  Messrs.  Oswell  and  Vardon  killed^  in  one  year, 
eighty-nine  of  these  animals,  and  that  he  himself,  "single  handed, 
killed  in  the  same  time  nearly  two-thirds  of  that  number.  Gum 
ming,  in  his  "Adventures,"  states  that  these  animals  are  attended 
by  what  are  called  "  Rhinoceros-birds,"  which  stick  their  bills  in 
the  ear  of  the  Rhinoceros,  and  uttering  a  harsh,  grating  cry, 
warn  him  of  impending  danger.  These  birds  feed  upon  the 
ticks  and  other  parasitic  insects  which  swarm  upon  these  animals. 

Hippopotamus,  (Gr.  iVrTtog,  hippos,  a  horse ;  norafios,  po tamos, 
a  river.)  The  RIVER  HORSE.  (Four- hoofed.) 

This  gigantic  inhabitant  of  the  African  rivers  is  formidable  in 
his  strength,  and  in  bulk  inferior  only  to  the  Elephant.  The 
ancients  named  him  River-Iiorse,  on  account  of  the  similarity 
of  his  voice  to  that  of  a  horse.  The  form  of  this  animal  is  in 
the  highest  degree  uncouth ;  the  body  being  extremely  large,  fat 
and  round ;  the  legs  very  short  and  clumsy.  So  low,  indeed,  at 
times  is  the  animal  in  the  body,  that  the  belly  almost  brushes  the 
ground.  The  head  is  exceedingly  large,  the  mouth  of  enormous 
width,  and  the  teeth  of  vast  size  and  strength.  (Plate  IV.  fig.  6.) 
The  canines  or  tusks  of  these  animals,  of  which  there  are  two  in 
each  jaw,  sometimes  measure  more  than  two  feet  in  length,  and 
weigh  upwards  of  six  pounds  each  ;  so  hard  and  strong  are  they 
that  they  strike  fire  with  steel,  which  gave  rise  to  the  fable  of  the 
ancients  that  the  River-Horse  vomits  fire  from  his  mouth.  The 
tusks  of  the  lower  jaw  are  always  the  hardest.  The  hoofs  are  di 
vided  into  four  parts,  unconnected  by  membranes.  The  skin,  neady 
an  inch  thick,  is  destitute  of  covering,  except  a  few  scattered 
hairs  on  the  muzzle,  edges  of  the  ears  and  tail.  The  color, 
when  on  land,  is  of  a  purple  brown ;  but  when  seen  at  the  bottom 
of  a  pool,  it  appears  to  be  of  a  dark  blue,  or  as  described  by  Dr. 
Burchell,  "  of  a  light  hue  of  Indian  ink."  As  in  the  Croco 
dile,  the  upper  mandible  is  said  to  be  movable.  The  inside  of 
the  mouth  has  been  described  bv  a  recent  writer,  as  resembling 
"  a  mass  of  butcher's  meat."  rf*he  eyes,  (which  have  been  com 
pared  to  the  garret- windows  of  a  Dutch  Cottage,)  the  nostrils,  and 
the  ears  are  all  on  nearly  the  same  plane.  This  gives  the  use  of 


160  PACHYDERM ATA. 

three  senses,  and  allows  of  respiration,  with  a  very  small  portion 
of  the  animal  exposed,  when  it  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Two  species  are  found  in  Africa,  viz.  :  H.  amphibius,  (Gr. 
ttptyt^amphl,  double ;  ^tow,  bioo,  to  live,)  and  H.  Liberiensis, 
(some  consider  these,  however,  one  and  the  same  species  ;)  the 
latter  is  much  the  smaller  of  the  two.  They  range  from  the 
Cape  Colony  to  22o  or  23o  N.  I/at.,  being  found  in  the  lakes  and 
rivers,  but  in,  no  rivers  which  empty  into  the  Mediteranean,  ex 
cept  the  Nile,  and  that  part  of  it  which  flows  through  Upper 
Egypt,  or  in  the  fens  and  lakes  of  Ethiopia.  They  inhabit  both 
fresh  and  salt  water,  but  are  retiring  before  the  advance  of  civil 
ization.  This  animal  is  believed  to  have  once  existed  in  Asia, 
but  on  that  continent  has  now  become  extinct. 

The  adult  male  of  this  species,  H.  ampliibius,  attains  a  length 
of  11  or  12  feet,  and  is  nearly  the  same  number  of  feet  in  cir 
cumference.  The  height  is  seldom  more  than  4£  feet ;  the 
female  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  male.  The  water  seems 
the  native  element  of  the  Hippopotamus,  in  which  it  swims  and 
dives  like  a  duck,  and  taking  into  account  its  unwieldly  bulk,  in 
a  manner  truly  astonishing.  When  on  land,  with  its  dumpy 
legs  supporting  so  enormous  a  weight,  its  progress  is  anything 
but  rapid.  Seldom  does  it  wander  far  from  water,  to  which  it 
immediately  betakes  itself  when  disturbed  or  alarmed. 

It  is  nocturnal,  rarely  feeding  except  during  the  night,  for  that 
purpose  taking  to  the  shore,  it  being  an  herbaceous  animal.  It 
appears  rather  nice  in  the  selection  of  its  food,  which  consists  of 
grass,  young  reeds  and  bulbous  succulent  roots.  When  near 
cultivated  districts,  it  ravages  plantations  of  rice  and  grain,  des 
troying  as  much  by  the  treading  of  its  enormous  feet  as  by  its 
voraciousness. 

These  animals  are  gregarious,  being  found  in  troops  of  from 
six  to  thirty.  It  is  said  to  be  "  amusing  to  watch  them  when  con 
gregated  ;  to  see  them  alternately  rising  and  sinking,  as  if  im 
pelled  by  some  invisible  agency,  in  the  while  snorting  most  tre 
mendously  and  blowing  the  water  in  every  direction. "  Some 
times  they  continue  perfectly  motionless  near  the  surface,  with 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  head  out  of  the  water.  When  in  this 
position,  they  are  described  as  appearing,  at  a  little  distance, 
"  like  so  many  rocks."  By  some  zoologists,  they  are  represented 
as  naturally  mild  and  inoffensive.  This  may  be  true  of  them  in 
regions  rarely  visited  by  the  foreign  hunter  and  the  firelock ; 
but  it  is  certain  they  have  at  times  shown  themselves  to  be  most 
ferocious  and  hurtful.  Their  memory  seems  good,  and  seldom 
do  they  expose  themselves  to  a  second  attack  in  the  same  place. 


PACHYDERM  ATA.  161 

That  they  naturally  are  fond  of  the  aquatic  element,  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  if  the  mother  be  shot  dead  just  after  calving,  the 
young  one  will  immediately  make  for  the  water.  The  natives  har 
poon  them  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  adopted  with  the  whale  ; 
if  killed  outright  the  animal  sinks,  but  in  half  a  day  reappears. 
The  flesh  is  highly  esteemed ;  the  tongue  is  regarded  as  a 
great  delicacy,  and  the  fat  of  the  animal  forms  a  capital  substi 
tute  for  butter. 

The  hides  of  these  animals  form  no  mean  article  of  commerce  in 
the  Cape  Colony  ;  in  Northern  Africa  they  are  made  into  whips  for 
the  dromedary,  and  also  for  punishing  refractory  servants.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  used  the  hide  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
shields,  helmets,  javelins,  etc.  But  the  teeth,  (canine  and  inci 
sor,)  are  the  most  valuable  part  of  this  animal.  They  are  con 
sidered  much  superior  to  Elephant's  ivory,  and  when  perfect  and 
heavy,  (say  from  five  tc  eight  pounds  each,)  have  been  known  to 
bring  about  five  dollars  a  pound.  They  do  not  readily  turn  yel 
low,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  Elephant's  ivory,  and  on  that 
account  are  more  valuable  for  artificial  teeth. 

Medicinal  qualities  are  attributed  to  certain  portions  of  the 
body  of  the  River  Horse.  These  animals  are  easily  domesti 
cated  but  are  very  voracious.  One  of  them  now  in  the  Regent's 
Park  Gardens,  (London.)  when  first  shipped  at  Alexandria, 
Egypt,  and  yet  comparatively  a  "  baby,"  consumed  daily  the 
milk  of  two  cows  and  three  goats.  This  portion,  until  supple 
mented  with  Indian  corn,  did  not,  however,  suffice  to  satisfy  his 
enormous  appetite.  "  On  his  arrival  at  the  gardens,  oat-meal 
was  substituted  for  Indian  corn  ;  and  the  change,  with  an  extra 
supply  of  milk,  seemed  to  give  the  gigantic  infant  great  satisfac 
tion."  Vegetable  diet  was  by  degrees  administered  in  place  of 
milk  ;  at  the  present  time  the  animal  is  fed  on  clover,  hay,  corn, 
chaff,  bran,  mangel  wurtzel,  carrots  and  white  cabbage.  The 
three  last  named  vegetables  constitute  his  favorite  food.  On  a 
daily  allowance  of  100  Ibs.  of  this  kind  of  food,  he  thrives  aston 
ishingly  well,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  weighing  1,000  Ibs. 
when  he  first  arrived,  he  now  weighs  more  than  3,000  Ibs.  Not 
less  than  six  bushels  of  chewed  grass  was  found  in  me  stomach 
of  one  examined  by  Mr.  Burchell. 

Tapirus.     The  "TAPIR. 

Of  this  genus  of  Pachydermatous  quadrupeds  there  are  three 
species  ;  two  of  them  found  in  South  America,  the  other  in  Sum 
atra  and  Malacca.  The  general  characters  of  this  genus  are  the 
following  ;  the  molar  teeth,  which  are  seven  on  each  side  above 
and  six  below,  "  have  their  crowns  crossed  by  two  transverse  and 


162  PACHYDERMATA. 

straight  ridges,  at  least,  until  worn  down  by  attrition ;  the  inci 
sors  in  each  ]aw  are  six  ;  tne  canines  two,  separated  from  the 
molars  by  a  wide  interval  ;  the  nose  is  elongated  into  a  short 
flexible  trunk;  the  feet  have  four  toes  before  and  three  behind; 
the  skin  is  dense  and  thinly  covered  with  short,  close  hair."  In 
its  general  form  and  contour,  this  animal  reminds  the  beholder 
of  a  hog;  but  it  is  distinguished  from  the  hog  by  its  flexible 
trunk,  which  answers  partly  the  same  purpose  as  that  of  the 
elephant.  (See  Chart.)  The  trunk  has  not,  however,  any  fin 
ger-like  appendage  like  that  of  the  latter  animal.  The  eyes  are 
small  and  lateral,  and  the  ears  long  and  pointed. 

The  AMERICAN  TAPIR,  T.  Americanus,  is  the  largest  animal 
of  South  America.  It  is  of  a  deep  brown  color  throughout, 
approaching  to  black;  between  three  and  four  feet  in  height, 
and  from  five  to  six  in  length.  The  hair  is  short  and  very 
scanty,  so  that  it  is  scarcely  discernible  at  a  short  distance. 
The  back  of  the*  neck  is  bristled  with  a  thin  mane  of  stiff  black 
ish  hairs.  The  inmost  recesses  of  deep  forests  are  the  chosen 
resorts  of  this  species,  which  is  not  gregarious,  and  avoids 
the  society  of  man.  For  the  most  part,  it  is  nocturnal  in  its 
habits,  sleeping,  or  remaining  quiet  during  the  day,  and  at 
night  seeking  its  food,  which,  in  the  natural  state  of  the  ani 
mal,  consists  of  shoots  of  trees,  birds,  wild  fruits,  etc.  It  is, 
however,  when  in  confinement,  an  indiscriminate  swallower  of 
every  thing,  filthy  or  clean.  Its  enormous  muscular  power  and 
the  tough,  thick  hide  which  defends  its  body,  enable  it  to  tear  its 
way  through  the  underwood  in  whatever  direction  it  pleases. 
Its  ordinary  pace  is  a  sort  of  trot ;  but  it  sometimes  gallops, 
though  awkwardly,  and  with  the  head  down.  It  is  very  fond  of 
the  water,  and  often  resorts  to  it,  sometimes  remaining  below  the 
surface  for  a  considerable  time.  Its  disposition  is  peace/ul  and 
quiet ;  it  will,  however,  defend  itself  vigorously,  and  inflict  se 
vere  wounds  with  its  teeth,  though  it  never  attempts  to  attack 
either  man  or  beast,  unless  hard  pressed.  The  Jaguar  often 
springs  upon  it,  but  is  frequently  dislodged  by  the  activity  of  the 
Tapir,  who  rushes  through  the  bushes  as  soon  as  he  feels  the 
claws  of  his  enemy,  and  endeavors  to  brush  him  off  against  the 
thick  branches.  In  some  parts  of  South  America  the. Tapir  is 
domesticated.  M.  Sonnini  saw  several  of  them  "walking  at  lib 
erty  about  the  streets  of  Cayenne,  whence  they  were  accustomed 
to  stroll  into  the  neighboring  woods,  returning  at  night  to  their 
home;  nor  were  they  by  any  means  destitute  of  intelligence,  but 
seemed  fond  of  their  masters,  whom  they  not  only  recognized, 
but  acknowledged  by  various  tokens  of  attachment."  In  his 
opinion,  the  Tapir  might,  from  its  great  strength  and  docility,  be 


PACHYDERMATA.  103 

advantageously  used  as  a  beast  of  burden.  The  sight,  hearing 
and  smell  of  this  animal  are  very  acute.  It  is  in  much  request 
by  the  natives  for  its  flesh,  which,  though  coarse  and  dry,  they 
deem  excellent  food.  The  skin  is  also  valuable,  from  its  tough 
ness  and  density. 

T.  Malay  anus,  (or  T.  Indicus.)  The  MALAY  or  ASIATIC  TAPIR  is 
larger  than  the  American,  which  it  resembles  in  form  and  gen- 
eral  habits.  Its  back  and  sides  are  of  a  grayish  white,  abruptly 
edging  the  brown  of  the  other  parts,  which  gives  the  animal  an 
appearance  as  if  a  white  horse-cloth  had  been  spread  over  it; 
the  neck  is  destitute  of  a  mane.  Its  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  natives 
of  Sumatra.  In  captivity,  like  the  South  American  animal,  it  is 
gentle  and  inoffensive,  "becoming  as  tame  and  familiar  as  a  dog, 
feeding  indiscriminately  on  all  kinds  of  vegetables,  and  some 
times  fond  of  attending  at  table  to  receive  bread,  cakes,  or  the 
like."  The  young,  as  is  the  case  with  the  American  species, 
differs  in  color  from  the  adult,  being,  at  the  age  of  four  or  five 
months,  black,  beautifully  marked  with  spots  and  stripes  of  a 
fawn  color  above,  and  white  below. 

A  third  species  has  been  discovered  in  the  Cordilleras  of  South 
America,  covered  with  thick  black  hair,  and  with  a  more  elonga 
ted  trunk. 

Hyrax,(Gr.f'vga%,  hurax,  fromavs,  7ms,  a  swine.)  The  animals 
of  this  genus  are  small,  and  aptly  described  in  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
as  "  a  feeble  folk,"  but  of  great  interest  on  account  of  the  pecul 
iarity  of  their  organization.  "They  are  rhinoceroses  in  minia 
ture."  Cuvier,  by  a  recourse  to  the  anatomy  of  the  Hyrax, 
proved  it  to  be  a  true  Pachyderm ;  and  "  notwithstanding  the 
smallness  of  its  proportions,"  intermediate  between  the  Rhinoce 
ros  and  the  Tapir.  This  animal  has  twenty-one  ribs  on  each 
side,  a  number  greater  than  that  possessed  by  any  other  quadru 
ped,  the  Unau  excepted,  which  has  twenty-three.  Its  molar 
teeth  resemble  those  of  the  Rhinoceros,  as  it  does  also  in  the 
characters  of  its  stomach  and  alimentary  canal.  The  body  is 
covered  with  thick  hair,  and  "beset  here  and  there  with  erinace- 
ous  bristles."  It  has  a  simple  tubercle  in  lieu  of  a  tail ;  four 
toes  on  each  fore  foot,  and  three  on  the  hind  ones. 

H.  Syriacus.  The  DAMAN  of  Syria,  the  CONEY  of  the  Bible,  is 
of  a  brownish  gray  color  above,  and  has  the  lower  parts  white ; 
these  two  colors  being  separated  by  a  yellowish  tint,  and  the  head 
and  feet  being  more  gray  than  the  body.  The  skin,  where  it  is 
exposed,  is  of  a  blackish  violet.  The  length  is  about  two  feet ;  the 
height  eleven  inches.  It  stands  rather  low  on  the  legs,  being  par 
tially  pi  antigrade ;  its  body  is  stout  for  its  size,  which  is  hardly  equal 


164  PACHYDERM ATA. 

that  of  a  hare.  It  skips  about  with  great  agility,  and  its  actions 
evince  a  sportive  and  playful  disposition  ;  in  captivity  it  becomes 
docile  and  affectionate.  The  Conies  make  their  houses  among 
the  rocks.  Proverbs  xxx;  26.  "The  nature  of  their  retreats 
renders  the  capture  of  these  animals  very  difficult.  To  behold 
this  creature  among  the  craggy  and  broken  mountain  scenery  of 
the  land  of  the  Psalmist,  where  he  noticed  it  himself,  and  recorded 
the  goodness  of  God  in  providing  a  refuge  for  a  defenceless  ani 
mal,  surrounded  with  numerous  enemies,  the  jackall,  the  hyaena, 
and  the  eagle,  cannot  but  raise  in  the  mind  that  train  of  reflections 
which  led  David  to  exclaim,  "O  Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy 
works!  in  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all !" 

The  Conies  or  Damans,  associate  in  considerable  numbers, 
coming  forth  from  their  retreats  during  the  day,  but  flee  on 
any  alarm,  to  their  holes  in  the  rocks,  or  in  the  steep  declivities 
of  mountains,  there  resting  themselves  in  their  nests  prepared  of 
leaves  and  grasses.  Their  food  consists  of  the  roots  and  vegeta 
bles  of  mountain  districts.  In  walking  they  steal  along  as  if 
frightened,  with  the  belly  almost  on  the  ground,  advancing  a  few 
steps  at  a  time,  and  then  pausing.  Their  whole  manner  is  mild, 
feeble  and  timid  ;  they  are  easily  tamed,  though  if  roughly  hand 
led  at  first*  they  will  bite.  It  was  classed  among  the  unclean  an 
imals  of  the  Jews.  Lev.  xi :  5.  In  Abyssinia,  its  flesh  is  con 
sidered  unclean,  both  by  Christians  and  Mohammedans.  The 
Arabs,  it  is  said,  eat  it  and  call  it,  perhaps  in  jest,  "the  sheep  of 
the  children  of  Israel." 

H.  Capensis.  The  KLIPDAS,  closely  resembles  the  Syrian  ani 
mal.  In  winter,  it  is  fond  of  coming  out  of  its  hole  and  "sunning 
itself  on  the  lee-side  of  a  rock,"  and  in  summer,  of  enjoying  a 
breeze  on  the  top  ;  but  in  both  instances,  as  well  as  when  it  feeds, 
a  sentinel,  which  is  generally  an  old  male,  is  on  the  look  out,  and 
usually  gives  notice  by  a  prolonged,  shrill  cry,  of  the  approach 
of  danger. v 

Palaeotherium,  (Gr.  Ttahaiog,  palaios,  ancient,  and  Or^lov,  the- 
rion,  a  wild  beast.) 

This  is  the  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  an  extinct  genus  of  Pachy 
dermatous  animals,  discovered  in  the  gypsum  beds  of  Paris,  in 
company  with  Anoplotherium.  Of  this  fossil  genus,  nearly  fifty 
species  have  been  discovered.  Remains  of  Pala£otheria  have 
been  found  in  the  tertiary  formation  near  Rome,  the  department 
of  the  Gironde,  Provence,  etc.,  and  in  the  lower  and  marly  beds 
of  Binstead,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  The  zoological  position  of  the 
genus  appears  to  be  intermediate  between  the  Rhinoceros,  Horse 
and  Tapir.  The  habits  of  the  animals  which  it  included  were 


PACHYDERM ATA.  105 

probably  like  those  of  the  Tapirs.  Dr.  Buckland  supposes  that 
they  lived  and  died  upon  the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers.  The 
species  varied  greatly  in  size,  some  having  been  as  large  as  a 
Rhinoceros,  and  others  having  ranged  from  the  size  of  a  horse  to 
that  of  a  dog.  In  relation  to  the  discovery  of  this  fossil  genus, 
Cuvier  thus  writes:  "I  found  myself  as  if  placed  in  a  charnel 
house,  surrounded  by  mutilated  fragments  of  many  hundred 
skeletons  of  more  than  twenty  kinds  of  animals,  piled  confusedly 
around  me ;  the  task  assigned  me  was  to  restore  them  all  to  their 
original  position.  At  the  voice  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  every 
•bone  and  fragment  of  bone  resumed  its  place.  I  cannot  find 
words  to  express  the  pleasure  I  experienced  in  seeing,  when  I 
discovered  one  character,  how  all  the  consequences  which  I  pre 
dicted  from  it,  were  successively  confirmed.  The  feet  accorded 
with  the  characters  announced  by  the  teeth ;  the  teeth  were  in 
harmony  with  those  previously  indicated  by  the  feet.  The  bones 
of  the  legs  and  thighs,  and  every  connecting  portion  of  the  ex 
tremities  were  found  to  be  joined  together  precisely  as  I  had 
arranged  them  before  my  conjectures  were  verified  by  the  dis 
covery  of  the  parts  entire.  Each  species  was,  in  fact,  recon 
structed  from  a  single  unit  of  its  composing  elements."  The  Pa- 
TaeotJieria  were  characterized  by  having  twenty-eight  complex 
molar  teeth,  four  canines,  and  twelve  incisors;  six  in  each  jaw. 

Anopl other ium,  (Gr.  from  «/,  an,  rieg  ;  onlov,  hoplon,  a  weapon  ; 
6i]Qiov  therion,  a  wild  beast.) 

This  name,  signifying  a  beast  without  offensive  arms  or  tusks, 
was  given  to  a  genus  of  extinct  Pachyderms,  found  by  Cuvier  in 
company  with  the  Palaeotheria,  and  named  by  him,  ranging  be 
tween  the  Pachydermata  and  Ruminantia. 

III.  FAMILY  of  the  PACHYDERMATA.     (PI.  VI.  fig.  8.) 

Equidae,  (Lat.  Equus,  a  horse.)  Solid- ungulous,  or  one-hoofed 
Mammalia.  These  Pachyderms  have  but  a  single  finger  or  toe, 
terminating  each  extremity;  and  this  finger  or  toe  is  enclosed  in 
a  horny  hoof  or  shoe.  They  include  Horses,  Asses,  and  the 
Zebra.  Of  these  the  Horses  are  far  the  most  valuable  and  most 
widely  distributed.  Instead  of  the  massive  form  and  heavy  tread 
of  the  Elephant,  these  animals  approach  to  slender  forms,  and 
they  (especially  the  horses,)  resemble  in  their  graceful  pro-por 
tions,  and  their  fleet  movements,  the  Deer  and  the  Antelope. 
They  are  distinguished  from  other  animals,  not  only  by  the  un 
divided  hoof,  but  by  their  stomach,  which  is  simple  and  incapable 
of  rumination.  Their  intestines  are  much  lengthened,  and  thus 
adapted  to  their  food,  which  consists  entirely  of  herbage.  "The 
Asses  and  the  Zebras,"  says  Dr.  Gray,  "  are  always  whitish  and 


16G  PACHYDERM AT A. 

more  or  less  banded  with  blackish  brown,  and  always  have  a  dis 
tinct  dorsal  line,  the  tail  only  bristly  at  the  end,  and  they  have 
warts  only  on  the  arms,  (fore  legs,)  and  none  on  the  hind  legs; 
and  have  long  hair  on  the  tail,  from  its  insertion  to  its  extremity." 

The  number  of  teeth  in  this  family  is  forty-two,  viz.  twelve 
incisors  or  nippers,  four  canines  and  twenty-six  molars.  While 
the  animal  is  young,  the  incisors  have  their  crowns  furnished 
with  a  groove;  the  molars  have  square  crowns  marked  or  edged 
with  four  crescents  of  enamel.  Between  the  canines  (which 
are  developed  in  the  male  alone,)  and  the  first  molar,  is  a  broad, 
open  space,  which  is  capable  of  receiving  the  bit,  (see  Plate  IV. 
fig.  5,)  with  which  these  animals  are  governed  when  in  a  state  of 
domestication.  The  female  ordinarily  produces  one  young  at  a 
time,  which  is  called  a  foal,  and  suckled  during  six  or  seven 
months.  Africa  and  Asia  are  the  native  regions  of  the  EQUID^E. 
They  range  in  large  herds  over  the  extended  plains  and  table 
lands  which  are  uncovered  with  forests.  Two  species,  the 
Horse  and  the  Ass,  have  been  domesticated  and  widely  dispersed 
over  the  earth. 

E.  caballus,  (Lat.  a  Keffel  or  Saddle  Horse,)     The  HORSE. 

It  has  been  well  remarked  that  if  custom  had  not  dignified  the 
Lion  with  the  title  of  "King  of  beasts,"  reason  could  no  where 
confer  that  honor  more  deservedly  than  on  the  horse.  His  cour 
age,  strength,  fleetness,  his  symmetrical  form  and  grandeur  of 
deportment,  are  unalloyed  by  any  quality  injurious  to  other  crea. 
tures,  or  adapted  to  create  the  aversion  of  man,  whose  orders  he 
implicitly  obeys,  whose  severest  tasks  he  undertakes  with  a 
cheerful  alacrity,  and  to  whose  pleasures  he  contributes  with  an- 
imation  and  delight.  On  the  battle-field,  he  shows  the  most  res 
olute  fierceness  and  courageous  ardor.  In  the  poetical  language 
of  the  sacred  writings,  "His  neck  is  clothed  with  thunder.  The 
glory  of  his  nostrils  is  terrible.  He  paweth  the  valley  and  re- 
joiceth  in  his  strength.  He  goeth  on  to  meet  armed  men.  He 
mocketh  at  danger  and  is  not  affrighted;  neither  turneth  he 
back  from  the  sword."  (Job,  xxxix.) 

Much  discussion  has  existed  concerning  what  region  the  Horse 
originally  inhabited,  and  to  what  nation  we  are  indebted  for  his 
first  subjugation.  It  is  well  known  this  animal  is  found  wild  in 
the  Western  as  well  as  the  Eastern  Continent ;  but  there  is 
no  doubt  it  was  at  first  confined  to  the  latter,  where  the  wild  spe 
cies,  such  as  the  Zebra,  the  Quagga,  etc.,  still  range  in  freedom. 
The  testimony  of  the  sacred  writings  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the 
eastern  origin  of  the  horse,  making  it  quite  evident  that  the 
Egyptians  first  subdued  it  to  obedience  and  servitude.  The  first 
mention  of  the  horse  occurs  during  Joseph's  wise  administration 


PACHYDERMATA.  1G7 

in  Egypt,  who,  it  is  said,  gave  bread  to  the  famishing  in  exchange 
for  horses  ;  and  when  the  remains  of  the  patriarch,  Jacob,  were 
removed  from  Egypt  to  Canaan  for  burial,  we  read  "there  went 
up  with  him  both  chariots  and  horsemen."  This  shows  that 
horses  were  used  both  for  draught  and  burden  1650  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ,  which  is  earlier  than  the  date  of  any  profane 
history  in  relation  to  this  subject.  The  Egyptian  and  Nubian 
horses  are  still  among  the  handsomest,  but  Arabia  bears  the  palm 
in  producing  the  most  beautiful  breed  of  horses,  and  also  the 
most  generous,  swift,  courageous  and  persevering.  "The  Arab 
treats  his  horse  as  one  of  his  family;  it  lives  in  the  same  tent 
with  him,  eats  from  his  hand,  and  sleeps  among  his  children,  who 
tumble  about  on  it  without  the  least  fear.  Few  Arabs  can  be  in- 
duced  to  part  with  a  favorite  horse."  It  is  related  that  "  an  Arab, 
the  net  value  of  whose  dress  and  accouterments  might  be  calcu 
lated  at  under  seven  pence  half  penny,  refused  all  offers  made  to 
purchase  a  beautiful  mare  on  which  he  rode,  and  declared  that 
he  loved  the  animal  better  than  his  own  life."  The  Arabian 
horses  are  in  height  not  often  more  than  fourteen  hands  two 
inches.  They  are  found,  though  not  in  great  numbers,  in  the 
deserts  of  that  country,  and  the  natives  make  use  of  every  strat 
agem  to  take  them,  reserving  the  most  promising  for  breeding, 
and  instead  of  crossing,  as  is  done  in  other  countries,  taking 
every  pains  to  keep  the  breed  pure.  Some  have  supposed  that 
to  Arabia  we  are  indebted  for  the  primitive  breed  of  this  noble 
animal  and  its  subjugation  to  the  use  of  man.  Mr.  Bell,  how. 
ever,  who  is  high  authority  in  this  subject,  says  in  his  "History 
of  British  Quadrupeds,"  "there  is  great  reason  to  conclude  that 
it  was  only  at  a  comparatively  late  period  that  they  were  em 
ployed  by  that  people.  While  Solomon  was  receiving  from 
Arabia  treasures  of  various  kinds,  it  was  from  Egypt  only  that 
.his  horses  were  brought.  There  appears  great  probability  in  the 
opinion  that  Egypt,  or  its  neighborhood,  is  the  original  country, 
and  still  more  that  this  extraordinary  people  first  rendered  it  sub 
servient  to  man,  and  subsequently  distributed  it  to  other  coun 
tries." 

In  Brande's  Dictionary  of  Science,  &c.,  it  is  remarked  that 
"  wild  horses  appear  to  be  free  from  nearly  all  those  diseases  to 
which  the  domestic  breed  are  prone." 

The  wild  horse  is  found  in  immense  numbers  in  the  vast 
plains  of  Great  Tartary,  and  also  in  South  America  in  the  rich 
pampas  extending  from  La  Plata  to  Paraguay.  The  wild  horses 
of  South  America  are  undoubtedly  descended  from  those  of  An 
dalusia,  originally  carried  thither  by  the  Spanish  conquerors. 


1C3  PACHYDEKAIATA. 

When  caught,  they  are  easily  subjugated  and  valuable  for  their 
speed,  hardness  and  strength.  The  usual  method  of  taking 
them  is  by  the  lasso,  a  running  noose  at  the  end  of  a  long 
leathern  thong,  thrown  with  wonderful  precision  and  capable  of 
bearing  a  sudden  and  violent  strain. 

The  horse  is  a  herbivorous  animal,  as  its  teeth  indicate,  and 
is  more  scrupulous  in  the  choice  of  its  food  than  most  other 
quadrupeds,  rejecting  in  the  meadow  several  plants  which  the  ox 
devours  with  pleasure.  By  the  peculiar  structure  of  some  of 
the  bones  of  his  face,  he  is  enabled  to  so  move  his  jaws  as  to 
comminute  and  grind  down  his  corn.  The  best  method  of  judg 
ing  of  a  horse's  age  is  from  a  careful  investigation  of  its  teeth. 
"  Five  days  after  birth,  the  four  teeth  in  front,  called  nippers, 
begin  to  shoot ;  these  are  cast  off  at  the  age  of  two  years  and  a 
half,  but  are  soon  renewed,  and  in  the  following  year  two  above 
and  two  below,  namely  one  on  each  side  of  the  nippers,  are  also 
thrown  off;  at  four  years  and  a  half,  other  four  next  those  last 
placed  fall  out  and  are  succeeded  by  other  four,  which  grow 
much  more  slowly.  From  these  last  four  corner  teeth  it  is  that 
the  animal's  age  is  distinguished,  for  they  are  somewhat  hollowed 
in  the  middle  and  have  a  black  mark  in  the  cavities.  At  five 
years  old  these  teeth  scarcely  rise  above  the  gums ;  at  six  their 
hollow  pits  begin  to  fill  up  and  turn  to  a  brown  spot,  and  before 
eight  years  the  mark  generally  disappears.  A  horse's  age  is 
also  indicated  by  the  canine  teeth  or  tusks,  for  those  in  the  under 
jaw  generally  shoot  at  three  years  and  a  half,  and  the  two  in  the 
upper  at  four;  till  six  they  continue  sharp  at  the  points,  but  at 
ten  they  appear  long  and  blunted.  There  are,  however,  many 
circumstances  which  render  a  decision  as  to  the  age  very  diffi 
cult  after  the  marks  are  defaced  from  the  lower  incisors;  and  it. 
should  be  observed  that  horses  which  are  always  kept  in  the  sta 
ble  have  the  marks  much  sooner  worn  out  than  those  that  are  at 
grass,  to  say  nothing  of  the  various  artful  tricks  resorted  to  by 
dealers  and  jockeys  to  deceive  the  inexperienced  and  unwary." 
We  must  refer  to  other  works  for  interesting  particulars  respect 
ing  the  various  breeds  of  horses  and  the  different  kinds  used,  as 
the  Race  Horses,  supposed  to  have  been  originally  of  the  Arabian 
breed,  the  Hunter,  the  Roadster,  the  Carriage  Horse,  the  Dray 
Horse,  the  Cart  Horse,  &c.,  and  the  smaller  varieties,  such  as 
the  Shetland  Pony,  Galloway,  &c. 

The  Horse  is  capable  of  strong  attachment  to  man  and  to  other 
animals.  Among  the  numerous  anecdotes  illustrating  this  re 
mark  are  the  following:  "A  horse  and  a  cat  were  great  friends, 
and  the  latter  generally  slept  in  a  manger.  When  the  horse 


PACHYDEKMATA.  169 

was  going  to  have  his  oats,  he  always  took  up  the  cat  gently 
by  the  skin  of  her  neck  and  dropped  her  into  the  next  stall,  that 
she  might  not  be  in  his  way  while  he  was  feeding.  At  all  other 
times  he  seemed  pleased  to  have  her  near  him." 

Two  Hanoverian  horses  had  long  served  together  during  the 
Peninsular  war,  in  the  German  brigade  of  artillery.  They  had 
assisted  in  drawing  the  same  gun  and  had  been  inseparable  com- 
panions  in  many  battles.  One  of  them  was  at  last  killed,  and 
after  the  engagement  the  survivor  was  picqueted  as  usual  and 
his  food  brought  to  him.  He  refused,  however,  to  eat,  and  was 
constantly  turning  round  his  head  to  look  for  his  companion, 
sometimes  neighing  as  if  to  call  him.  All  the  care  that  was 
bestowed  on  him  was  of  no  avail.  He  was  surrounded  by  other 
horses,  but  he  did  not  notice  them ;  and  he  shortly  afterwards 
died,  not  having  once  tasted  food  from  the  time  his  former  associate 
was  killed.  A  gentleman  who  witnessed  the  circumstance  as 
sured  me  that  nothing  could  be  more  affecting  than  the  whole 
demeanor  of  this  poor  horse."* 

Of  the  age  to  which  the  horse  would  naturally  arrive,  it  is 
difficult  to  speak  with  certainty.  The  animal  sometimes  exceeds 
thirty  or  forty  years,  and  it  has  even  exceeded  fifty  years  in  age, 
but  from  ill  usage  and  over  exertion  the  majority  come  to  their 
end  before  they  have  seen  nine  or  ten  years.  The  horse  is  now 
spread  over  every  part  of  the  Western  Continent.  The  natives 
of  Terra  del  Fuego  are  well  stocked  with  horses,  each  man  hav 
ing  six  or  seven,  and  all  the  women  and  even  the  children  have 
Iheir  own  horses.  With  the  horses  are  found  herds  of  wild  oxen. 
The  number  of  mustangs  or  wild  horses  found  in  South  Amer 
ica  may  be  judged  of  from  the  fact  that  from  1838  to  1842, 
90,000,000  ID'S,  of  oxen  and  horses'  hides,  and  9,500,000  Ibs.  of 
horse  hair  were  obtained  within  the  limits  of  Monte  Video  and 
Buenos  Ayres.  In  his  "  Fauna  Boreali  Americana,"  Sir  John 
Richardson  says  that  the  horse  is  found  amongst  the  wandering 
Indians  who  frequent  the.  prairies  of  Saskatchewan  and  the  Mis 
souri,  and  who  use  it  for  chasing  the  Buffalo  as  well  as  a  beast 
ol  burden.  Among  the  Indians  as  well  as  the  Guachos,  the 
horse  is  eaten.  It  is  also  eaten  by  the  Calmuck  Tartars  ;  and  in 
many  parts  of  Asia,  mare's  milk  is  taken  as  an  article  of  diet. 
It  is  converted  into  butter  and  cheese,  and  a  favorite  beverage 
amongst  the  Tartars  is  made  by  fermenting  it. 

Equus  Asinus,  (Lat.  Ass.)     THE  Ass. 

The  ass  was  anciently  employed  by  the  Orientals  for  common 

*  "  Gleanings  in  Nat.  Hist." 


170  PACHYDERMATA. 

purposes  more  than  the  horse.  They  seem  to  have  looked  upon 
the  horse  as  rather  fitted  for  war  and  scenes  of  pomp  and  state. 
The  ancients  were  ignorant  of  the  art  of  shoeing  the  horse's  hoof 
with  iron,  and  found  it  more  easily  injured  by  travel  on  hard 
roads  and  by  long  journeys  than  the  harder  hoof  of  the  Ass.  The 
hoofs  of  horses  were  usually  protected  b*y  sandals  of  thick  close 
felt.  From  time  immemorial,  the  ass  has,  in  Oriental  countries, 
been  the  servant  of  man,  and  its  introduction  into  Europe  and 
this  country  must  be  regarded  as  comparatively  recent.  Though 
out  of  its  native  climes,  it  seems  strong,  patient  and  hardy,  still 
it  is  much  different  from  the  animal  of  the  East.  Here  it  is  dull 
and  slow,  small  and  clumsy;  there  it  is  larger,  well  made,  light, 
footed  with  a  sprightly  pace,  and  carries  its  head  high.  White 
asses  were  in  ancient  times  highly  valued.  Upon  them  those 
rode  who  sat  in  judgment,  Judges,  v.  10;  and  our  Saviour,  too, 
appears  to  have  honored  this  animal  by  riding  "  upon  the  foal  of 
an  ass  upon  which  never  man  sat."  Mark,  xi.  3.  Asses  made 
no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs. 
The  MULE  is  a  mixed  breed  between  the  horse  and  the  ass,  an 
animal  not  much  sought  after  among  us,  but  extensively  used  in 
the  East  for  riding,  and  in  Spain  is  the  chief  beast  of  burden. 
It  is  very  strong  and  sure  footed,  and  is  for  that  reason  employed 
in  the  Andes  of  South  America  instead  of  the  Llama,  and  also 
used  in  other  mountainous  countries. 

E.  asinus  onager,  or  onagga.  The  KOULAN  or  WILD  Ass  is 
of  a  pale  reddish  color  in  the  warmer  season,  in  the  winter  gray 
ish.  It  is  found  abundantly  in  Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  and  on 
the  shores  of  the  Indus.  Bishop  Hebersaysno  attempt  has  ever 
been  made  to  break  in  the  wild  Ass  for  riding.  The  ears  are 
two  inches  longer  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.  In  the  tame 
species  the  ears  are  elongated  and  acute,  but  in  this  and  the 
other  wild  species  are  moderately  short  and  rounded. 
E.  asinus  hemionus.  The  DIZIGGUETAI. 

The  name  Dizigguetai,  given  to  this  species,  has  been  spelled 
in  seven  or  eight  different  ways.  It  is  said  to  refer,  in  the  Mori, 
gol  language,  to  the  large  ears  of  this  animal,  which  exceed  in 
size  those  of  a  horse.  This  species  are  found  in  Oriental  Tar- 
tary,  and  the  wild  regions  of  China  and  Persia.  This  is  the 
wild  ass  of  Scripture.  "'Who  hath  sent  out  the  wild  ass  free  ? 
or  who  hath  loosed  the  bands  of  the  wild  ass?  Whose  house  I 
have  made  the  wilderness  and  the  barren  land  his  dwellings. 
The  range  of  the  mru  itains  is  his  pasture,  and  he  searcheth  af. 
ter  every  green  thing."  Job,  xxxix  chapt. 

The  Dizigguetai,  or  Dziggtai,  is  in  size  intermediate  between 


PACHYDERMATA.  171 

the  horse  and  the  ass,  and  in  disposition  extremely  wild  and  un 
tamable.  Its  limbs  are  finely  proportioned,  showing  the  lightness 
and  elegance  of  the  stag,  combined  with  the  power  of  great  mus 
cular  exertion.  It  runs  with  great  rapidity,  carrying  its  head 
erect,  snuffing  up  the  wind  and  defying  the  speed  of  the  fleetest 
coursers.  Sir  R.  Ker  Porter  gives  an  amusing  account  of  an 
unsuccessful  chase  of  one  of  these  animals,  which  he  was  un 
able  to  overtake,  though  mounted  on  a  very  swift  Arabian  horse. 
This  roamer  in  the  "wilderness  "  and  "barren  land,"  lives  in 
troops,  like  the  wild  horse,  being  guided  by  a  leader  or  chief,  on 
which  the  movements  of  the  rest  depend.  The  flesh  is  esteemed 
a  delicacy  by  the  Mongols,  who  occasionally  manage  to  shoot 
the  leader  and  thus  throw  the  troop  into  confusion,  so  that  several 
fall  before  they  take  their  flight.  The  fur  is  short,  smooth,  and  of  a 
bright  red  bay,  the  legs  of  a  straw  color.  The  males  are  the  more 
deeply  colored  and  larger,  often  standing  14  hands  high.  These 
animals  live  partly  on  the  plains  and  partly  on  the  mountains, 
and  from  this  feet  perhaps,  the  lower  surface  of  the  hoof  shows 
considerable  variation  in  form  and  concavity.  They  are  found 
in  a  climate  where  the  temperature  is  below  the  freezing  point 
in  the  middle  of  summer,  yet  they  throw  off  their  pale  woolly 
coat  during  that  season  and  become  bright  bay. 

Equus  mont.anus,  (or  Asinus  Zebra.)     The  ZEBRA. 

This  species  is  native  to  Africa,  confined  to  the  mountains,  for 
traversing  which  their  hoofs  are  expressly  formed.  The  ground 
color  is  white,  with  black  bands  on  the  head,  body  and  legs  to  the 
hoofs  ,  the  nose  is  reddish  ;  the  belly  and  inside  of  the  thighs 
not  banded  ;  the  end  of  the  tail  is  blackish  ;  the  hoofs  narrow 
and  deeply  concave  beneath.  The  Zebra  has  scarcely  ever 
been  brought  under  the  bit.  Sometimes,  however,  in  spite 
of  its  vicious  habits,  it  has  been  trained  to  draw  a  Carriage. 
It  is  fierce  and  strong  and  universally  admired  for  its  fleetness 
and  beauty.  The  voice  of  the  Zebra  is  very  peculiar  and  can 
not  be  described.  We  have  said  above  that  the  ground  color  is 
white  ;  this  is  true  of  the  female,  but  in  the  male  the  ground 
color  is  yellowish  fawn.  It  is  often  a  prey  to  the  lion,  and  also 
to  the  untutored  natives,  by  whom  its  flesh  is  regarded  as  a  great 
delicacy. 

The  Equus  SurcheUi,  or  the  PEECHI,  is  a  native  of  the  plains, 
inhabiting,  in  small  companies,  the  flat  country  lying  north  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  stretching  into  the  interior.  This  is  a 
strong,  muscular  animal,  and  might  be  used  as  a  beast  :>f  bur 
den.  The  head,  neck,  shoulders  and  back  are  covered  with  al 
ternate  stripes  of  white  and  black  ;  the  nose  is  white,  with  faint 

8 


172  PACHYDERMATA. 

black  markings ;  the  black  stripes  of  the  body  become  fainter  on 
the  haunches  and  disappear  on  the  under  parts. 

E.  Quagga,  or  A.  Quagga.  The  name,  (Quagga,)  of  this  ani 
mal,  expresses  the  sound  of  its  voice,  which,  in  some  degree,  is 
like  the  barking  of  a  dog.  It  is  now  sometimes  tamed  by  the 
natives  and  used  for  purposes  of  draught,  and  occasionally  a  half 
domesticated  specimen  is  offered  for  sale  at  Cape  Town  with  a 
rider  on  its  back  ;  but  in  the  most  tractable  state  to  which  it  has 
hitherto  been  reduced,  it  is  regarded  as  vicious,  obstinate  and 
fickle. 

ORDER  PACHYDERMATA. 

Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  PACHYDERMATA.  Why  are  the  animals 
of  this  order  so  called  ?  Where  are  they  found  ?  What  genus  appears 
wild  in  Europe  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  their  food  ?  What  peculiarity 
have  the  canine  or  incisor  teeth  ?  How  is  the  muzzle  prolonged  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  size  and  strength  of  these  animals  ? 

From  what  is  the  family  name  PROBOSCI'DKA  derived  ?  What  does  it  in 
clude?  How  many  species  of  the  Elephant?  By  what  are  both  species 
distinguished  ?  How  do  they  compare  as  to  general  characters  and  habits  ? 
In  what  respects  do  they  differ?  What  is  said  of  the  molar  teeth  ?  What 
peculiarity  in  the  manner  in  which  they  succeed  each  other?  In  what 
bones  are  the  tusks  seated .  Describe  the  tusks.  What  is  said  respecting 
their  length  and  weight?  How  is  the  foot  enclosed?  What  is  required  by 
the  immense  weight  of  the  head  ?  What  is  said  of  the  muscles  of  the 
neck?  To  what  is  the  entire  structure  compared?  What  is  said  of  the 
internal  organization?  Which  is  the  most  remarkable  part  of  the  Ele 
phant?  What  are  its  uses?  How  many  muscles  has  it?  Describe  it. 
What  is  found  at  its  extremity  ?  What  is  said  of  the  skin,  head,  tail  and 
general  appearance  of  the  Elephant  ?  What  indicates  its  very  great  force  ? 
What  is  the  East  India  Company's  standard  as  to  height  for  a  serviceable 
Elephant  ?  Where  are  the  largest  found  ?  What  use  has  been  made  of 
them  by  Eastern  princes?  What  use  was  made  of  ivory  in  ancient  >»mes? 
What  weight  of  it  was  exported  to  Great  Britain  in  1831,2.  Hotf  G  reat 
a  destruction  of  Elephants  did  "this  involve?  Mention  the  chief  marts 
whence  ivory  is  obtained.  For  what  purpose  is  it  most  used  in  England  ? 
Where  in  Europe  are  ivory  articles  manufactured  most  extensively  ?  What 
people  excel  in  preparing  ivory  articles  ?  Where  are  Elephants  still  found 
in  great  numbers?  Of  what  roots  are  they  especially  fond?  What  ingen 
ious  use  do  they  make  of,  their  tusks  ?  How  is  this  animal  stimulated  to 
extra  effort  ?  Repeat  the  story  showing  his  love  of  sweet  things.  What  is 
said  of  his  senses  ?  What  of  his  fondness  for  certain  flowers  and  plants  ? 
Why  is  he  not  often  bred  in  captivity  ?  For  what  is  he  trained  in  India  ? 
What  is  said  of  his  fondness  for  water  ?  How  is  he  captured  ?  What  allu 
sions  to  the  Elephant  are  found  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  ?  What  is  said  of 
their  affections  ?  How  illustrated  ?  How  are  they  influenced  by  kindness  ? 
Give  examples  showing  their  sagacity  and  power  of  memory.  Derive  the 
specific -name  of  the  Mammoth.  What  is  said  of  thueir  remains?  Give  the 
derivation  of  the  term  Mastodon.  Is  this  a  living  or  extinct  genus  ?  In 
what  deposits  are  its  remains  found  ?  How  is  it  principally  distinguished 


PACHYDERM ATA.  173 

from  the  Elephant?  What  more  is  said  of  it?  To  what  is  the  term  Mam 
moth  properly  applied  ?  Where  have  numerous  remains  of  the  Mastodon 
been  discovered? 

From  what  is  the  term  SUID./E  derived?  How  many  species  does  it  in 
clude  ?  What  is  the  origin  of  the  common  Hog  ?  Where  is  the  wild  ani 
mal  still  found?  How  distinguished  from  the  domestic  Hog?  What  is 
next  said  of  him  ?  What  other  differences  between  the  domestic  and  the 
wild  animal  ?  What  is  said  of  the  variety  of  color  in  the  common  Hog  ? 
What  of  its  habits  ?  What  people  were  forbidden  to  eat  its  flesh  ?  What 
do  late  experiments  show  ?  From  what  may  it  be  inferred  that  this  animal 
was  designed  to  be  food  for  man?  Give  the  opinion  of  Linnaeus.  Why  is 
the  flesh  of  great  importance  to  commercial  people  ?  Does  the  value  de 
pend  chiefly  upon  the  size  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Chinese  breed  ?  What 
further  is  said  of  the  Hog  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Babirussa  ?  How  does  this  animal 
compare  with  the  common  Hog?  What  is  said  of  its  tusks?  Upon  what 
does  it  chiefly  subsist  ?  How  does  it  elude  pursuit  ?  In  what  countries 
does  it  abound  ?  What  is  said  of  a  pair  taken  to  France  ?  What  is  the 
derivation  of  Pacochoerua  ?  Where  are  the  animals  of  this  genus  found  ? 
Why  is  it  called  Warty-Hog  ?  What  is  said  of  its  teeth  ?  What  is  indi 
cated  by  its  structure? 

Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  Dicotylcs.  Where  are  PECCARIES  found  ? 
By  what  are  they  allied  to  the  true  swine  ?  How  do  they  differ  ?  What 
is  their  most  decided  characteristic  ?  How  many  species  ?  Why  is  the 
COLLARED  PECCARY  so  called  and  where  found?  What  objection  to  it  as  a 
domestic  animal?  What  is  said  of  the  WHITE-LIPPED  PECCARY?  Are 
they  found  in  great  numbers  ? 

What  is  the  derivation  of  the  term  Rhinoceros?  In  what  regions  is  this 
animal  found?  What  is  its  rank?  How  many  species  ?  What  is  their 
chief  peculiarity  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  specific  term  unicornis  ? 
Why  is  this  name  given  to  the  Common  East  Indian  Rhinoceros  ?  Describe 
this  animal  and  give  its  habits.  What  did  Pennant  suppose  it  to  be? 
What  is  its  ordinary  food  ?  Illustrate  its  capacity  for  food  ?  What  more 
is  said  of  it  ?  How  does  the  R.  of  India  differ  from  that  of  Java  ?  What 
is  its  range  ?  What  does  Marsden  say  ?  What  is  said  of  the  R.  of  Suma 
tra?  How  extensive  is  the  range  of  the  R.  of  Africa?  How  does  the 
African  species  differ  from  the  Asiatic?  How  many  varieties  or  species 
are  found  in  South  Africa  ?  Describe  the  Black  variety  ?  What  is  the 
chief  difference  between  the  two  varieties  ?  How  do  the  white  and  black 
R.  differ  ?  Describe  the  R.  simus.  What  use  is  made  of  its  horn  ?  What 
account  is  given  of  the  Rhinoceros? 

Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  Hippopotamus.  Describe  the  character 
istics  of  this  animal.  How  many  species  and  what  is  their  range  ?  Is  it 
found  in  Asia  ?  What  is  the  size  of  the  adult  male  of  the  H.  amphibius  ? 
What  seems  its  native  element  ?  What  is  said  of  it  on  land  ?  When  and 
what  does  it  eat  ?  How  do  troops  of  them  appear  when  in  water  ?  What 
fact  shows  their  fondness  for  that  element?  How  are  they  harpooned ? 
What  is  said  of  their  flesh  and  hides  ?  What  is  the  most  valuable  part  of 
the  animal  ?  In  what  respects  is  their  ivory  superior  to  that  of  the  Ele 
phant  ?  Are  they  easily  domesticated  ?  What  is  said  of  one  in  the  Re 
gent's  Park,  London  ? 

How  many  species  of  the  TAPIR  ?  Where  is  it  found  ?  Give  the  general 
character  of  the  genus.  What  animal  does  it  resemble  ?  How  does  it 


174  PACHYDERMATA. 

differ  from  it  ?  Describe  the  Tapir  of  South  America.  What  animal  often 
springs  upon  it  ?  What  is  said  respecting  its  domestication  ?  What  are  its 
uses?  How  does  the  Asiatic  compare  with  the  AMERICAN  TAPIR  in  size? 
What  appearance  has  this  animal  ?  How  is  it  in  captivity  ?  Where  has 
the  third  species  been  discovered  ?  What  Scripture  animal  is  the  Hyrax  ? 
How  is  it  described  ?  Who  proved  it  to  be  a  true  Pachyderm  ?  How  many 
ribs  ha,s  it?  What  larger  animal  does  it  resemble  ?  Describe  the  Daman 
or  Hyrax  of  Syria.  Is  it  easily  captured  ?  On  what  does  it  feed  ?  How 
was  it  classed  among  the  Jews  ?  What  is  said  of  the  CAPE  HYRAX  ? 

Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  Palaeotherium.  To  what  animal  is  it 
applied  ?  How  many  species  have  been  discovered  ?  Where  have  the  re 
mains  been  found  ?  What  is  the  Zoological  position  of  this  genus  ?  What 
were  the  habits  ?  What  does  Buckland  suppose  ?  What  does  Cuvier  say 
respecting  the  discovery  of  this  fossil  genus?  How  is  it  characterized? 
Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  anoplotherium.  What  does  it  mean  ?  In 
what  connection  is  it  found  ? 

Give  the  derivation  of  EQUIDJS.  What  animals  belong  to  the  ONE-HOOFED 
Mammalia,  or  solipedes  ?  Mention  the  UNEVEN-HOOFED  animals,  and  the 
MULTUNGULATE,  or  many  hoofed?  What  does  the  HORSE  FAMILY  include? 
Which  are  most  valuable  and  widely  distributed?  How  are  the  EQUID^E 
distinguished  from  other  animals?  What  is  said  of  the  Ass?  What  of  the 
Zebra  ?  What  is  said  of  the  teeth  of  the  Equidae  ?  What  are  their  native 
regions?  Which  species  have  become  domesticated?  What  does  the  term 
caballus  mean?  What  is  said  of  the  qualities  of  the  horse?  What  of  his 
native  regions ?  What  of  his  first  subjugation?  What  countries  produce 
the  most  beautiful  breed  of  horses?  How  does  the  Arab  treat  his  horse? 
Give  Mr.  Bell's  remarks  respecting  the  native  country  of  the  horse.  Where 
is  it  now  found?  How  usually  captured  ?  What  is  said  of  its  food?  How 
is  its  age  determined  ?  What  is  said  of  its  attachments  ?  Give  examples. 
How  long  does  it  live  ?  How  widely  diffused  ?  What  is  said  concerning 
the  use  of  the  Ass  in  Oriental  countries?  What  of  its  introduction  into 
other  countries ?  What  is  remarked  respecting  WHITE  ASSES?  What  of 
the  breed  of  the  MULE  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  ONAGGER  or  ONAGGA. 
To  what  does  the  name  DIZIGGUETAI  refer?  Where  is  this  animal  found? 
Describe  it.  Where  is  the  Asinus  Zebra  found  ?  Give  some  account  of 
it.  Of  what  country  is  the  Eqiius  Burchellii  a  native?  What  is  said  of 
it  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Asinus  Quagga  ?  Trace  the  horse  from  the  spe 
cies,  (caballus,)  through  the  higher  divisions. 


Name  the  three  families  of  the  order  Pachydermata  from  the  chart. 
Mention  the  animals  named  in  each,  giving  both  the  common  and  scientific 
names.  Give  the  characteristics  and  peculiarities  of  each  family,  genus 
and  species.  Which  is  the  largest  animal  of  this  order  mentioned?  Which 
the  smallest  figured  on  the  Chart  ? 


RUMINANTIA.  175 

SECTION  XXI. 

EIGHTH  ORDER. — RUMINANTIA.     (Lat.  rumen,  a  stomach  or 

paunch.) 

RUMINATING,  or  CUD-CHEWING  ANIMALS. 

This  pre-eminently  useful  order  includes  the  oxen,  sheep  and 
goats,  deer,  giraffes  and  camels.  They  were  very  anciently 
recognized  as  a  separate  group,  and  taken  as  a  whole  are  ex 
tremely  compact  and  well  defined.  The  camels  alone  present 
some  si  ight  exceptions  to  the  general  character.  Each  foot  ends  in 
two  toes,  covered  with  two  sharp  pointed  horny  hoofs,  fitting  each 
other  as  though  a  single  round  hoof  had  been  cleft  in  the  middle. 
Behind  these  are  two  small  spurs,  or  rudiments  of  lateral  toes. 
Hence  they  are  called  animals  with  "divided,  or  bifurcate  hoofs." 
The  RUMINANTS  are  well  known  as  herbivorous.  Their  name 
indicates  the  singular  faculty  which  they  have  of  masticating  or 
chewing  their  food  a  second  time,  and  by  which  they  are  special 
ly  distinguished  from  all  other  animals.  For  this  purpose  they 
are  furnished  with  four  stomachs,  or  one  divided  into  four  dis 
tinct  chambers  or  cavities,  each  having  a  distinct  office  to  per 
form.  The  first  is  the  rumen,  or  paunch,  in  full  grown  animals 
the  largest  of  all,  and  covered  with  papilla,  or  flattened  warts. 
Into  this  passes  the  hard  and  coarsely  masticated  food  from  the 
beginning  of  the  muscular  canal,  which  is  at  the  end  of  the  seso- 
phagus  or  gullet.  From  the  rumen,  the  rudely  bruised  herbage 
is  transmitted  into  the  second  stomach,  called  the  reticulum,  or 
hood,  which  is  beautifully  divided  into  hexagonal  cells,  like  a 
honeycomb.  Water  is  received  from  the  mouth  into  this  second 
cavity.  The  food  is  here  moistened  and  moulded  into  small 
balls  or  pellets,  and  by  a  rapid  and  inverted  action  of  the  muscles 
of  the  gullet  is  propelled  into  the  mouth,  where  it  is  more  per 
fectly  masticated,  mixed  with  fluid  and  again  swallowed,  passing 
now  into  the  psalterium,  omasus,  or  manyplies,  the  third  stomach. 
The  inner  coat  of  this  division  is  set  with  parallel  longitudinal 
lamina,  or  folds,  resembling  the  leaves  of  a  book.  In  the  sheep 
it  has  forty,  in  the  ox  as  many  as  a  hundred  of  these  folds.  In 
these  plates  the  superfluous  fluid,  which  might  otherwise  have  too 
much  diluted  the  gastric  juice,  is  absorbed  ;  and  the  sub-divided 
cud  passes  gradually  into  the  fourth  and  last,  or  red  stomach, 
(abomasus,)  which  is  large  and  pear  shaped,  and  wrinkled  and 
hairy,  as  to  its  inner  surface.  This  is  the  true  digesting  stom 
ach,  and  in  the  young,  while  sucking,  is  the  largest  of  the  four. 


176  RUMINANTIA. 

For  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  reader  to  form  a  correct  idea 
of  this  wisely  arranged  internal  mechanism,  ive  give  a  section 
of  a  stomach,  as  in  Plate  VI.  fi-g.  13,  with  the  following 

EXPLANATION. 

In  the  stomach  of  the  Ruminants,  (fig.  13,)  the  gullet  or  oeso 
phagus  (A)  which  is  opened,  expands  into  the  paunch  or  Rumen 
(B)  which  is  divided  by  a  muscular  wall ;  the  valve  (C)  allows 
the  food  only  to  pass  gradually,  by  the  action  of  the  paunch,  into 
the  Reticulum  or  hood,  (D,)  which  is  opened  to  show  the  folds 
and  cells  called  the  honeycomb,  and  from  which  the  food,  moist 
ened  and  compressed,  is  passed  back  to  the  mouth  a-nd  chewed 
again.  When  swallowed  the  second  time,  it  passes  to  the  oma- 
sus,  or  third  stomach,  (E.)  The  gullet  has  a  fold  running  down 
and  walling  in  the  orifice  of  the  omasus,  (F.)  The  fibres  sur 
rounding  this  orifice  contract  on  the  application  of  crude  veget 
able  matter ;  but  when  this  matter  has  been  elaborated  in  the 
rcticukun,  and  chewed  the  second  time,  the  orifice  expands,  and 
by  the  action  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  stomach,  is  brought 
higher  up  into  the  gullet  to  receive  the  then  welcome  mass. 
The  laminated  or  leaf-like  structure  of  the  omasus,  sometimes 
called  the  leaflet,  is  shown  in  the  figure.  From  this  the  food 
passes  to  the  fourth  stomach,  (abomasus,  G,)  which  has  digestive 
powers  similar  to  that  of  the  simpler  stomach  in  other  animals. 
The  third  stomach  is  the  least  essential  to  ruminants  capable  of 
enduring  long  thirst  and  of  living  upon  dry  shrubs,  like  the 
Camel  and  Llama.  It  cannot  properly  be  said  to  exist  in  them, 
and  the  opening  leads  directly  into  the  abomasus.  It  is  remark 
able  that  the  milk  upon  which  young  animals  of  this  kind  are 
fed,  requiring  no  process  of  rumination,  passes  directly  from  the 
gullet  into  the  fourth  stomach. 

Another  character  of  the  Ruminants  is  the  possession  of  inci 
sor  or  cutting  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  only.  Cuvier  makes  them 
consist  of  two  divisions  ;  first,  those  without  horns,  and  secondly, 
those  with  horns.  The  larger  part  have  horns,  particularly  the 
males.  The  few  species  which  want  these  organs  have  the 
tusks,  or  cutting  teeth,  which  are  deficient  in  the  others.  The 
vegetable  nature  of  their  food  renders  the  flesh  of  these  animals 
wholesome  and  agreeable.  Their  milk  furnishes  butter  and 
cheese  ;  their  skins,  leather  ;  their  horns,  combs ;  their  wool, 
cloth  and  yarn  ;  their  hair  is  used  in  the  'making  of  matresses, 
sofas,  etc.  The  fat  has  the  property  of  hardening  as  it  cools, 
and  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  suet.  Their  tallow  is  made 


RUMINANTIA.  177 

into  candles  and  soap,  and  their  bones  are  in  great  request  for 
manure.  Indeed,  they  seem  to  have  been  formed  with  the  ex 
press  design  of  ministering  to  man's  comfort  and  welfare.  They 
inhabit  the  known  world,  with  the  exception  of  Australia. 

Define  the  term  Ruminantia.  What  animals  does  the  order  include  ?  Is 
the  group  well  defined  ?  What  exception  is  made  ?  Why  are  the  hoofs  of 
this  order  termed  bifurcate  or  bisulcate  ?  Upon  what  do  these  animals  sub 
sist,  and  what  peculiarly  distinguishes  them  from  all  other  animals  ?  De 
scribe  in  full  the  stomacR  of  a  ruminant,  pointing  out  the  parts  as  you  pro 
ceed,  on  plate  VI.  fig.  13.  How  does  Cuvier  divide  the  Ruminants?  To 
what  species  are  the  larger  incisors  confined  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  their 
food  ?  What  their  uses  ?  Where  are  they  found  ? 


Name  the  seven  families  of  Cud-chewing  animals  on  the  Chart.  Which 
are  without  horns?  Which  have  solid  horns?  Which  hollow  horns? 
Which  is  the  tallest?  Which  most  useful  for  food?  Which  for  clothing? 
Which  wild  ?  W  hich  domesticate  d  ? 

SECTION  XXII. 


Camelida,  (Gr.  xapjlos,  kamelos,  a  camel.)  The  CAMEL 
TRIBE. 

This  family  of  the  Ruminants  differ,  in  some  respects,  from 
the  others,  forming  a  connecting  link  between  them  and  the 
Pachyderms,  or  thick  skinned  animals.  They  are  without 
horns;  the  hair  inclines  to  be  woolly;  there  are  fleshy  bosses, 
or  hurnps  on  the  back  4  These  humps  are  of  a  firm,  fatty  con 
sistence,  seeming  like  reservoirs  of  nutriment,  being  observed  to 
diminish  from  absorption,  during  long  abstinence,  but  to  increase 
again  when  food  becomes  abundant."  The  eyes  are  large  and 
projecting  ;  the  ears  small.  The  Camels  have  canine  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  and  two  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  which  are 
wanting  in  other  Ruminants.  The  lower  incisor  teeth  are 
six  in  number  ;  there  are  six  molars  on  each  side  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  five  in  the  lower.  The  anterior  one  takes  the  form  of 
an  additional  canine.  This,  however,  is  wanting  in  the  Llamas. 
The  upper  lip  is  swollen  and  cleft  in  the  center,  and  has  a  power 
of  motion.  It  is  used  for  feeling  or  examining  the  dry  shrubby 
food  on  which  these  animals  mostly  live,  before  it  is  conveyed  to 
the  mouth.  When  in  the  midst  of  abundant  pasture,  they  usu 
ally  browse  as  much  in  an  hour  as  serves  them  for  ruminating 
all  night,  and  for  supporting  them  during  the  next  day.  But 
such  pasturage  they  do  not  often  find,  and  they  are  even  thought 
to  prefer  nettles,  thistles,  cassia  and  other  prickly  vegetables  to 
the  softest  herbage.  •*  They  have  seven  callosities,  or  firm  pads, 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  VI. 

FEET    AND    STOMACHS. 

1.  Foot  of  an   ox.       Bisulcated  foot,  or  bifurcated  hoof ;  cloven-footed  5 
two-hoofed. 

2.  Camel's  foot,  showing  the  pad  or  cushion  which  prevents  its  sinking  in 
the  sand. 

3.  Llama's  foot,  showing  the  sharp  hoof  for  climbing  rocky  hills. 

4.  Mole's  foot,  formed  for  digging  or  scooping  out  the  earth. 

5.  Sloth's  sharp,  strong,   crooked  claws,  for  clinging  to  the  branches  of 
trees,  on  the  under  side  of  which  they  live  suspended. 

6.  Foot  of  the  Armadillo,  Dasypus,  fitted  for  rapid  burrowing. 

7.  Lion's  toe.     A,  represents  the  toe  with  claw  sheathed.     B,  shows  the 
retractile  apparatus,  with  claw  in  same  position.     C,  claw  unsheathed. 
D,  claw  in  same  position,  with  tendons  exposed. 

8.  Horse's  foot ;  solipedes,  hoofs  whole,  not  cloven  or  divided.     Solidun- 
gulate,  one-hoofed. 

9.  Elephant's  foot,  showing  the  horny  shoe  enclosing  all  the  toes. 

10.  Rhinoceros'  foot;  three  toes  on  each  foot  incased  in  hoofs. 

11.  The  fore  foot  or  hand  of  a  Seal,  used  as  a  fin  for  swimming. 

12.  A  Dolphin's  fore  fin,  flipper  or  paddle  for  swimming. 

13.  Stomach  of  a  ruminant  or  cud-chewing  animal. 

A.  ^Esophagus  or  Gullet,  expanding  into  the  rumen  or  paunch. 

B.  Rumen  or  Paunch.     It  is  the  first  stomach  and  much  the  largest  in  the 

adult  animal,  but  small  in  the  young. 

C.  Valve  allowing  the  food  to  pass  from  the  rumen  into  the  reticulum. 

D.  Hood,  Honey-comb-bag,  Bonnet,  or  Reticulum.     The  second  stomach. 

E.  Omasus,  Manyplies,  or  Psalterium.     This  third  and  smallest  stomach  does 

not  properly  exist  in  the  Camel  or  Llama. 

F.  Orifice  of  the  Omasus. 

G.  Abomasus,  the  fourth  stomach,  the  true   organ  of  digestion,  is  next  in 

size  to  the  rumen  or  paunch.  In  calves  it  is  the  largest  stomach,  the 
milk  passing  from  the  gullet  immediately  into  it.  When  salted  and 
cured,  this  stomach  of  the  calf  is  called  rennet,  and  used  for  making 
cheese. 

14.  Cells  of  the  reticulum  or  second  stomach  of  the  camel.     These  cells 
can  be  dilated  so  as  to  contain  an  unusual  quantity  of  water. 


PL  .VI. 


RUMINANTIA. 


181 


for  the  support  of  their  burden  ;  one  on  the  breast,  two  on  each 
of  the  fore  legs  and  one  on  each  of  the  hind  ones.  The  toes  do 
not  present  the  true  cloven  figure,  but  are  united  underneath  by 
an  elastic  pad,  or  cushion,  connecting  them  together,  but  leaving 
the  points  free  and  separable,  so  that  a  larger  surface  thus  comes 
into  contact  with  the  sandy  earth.  (Plate  VI.  fig.  2.)  This,  in 
connection  with  the  elastic  nature  of  the  sole  or  cushion,  enables 
the  animal  to  tread  with  equal  comfort  over  the  yielding  desert 
and  the  hard  and  arid  plain. 

The  Camel  has  great  difficulty  in  moving  upon  a  soft  and 
muddy  soil,  as  it  slips  at  every  step.  So  great  is  its  aversion  to 
treading  upon  such  soil,  it  is  said,  that  its  drivers  "have  been 
obliged  to  spread  their  tent  coverings  over  the  obnoxious  ground 
in  order  to  conceal  its  appearance  and  induce  the  animal  to  pro 
ceed."  The  step  of  the  Camel  is  noiseless.  "  What  always 
struck  me,"  says  the  writer  of  a  work  on  Constantinople,  "as 
something  extremely  romantic  and  mysterious,  was  the  noiseless 
tread  of  the  Camel,  from  the  spongy  nature  of  his  foot.  What 
ever  be  the  nature  of  the  ground,  sand,  or  rock,  or  turf,  or  paved 
stones,  you  hear  no  foot-fall ;  you  see  an  immense  animal  ap 
proaching  you  stilly,  as  a  cloud  floating  in  the  air  ;  and  unless 
he  wear  a  bell,  your  sense  of  hearing,  acute  as  it  may  be,  will 
give  you  no  intimation  of  his  presence.^' 

The  sense  of  hearing,  in  this  animal,  is  very  delicate.  It 
seems  greatly  pleased  with  the  sound  of  bells,  and  with  the 
cheering  song  of  its  driver;  its  sense  of  smell,  also,  is  remarka 
bly  acute.  When  the  traveler  across  the  desert  is  suffering 
from  thirst,  the  camel,  snuffing  the  gale,  first  indicates,  by  its 
dumb  show,  that  the  water  is  near  of  which  the  exhausted  pil 
grim  must  soon  "drink  or  die." 

The  third  stomach,  or  laminated  omasus,  of  the  Ruminants,  is 
warding  in  the  Camels.  The  paunch  or  pannel  is  provided  with 
a  large  number  of  cells,  in  order  that  water  may  be  retained  to 
serve  the  wants  of  the  animal  in  case  of  extreme  necessity.  A 
longitudinal  ridge  of  muscular  fibres  divides  the  paunch  into  two 
portions,  the  left  containing  a  row  of  cells,  which,  (in  the  Ara 
bian  Camel,)  holds  four  or  five  quarts  of  water  ;  the  right  has  a 
smaller  series,  holding  about  a  quart.  (See  Plate  VI.  fig.  14.) 

When  the  cells  are  filled,  the  fluid  is  kept  from  mixing  with 
the  food  by  the  contraction  of  the  orifice  of  each  cell,  and  it  can  j 
be  forced  out  at  pleasure  by  the  action  of  a  muscular  expansion 
covering  the  bottom  of  the  cellular  apparatus.  The  deep  cells 
of  the  reticulum  are  arranged  in  twelve  rows,  and  are  formed  by 
muscular  bands  intersecting  each  other  transversely.  This 


182  RUMINANTIA. 

compartment  in  the  Camel  appears  destined  exclusively  as  a 
reservoir  of  water,  never  receiving  solid  food,  as  in  the  ox  and 
sheep.  Sir  E.  Home  is  of  the  opinion  that  k<  Camels  accustomed 
to  journey  for  an  unusual  number  of  days  without  water,  acquire 
the  power  of  dilating  their  cells  so  as  to  make  them  contain  a 
more  than  ordinary  supply  for  their  journey."  When  pressed 
with  thirst,  the  Camel,  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  throws 
up  water  into  the  other  stomachs,  which  serves  to  macerate 
its  dry  and  simple  food.  As  it  drinks  but  seldom,  it  takes 
in  a  large  quantity  of  water  at  a  time ;  and  travelers,  when 
straitened  for  that  article,  have  been  often  known  to  kill  their 
camels  for  the  water  which  they  expected  to  find  in  them. 

The  large  and  prominent  eye  of  the  Camel  enables  it  to  take 
in  a  very  extensive  range  ;  its  vision  is  very  keen,  but  the  ani 
mal  cannot  look  upward;  in  the  horizontal  position  in  which  the 
head  is  carried,  the  brow  overhangs  the  orb  so  as  to  shield  it  from 
the  glare  of  the  sun  in  a  burning  sky.  The  Camel  has  been 
called  "the  ship  of  the  desert."  Here  the  Simoon,  or  hot  wind, 
blowing  from  the  south-east,  carries  along  with  it  dense  yellow 
clouds  of  sand,  which  impede  respiration,  and  are  often  suffocat 
ing  to  travelers.  Even  when  the  lighter  winds  blow,  the  fine 
particles  of  sand,  driven  along  in  volumes,  and  loading  the  atmos 
phere,  would,  to  animals  with  wide  and  open  nostrils,  occasion 
the  greatest  suffering;  but  the  nostrils  of  the  camel  being  in  the 
form  of  narrow  oblique  slits,  which  it  can  open  or  close  at  pleas 
ure,  it  is,  by  breathing  gently  and  gradually,  enabled  to  exclude 
the  suffocating  mass.  The  Camel  is  full  grown  at  the  age  of 
eight  years.  It  generally  lives  forty  years,  sometimes  much 
longer.  It  is  said  that  instances  have  been  known  of  Camels 
which  have  reached  the  age  of  one  hundred  years.  The  female 
has  one  young  at  a  time  which  is  suckled  for  a  year.  Her  milk 
is  described  as  rich,  thick,  and  abundant,  but  rather  strong  in 
taste,  though  when  mixed  with  water,  it  is  a  very  nutritious 
diet. 

The  entire  structure  of  this  animal  is  wonderfully  adapted  to 
the  region  of  its  abode,  and  to  the  habits  and  uses  of  man. 
"  The  pad  or  sole  cushion  of  the  spreading  foot  dividing  it  into 
two  toes,  without  being  externally  separated,  which  buoy  up,  as 
it  were,  the  whole  bulk,  with  their  expansive  elasticity,  from 
sinking  in  the  sand,  on  which  it  advances  with  silent  step;  the 
nostrils,  so  formed  that  the  animal  can  close  them  at  will,  to  ex 
clude  the  drift-sand  of  the  parching  simoon  ;  the  powerful  upper 
incisor  teeth,  for  assisting  in  the  division  of  the  tough  prickly 
shrubs  and  dry  stunted  herbage  of  the  desert;  and  above  all, 


RUMINANTIA. 


183 


the  cellular  structure  of  the  stomach,  which  is  capable  of  being 
converted  into  an  assemblage  of  water  tanks,"  must  be  included 
among  the  plainest  and  most  striking  evidences  of  the  Creator's 
wise  and  benevolent  care,  as  presented  in  the  "Animal  King, 
dom." 

The  Camel  combines  within  itself  qualities,  the  possession  of 
any  one  of  which  serves  to  render  other  quadrupeds  absolutely  nec 
essary  to  human  welfare.  "  Like  the  Elephant,  it  is  manageable 
and  tame ;  like  the  horse,  it  gives  the  rider  security ;  it  carries 
greater  burdens  than  the  ox  and  the  mule  ;  and  its  milk  is  fur- 
nished  in  as  great  abundance  as  that  of  the  cow :  the  flesh  of 
the  young  one  is  supposed  to  be  as  delicate  as  veal ;  the  hair  is 
more  beautiful  and  in  more  request  than  wool  ;  nay,  there  is 
scarcely  a  part  of  their  frame  of  which  it  can  be  said,  it  is  use 
less.7' 

C.  Ardbicus.     The  ARABIAN  CAMEL. 

Of  the  two  species,  this  is  the  best  known,  and  sometimes  is 
called  the  Dromedary,  or  runner,  (C.  dromedarius.)  Plate  II. 
fig.  3.  The  term  dromedar.y  is,  however,  more  strictly  ap 
plicable  to  a  lighter  variety,  El-Heirie,  which  is  unfit  for 
burdens,  but  employed  when  despatch  is  required.  The 
Arabian  Camel  is  more  extensively  used  than  the  Bactrian; 
and  from  its  constitution,  appears  able  to  endure,  for  a  greater 
length  of  time,  the  fatigues  and  deprivations  to  which  these  ani 
mals  are  subjected.  It  is  the  wealth  of  the  Arab,  and  nearly 
the  only  beast  of  burden  in  Turkey,  Persia  and  the  north  of  Af 
rica.  Having  only  a  single  hump,  placed  nearly  in  the  center 
of  the  back,  it  is  at  once  distinguished  from  the  other  species, 
which  has  two  ;  it  is  also  of  a  size  and  stature  somewhat  smaller, 
being  from  five  to  seven  feet  high  at  the  shoulders.  The  muz 
zle  is  less  swollen  than  that  of  the  other  species ;  the  hair  soft, 
woolly  and  very  unequal,  longest  on  the  neck,  the  throat,  and 
the  hump.  The  color  is  always  lighter  than  that  of  the  Bactrian 
Camel,  being,  while  the  animal  is  young,  of  a  dull,  dirty  white, 
but  becoming,  with  age,  of  a  reddish  gray.  The  long  woolly 
hair  is  woven  into  garments  and  tents,  and  the  finer  hair  is  im 
ported  into  Europe  for  the  manufacture  of  artists'  pencils.  The 
best  is  obtained  from  Persia.  Of  the  varieties  of  this  Camel, 
the  Turkish  and  Arabian  is  the  strongest  and  most  hardy.  In 
China  there  is  a  swift  breed  to  which  is  given  the  poetical 
name  of  "the  Camel  with  the  feet  of  the  wind." 

The  Arabian  Camel  is  carefully  trained,  when  young,  to  kneel 
and  receive  burdens.  In  temper,  it  is  mild,  submissive,  docile 


184 


RUMINANTIA. 


and  patient ;  but  is  said  to  be  very  obstinate  when  over-loaded, 
often  refusing  to  rise  if  the  burden  is  felt  to  be  beyond  its 
strength.  Numerous  caravans  of  these  animals,  each  with  a 
load  of  five  or  six  hundred  weight,  and  arranged  iwx"long  rows, 
patiently  pursue  their  toilsome  way  beneath  a  scorching  sun,  at 
the  rate  of  aJhout  twenty. four  miles  a  day  ;  in  some-  instances, 
fifty  miles  have  been  traversed  in  that  time,  but  this  could  not  be 
continued  for  successive  days.  Clapperton's  Journal  of  Travels 
in  the  fiast,  (continued  by  Lander,)  after  mentioning  the  arrival 
of  five  hundred  Camels,  with  salt,  from  the  borders  of  the  Great 
Desert,  says  :  "  They  were  preceded  by  a  party  of  twenty 
merchants,  whose  appearance  was  grand  and  imposing.  They 
wore  black  cotton  robes  and  trowsers,  and  white  caps  with  black 
turbans,  which  hid  every  part  of  the  face,  except  the  nose  and 
eyes.  In  their  right  hand  they  held  a  long  and  light  polished 
spear,  while  with  their  left,  they  held  their  shields  and  retained 
the  reins  of  the  Camels.  Their  shields  were  made  of  white 
leather,  with  a  piece  of  silver  in  the  center.  As  they  passed  me, 
their  spears  glittering  in  the  sun  and  their  whole  bearing 
bold  and  warlike,  they  had  a  novel  and  singular  effect  which  de 
lighted  me.  They  stopped  suddenly  before  the  residence  of  the 
chief,  and  at  the  word,  (•  choir,')  each  of  the  Camels  dropped  on 
its  knees,  as  if  by  instinct,  while  the  riders  dismounted  to  pay 
their  respects. "  Sometimes,  while  attending  caravans  across 
the  deserts,  these  animals  of  the  swifter  breeds  perform  the  office 
of  scouts,  keeping  a  look-out  for  danger  from  wandering  tribes 
and  for  the  approach  of  the  water  stations.  They  will  then 
travel  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  swift  Dromedary  has  been  known  to  perform  a 
journey  of  six  hundred  and  thirty  miles  in  five  days.  It  will 
continue  at  a  long  trot  of  eight  or  nine  miles  an  hour  for  many 
hours  together.  A  modern  traveler,  (see  Morgan's  Algeria,) 
says,  it  was  often  affirmed  to  him  by  the  Arabs  and  the  Moors 
that  the  express  Dromedary  "  makes  nothing  of  holding  its  rapid 
pace,  which  is  a  most  violent  hard  trot,  for  four  and  twenty 
hours  upon  a  stretch,  without  showing  the  least  symptoms  of 
weariness  or  inclination  to  bait;  and  that  having  swallowed  a 
ball  or  two  of  paste  made  up  of  barley,  and  perhaps  a  little  pow 
der  of  dates  among  it,  with  a  bowl  of  water  or  Camel's  milk,  if 
to  be  had,  and  which  the  courier  seldom  fails  to  be  provided 
with,  in  skins,  as  well  for  the  sustenance  of  himself  as  his  Pega 
sus,  the  indefatigible  animal  will  seem  as  fresh  as  at  first  setting 
out,  and  ready  to  continue  at  the  same  scarce  credible  rate  for  as 


RUMINANTIA.  185 

many  hours  longer,  and  so  on,  from  one  extremity  of  the  Afri 
can  desert  to  another.'7  We  know  nothing  of  this  animal  in  a 
wild  condition,  but  in  a  domesticated  state  it  has  existed  from  the 
earliest  times,  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  Palestine  and  the  neighboring 
countries.  Herds  of  Camels  formed  no  small  portion  of  the 
wealth  of  the  scriptural  patriarchs,  (Job,  xliii.,  12.)  and  they  are 
mentioned  among  the  acquisitions  of  Abram  on  his  first  visit  to 
Egypt,  (Gen.  xii.,  16.) 

The  Camel  was  well  known  to  Aristotle,  and  described  by  him 
in  his  "  Natural  History."  Its  native  country  extends  from  Mau 
ritania  to  China,  within  a  zone  of  one  thousand  miles  in  breadth. 
The  Arabian  Camel  is  found  throughout  the  entire  length  of  this 
zone,  on  its  southern  side,  as  far  as  Africa  and  India.  It  is  nu 
merous  in  the  Canary  Islands,  to  which  it  has  been  introduced, 
and  found  also  in  Pisa,  Italy.  After  the  conquest  of  Spanish 
America,  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  Camels  into  that 
country ;  but  the  project  was  looked  upon  with  disfavor  by  the 
"  ruling  Spaniards,"  and  the  animals  gradually  dwindled  away. 

Camelus  Bractianus.     The  BACTRIAN  CAMEL. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  northern  side  of  the  zone  above 
referred  to,  including  the  central  portions  of  Asia  and  China  and 
Thibet ;  occasionally  it  is  seen  in  other  countries.  As  already 
stated,  it  is  easily  known  from  the  Arabian  by  its  having  two 
humps,  one  near  the  shoulders,  the  other  near  the  croup.  This 
is  a  stronger  and  heavier  animal  than  the  other  species,  and  nev 
er  used  when  dispatch  is  needed.  It  is  larger  than  the  Drome 
dary,  being  twelve  feet  in  length  and  eight  feet  in  height,  be 
tween  the  humps.  The  hair  is  shaggy,  particularly  under  the 
throat ;  the  color  generally  dark  brown,  though  variations  occur 
in  this  respect,  and  also  in  respect  to  size,  strength  and  fleetness, 
according  to  the  breed  and  climate.  The  Bactrian  Camel  can 
carry  a  weight  of  twelve  hundred  pounds,  but  from  five  to  eight 
hundred  pounds  is  the  usual  burthen. 

The  Camels  not  long  since  purchased  by  the  United  States 
government,  with  a  view  of  testing  their  utility  in  crossing  the 
wide  extended  plains  lying  between  the  Mississippi  valley  and 
the  Pacific  ocean,  are  described  by  one  of  their  superintendents 
"  as  very  superior  ones,  presenting  a  far  more  sightly  appearance 
than  the  miserable  creatures  which  have  been  exhibited  to  crowds 
in  the  strolling  menageries."  He  says,  "their  stride  is  about 
3  feet  in  length,  and  with  steady  traveling  they  will  average  3J 
miles  per  hour.  They  do  not  kneel  to  receive  their  loads,  as  has 


186  BUMINANTIA. 

been  stated,  at  the  word  of  command,  but  with  a  Kir-r-r,  Kir-r-r, 
and  a  gentle  pressure  upon  the  neck,  or  a  pull  upon  the  halters, 
they  assume  the  kneeling  position."  (Their  not  doing  so,  at 
the  word  of  command,  to  receive  their  loads,  may  be  owing  to  a 
defect  in  their  early  training.)  The  same  writer  remarks, 
"their  cries  are  uttered  to  express  their  distress  or  dissatisfaction 
at  all  times.  When  half  suppressed,  they  are  the  same  as  the 
lazy  grunt  of  a  hog  whose  repose  is  rudely  disturbed  ;  but  when 
enraged,  it  is  much  more  wild  and  greatly  like  that  of  a  Bengal 
tiger  when  his  keeper  'stirs  him  up  with  a  long  pole.'  We  had 
about  600  pounds  of  corn  on  each  of  them  for  the  first  day  after 
leaving  Howard's  Ranch  ;  but  each  day  reduces  it  by  feeding 
until  we  lay  in  another  supply.  They  have  worked  admirably 
well  so  far,  and  promise  to  fulfill  our  most  sanguine  expectations 
in  regard  to  the  experiment." 

Give  the  derivation  of  Camelidce  ?  What  orders  does  this  family  link  ? 
"What  is  said  of  their  teeth  ?  Which  is  wanting  in  the  Llama  ?  What  is 
peculiar  in  the  upper  lip  ?  For  what  used  ?  What  is  said  of  their  brow 
sing  ?  How  many  callosities  ?  Where  situated  ?  What  is  said  of  the  cush 
ion  on  the  foot,  (see  Plate  VI.  fig.  2.)  and  the  aversion  of  the  animal  to 
mud  ?  What  results  from  the  spongy  nature  of  its  foot  ?  What  is  said  of 
its  senses  of  hearing  and  smell  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  cells  of  the 
stomach  and  their  uses,  (Plate VI.  fig.  14.)  In  what  direction  does  it  look? 
How  is  the  Camel  protected  against  the  effects  of  the  simoon  ?  How  long 
does  it  live  ?  In  what  respects  does  it  show  the  wise  and  benevolent  care 
of  the  Creator  V  What  qualities  does  it  combine  ?  Which  of  the  two  spe 
cies  is  best  known  ?  What  is  it  called  ?  What  is  said  of  its  powers  of  en 
durance  ?  How  is  it  distinguished  from  the  other  species  ?  Where  is  the 
JBactrian  Camel  found,  and  how  does  it  differ  from  the  Arabian  C.  ?  How 
large  a  burden  does  it  usually  carry  ?  What  is  the  habitat  of  the  C.  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Camels  purchased  by  the  U.  States  ? 


Trace  the  genera  of  the  Camel  family  upon  the  Chart,  giving  their  spe 
cific  names  and  a  synopsis  of  each  animal. 


RUMTNAXTIA.  1ST 


SECTION  XXIII. 

Auchenia.     (Gr.  '<™/r|*>,  auchen,  a  neck.) 
THE  LLAMA. 

We  have  in  this  genus  the  Camels  of  the  Western  Continent, 
inhabiting  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes  below  the  line  of  perpetual 
snow.  They  are  found  principally  in  Peru  and  Chili,  though 
in  much  fewer  numbers  than  formerly.  Sometimes  they  have 
been  taken  into  Mexico,  but  rather  as  curiosities  than  for  any 
other  purpose.  The  Llamas  were  first  noticed  at  Rio  Bamba, 
about  ninety  miles  south-west  of  Quito,  and  not  far  from  the 
snow-capped  mountain  of  Chimborazo;  and  at  this  very  spot, 
they  are  now  seen  in  considerable  numbers.  Rio  Bamba  is 
11,670  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air 
corresponds  to  this  elevation.  But  these  animals,  as  many  as 
five  hundred  in  a  herd,  are  found  at  elevations  still  higher, — say 
from  13  to  16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  where  the 
mercury  falls  every  night  below  the  freezing  point.  They  do 
not,  however,  advance  so  high  as  the  line  of  perpetual  snow, 
preferring  rather  a  middle  region  affording  congenial  tempera 
ture  and  food.  As  a  protection  against  the  cold  of  their  elevated 
abodes,  they  are  clothed  with  a  long  and  woolly  fur.  The  name 
Auchenia  refers  to  the  long  slender  neck  of  these  animals,  in 
which  they  resemble  the  Camels  proper.  They  are  also  like 
them  in  the  great  cellular  development  of  the  second  stomach; 
the  cellular  apparatus  of  the  paunch ;  the  absence  of  the  third 
or  plicated  stomach,  and  the  concomitant  power  of  enduring 
thirst,  or  rather  abstaining  from  water  altogether;  in  the  large, 
full,  over-hung  eye  ;  the  division  and  mobility  of  the  upper  lip; 
and  the  fissured  form  of  the  nostrils,  and  the  meagre  limbs.  Con 
trasting  the  location  of  these  animals  with  that  of  the  Camels,  we 
naturally  look  for  a  deviation  in  the  structure  of  the  foot.  The 
pad  which  connects  the  toes  of  the  Camel  beneath,  would  have 
afforded  no  very  sure  footing  for  an  animal  destined  to  climb  the 
precipices  of  the  Andes.  We  accordingly  find  in  the  Llamas  toes 
which  are  armed  with  strong  nail-like  hoofs,  (Plate  VI.  fig.  3,) 
completely  separated  from  each  other,  and  each  defended  with  its 
own  pad  or  cushion, — thus  admirably  adapted  to  firm  progression 
either  in  ascent  or  descent;  while  there  is  nothing  in  the  structure 
to  hinder  great  rapidity  upon  comparatively  smooth  and  level 
ground.  The  humps  of  the  true  Camels  are  not  found  on  the 
backs  of  the  Llamas,  yet  there  is  said  to  be  in  the  latter  a  con- 


|gg  RUMINANTIA. 

formation  resembling  those  excrescences,  and  "consisting  of  an 
excess  of  nutritious  matter,  in  the  shape  of  a  thick  coat  of  fat 
under  the  skin,  which  is  absorbed  as  a  compensation  for  want  of 
occasional  food." 

The  genus  Auch-enia  is  now  generally  considered  to  include 
three  species,  viz.,  the  Auchenia  Llama,  or  Guanaco,  which  is 
used  for  burdens,  and  the  Auchenia  Alpaca  and  the  Vicugna, 
which  are  raised  for  their  flesh  and  wool.  Cuvier  regards 
the  Paco  or  Alpaca,  as  a  variety  of  the  Llama,  with  the  wool 
more  amply  developed,  but  the  Vicugna  as  a  distinct  species. 

Llama  is  the  common  term  with  which  the  Peruvians  designate 
their  sheep.  The  wild  Llama  is  usually  of  a  deep  rich  fawn, 
verging  to  white  on  the  under  parts.  The  wool  is  long  and 
shaggy,  but  shorter  on  the  neck  and  limbs  than  on  the  body. 
The  long  slender  neck  is  "held  erect  and  swan-like;7'  the  head 
is  small;  the  lips  are  thick;  the  eye  large  and  brilliant.  On 
the  breast,  there  is  a  bunch  which  constantly  exudes  a  yellowish 
oily  matter.  The  length  of  this  animal  is  six  feet ;  the  height  at 
the  shoulders  about  four.  The  reclaimed  Guanaco  or  domes 
ticated  Llama,  is  greater  in  size  than  the  wild  animal;  the  body 
is  slender,  and  the  limbs  more  muscular;  the  wool  smoother  and 
closer; — the  physiognomy  is  no  longer  wild  and  independent, 
and  its  air  betokens  mildness  and  subjection.  The  color  is  white, 
brown,  black,  and  sometimes  mixed  or  piebald.  Its  step  is  slow 
and  regular,  and  it  has  not  the  strength  or  energy  of  the  wild 
Guanaco, — carrying  at  the  most  but  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 
Under  this  load,  however,  it  will  travel  with  firm  and  sure  step 
fourteen  or  fifteen  miles  a  day,  along  rugged  mountain-passes 
and  the  narrow  ledges  of  precipitous  rocks ;  but  if  loaded  too 
heavily,  or  urged  beyond  its  wonted  pace, — camel-like,  it  lies 
down  and  refuses  to  move  another  step.  All  that  the  conductor 
can  do,  in  such  a  case,  is  to  sit  down  by  the  animal  and  wait 
until  "  by  his  blandishments,  he  prevails  on  it  to  rise  spontane 
ously."  The  difference  in  weight  and  speed  between  this  animal 
and  the  Camel,  the  Peruvians  make  up  in  the  great  numbers 
which  they  use  of  these  beasts  of  burden, — one  drove  sometimes 
including  more  than  five  hundred  that  subsist  in  traveling  as 
they  are  able.  Formerly  these  animals  were  used  in  bringing 
down  the  products  of  the  mines,  and  300,000,  it  is  said,  were 
once  employed  in  the  mines  of  Potosi  alone.  Mules,  however, 
are  now  chiefly  used  for  that  purpose;  though  the  Llama  is  still 
employed  to  some  extent;  its  labor  involving  less  expense.  The 
white  Llama  is  said  to  have  been  the  presiding  divinity  of  the 
natives  of  Callas  before  that  province  was  annexed  to  the  empire 


RUMINANTIA.  1 R9 

of  the  Incas;  the  "priests  of  the  sun"  sacrificed  it,  at  stated  sea- 
sons,  to  the  orb  of  day.  Frequently  the  Llama,  but  preferably  the 
Alpaca,  was  a  pet  in  the  Indian's  cabin.  In  intelligence  these 
animals  rank  high  among  the  ruminants.  As  regards  patience 
and  resignation,  they  are  said  to  equal  the  ox,  while  in  point  of 
sensibility,  they  are  unsurpassed  by  any  other  quadrupeds. 
The  size  and  shape  of  the  eye  indicate  a  strong  and  quick  sight 
as  well  as  a  peculiar  capacity  for  bearing  the  reflection  of  the 
sun's  rays  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Camel  resists  that  glare  of 
the  sands  which  in  man  so  often  produces  ophthalmia.  (Gr. 
bleared  ness  of  the  eyes.) 

Auchenia  Llama.     The  GUANACO. 

The  animals  of  this  species  are  rather  larger  than  sheep,  but 
smaller  than  heifers.  Their  compact  bodies,  their  long  legs, 
and  their  feet  having  toes  armed  with  nail-like  hoofs,  fit  them  for 
dwelling  in  their  wild  state,  among  crags  and  precipices,  where 
the  hunter  would  be  foiled  if  he  dared  to  venture.  Vast  herds 
of  wild  Guanacos  associate,  during  the  summer,  free  as  the 
air, — feeding  upon  the  herbage  of  their  elevated  abode,  and  the 
grass  or  rush  called  icho,  which  covers  the  mountain  slopes. 
As  long  as  green  and  succulent  vegetables  can  be  procured,  the 
animal  never  drinks.  The  cells  of  the  stomach  in  this  animal 
probably  retain  the  moisture  of  the  masticated  vegetables  for  the 
necessities  of  the  system,  perhaps  even  adding  to  it  by  a  liquid 
secretion  of  their  own.  It  is  a  proof  of  Divine  Providence 
that  formed  to  dwell  in  such  regions,  the  Guanacos  are  not  only 
able  to  live  without  water,  but  if  they  can  obtain  their  natural 
food,  do  not  even  require  it. 

Auchenia  Alpaca.     PACO,  or  ALPACA  LLAMA. 

The  great  peculiarity  of  this  species  is  its  long,  fine  and  silky 
wool,  covering  the  neck  as  well  as  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 
The  staple  of  our  common  wools  is  not  more  than  six  inches 
long;  but  that  of  the  Alpaca  averages  from  eight  to  twelve,  and 
sometimes  reaches  twenty  inches ;  acquiring  strength  without 
being  accompanied  by  coarseness, — the  reverse  of  which  occurs 
in  other  woolly  tribes.  Each  filament,  or  thread,  appears  straight, 
Well  formed,  and  free  from  crispness;  and  the  quality  is  more 
uniform  throughout  the  fleece.  There  is  also  a  glittering  bright 
ness  upon  the  surface,  which  gives  it  the  glossiness  of  silk,  espe 
cially,  when  it  comes  out  of  the  dye-vats.  It  is  distinguished  by 
softness,  an  essential  property  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  stuff; 
and  being  exempt  from  spiral,  curly  and  shaggy  portions, — 
when  not  too  long,  it  spins  easily,  and  yields  an  even  and  true 
thread.  It  is,  besides,  less  liable  than  other  wool  to  form  knots 


190 


RUMINANTIA. 


difficult  to  unravel ;  it  is  not  injured  by  keeping,  nor  does  it  lose 
in  weight;  and  it  is  less  subject  to  injury  from  moths,  as  the  fol 
lowing  fact  will  show,  A  small  bundle  of  Alpaca  wool,  with  a 
few  locks  of  other  wool  mixed  with  it,  was  accidentally  thrown 
into  a  closet  and  forgotten.  At  the  end  of  twelve  months,  the 
closet  was  opened,  when  it  appeared  that  the  moths  had  nearly 
eaten  up  the  common,  without  injuring,  at  all,  the  Alpaca  wool. 
The  fleeces  of  Alpaca  wool  range,  in  Peru,  from  ten  to  twelve 
pounds  each,  whereas,  "those  of  our  full  sized  sheep  seldom  go 
beyond  eight  pounds,  and  the  small  species  four  pounds."  As  far 
back  as  the  days  of  Philip  II.,  efforts  were  made  to  introduce 
these  animals  into  Spain  ;  but  failed  through  the  intervention  of 
war.  They  were  taken  to  France,  in  the  days  of  Napoleon  I., 
where  they  have  found  a  congenial  climate  ;  and  they  have 
lived  to  their  full  period  in  the  low  lands  of  Spain.  They  have 
also  been  bred  in  Hamburg  and  in  England,  where  the  wool 
seems  to  improve.  The  staple  of  some  Alpaca  wool  from  the 
Earl  of  Derby's  flock,  was  exhibited  in  England  some  ten  or 
twelve  years  since.  This  appeared  about  a  foot  long,  and  it 
was  estimated  the  animal  had  seventeen  pounds  of  it  on  his 
back. 

The  meat  of  the  Alpaca  has  been  compared  to  "venison,  and 
even  heath-fed  mutton."  Its  quality  could  hardly  fail  to  be 
good  as  the  animal  eats  nothing  but  the  purest  vegetable  sub 
stance,  and  in  habitual  cleanliness,  is  said  to  surpass  every  other 
animal.  The  Alpaca  is  also  far  less  subject  to  disease  than 
sheep;  and  as  it  seldom  perspires,  the  fleece  does  not  require 
washing  before  it  is  taken  from  the  back. 

It  has  extraordinary  foresight  of  storms,  and  power  to  contend 
with  them,  so  that,  in  its  native  climes,  seldom  is  one  missing 
after  a  tempest. 

The  first  marketable  fabric  made  from  the  wool  of  this  animal, 
was  presented  at  Greetland,  near  Halifax,  (Eng.,)  about  twenty- 
five  years  ago.  It  was  there  sold,  at  a  very  high  price,  in  the 
form  of  ladies'  carriage  shawls  and  cloakings,  as  curiosities. 
The  quantity  manufactured  and  used  since  that  time,  has  steadily 
and  greatly  increased.  From  Alpaca  wool,  plain  and  figured  stuffs 
are  produced,  which  have  a  beautiful  luster.  The  difficulty  which 
was  at  first  found  in  dying  it,  being  now  overcome,  the  most  deli 
cate  colors  are  obtained,  such  as  royal  blue,  scarlet,  green  and 
orange,  as  seen  in  the  mousselines  de  laines,  and  other  ladies' 
dresses  now  in  use.  The  blacks  are  superior,  and  the  damask 
patterns  very  showy  in  their  appearance.  In  some  instances,  Al 
paca  takes  the  place  of  Angola,  or  goat's  hair  wool ;  and  in  France, 


RTJMINANTIA.  JQJ 

it  has  been  used  for  cashmeres  and  merinoes.  English  capitalists 
have  introduced  the  animal  into  the  colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  where  it  has  succeeded  well,  the  shearing  yielding  eight  and 
a  half  pounds  a  sheep.  Alpaca  goods  are,  to  some  extent,  man 
ufactured,  and  largely  imported,  and  used  in  the  United  States. 

Alpaca  Vicugna,  or  Auchenia  Vicuna.      THE  VICUNA. 

This  is  a  much  hardier  animal  than  the  Guanaco.  It  inhabits 
ranges  nearer  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  where  the  cold  is  in 
tense,  and  is  rather  pleased  than  annoyed  by  snow  or  frost.  In 
size,  it  is  less  than  the  Guanaco.  The  wool  is  of  a  pale  yellow 
ish  fawn  color,  and  exquisitely  fine,  having  a  texture  which  may 
be  termed  silken.  It  is  used  for  manufacturing  expensive  shawls 
and  other  articles  of  dress.  For  the  sake  of  it,  eighty  thousand 
of  these  animals,  it  is  said,  are  killed  every  year.  They  are 
not  unlike  goats,  except  that  they  are  larger,  and  have  more 
horns.  The  Vicunas  are  found  in  flocks,  appear  timid,  and  flee 
at  the  sight  of  men  and  of  wild  beasts. 

What  is  the  habitat  of  the  Llama  ?  Where  was  it  first  noticed  ?  To 
what  does  the  name  Auchenia  refer?  In  what  particulars  do  they  resem 
ble  the  Camels  proper?  What  deviation  is  there  in  the  structure  of  the 
foot?  (PL  VI,  fig.  3.)  Has  it  the  humps  of  the  Camel?  How  many 
species  are  included  in  the  genus  Auchenia?  What  are  their  respective 
uses?  How  did  Cuvier  regard  the  Alpaca  and  Vicugna?  How  do  the 
Peruvians  use  the  term  Llama  ?  Describe  the  wild  Llama  ?  What  is 
the  size  ?  What  is  said  of  the  reclaimed  Guanaco  as  compared  with 
the  wild  Llama  ?  What  of  its  uses  as  a  beast  of  burden  ?  What  of  the 
White  Llama?  How  do  these  animals  rank  in  intelligence?  What  is 
the.  size  of  the  Guanaco?  Upon  what  does  it  feed?  What  proof  of 
divine  providence  is  referred  to?  What  is  the  great  peculiarity  of  the 
Alpaca  Llama  ?  What  is  said  of  its  wool  ?  How  early  were  attempts 
made  to  introduce  it  into  Spain  ?  When  were  they  taken  to  France  ?  In  what 
other  countries  have  they  been  bred?  What  is  said  of  the  cleanliness  of  the 
Alpaca?  When  and  where  was  the  first  marketable  fabric  made  from  the 
Alpaca  wool  ?  Where  is  most  of  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  this  wool  now 
performed?  What  is  further  said  of  its  manufacture?  How  does  the 
Vicugna  compare  with  the  Guanaco  in  hardiness  and  size  ?  What  is  said 
of  its  wool  ?  What  animal  does  it  resemble  ? 


What  Llamas  are  named  upon  the   chart?    What  is  said  of  them  ? 
Trace  them  ? 


]  92  RUM1NANTIA, 


SECTION  XXIV. 


CAMELOPARDAE.      (Gr.    x&pqlos,   kamelos,  a  camel  ; 
pardalis,  a  leopard.) 

THE  CAMELOPARDS. 

These  singular  and  beautiful  ruminants,  in  their  general  struct 
ure,  most  nearly  approach  the  Deer,  but  have  points  of  resem- 
blance  also  to  the  Antelopes  and  Camels,  besides  striking  pecu 
liarities  of  their  own.  They  have  persistent  horns,  common  to 
both  sexes,  and  are  the  tallest  of  all  known  quadrupeds;  fre 
quenting  the  wooded  plains  and  hills  that  skirt  the  arid  deserts, 
or  the  verge  of  mighty  forests  where  groves  of  mimosa  trees 
beautify  the  scenery. 

Camelopardalis  Giraffe  is  the  sole  species,  including  two 
varieties,  —  the  ons  native  to  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  the  regions 
adjacent,  and  ranked  by  Swainson  as  a  distinct  species,  —  the 
other,  found  in  Southern  Africa.*  (See  Chart.) 

The  general  characters  of  the  Giraffe  are  the  following,  viz., 
"  Lip  not  grooved,  entirely  covered  with  hair,  much  produced 
before  the  nostril  ;  tongue  very  extensile  ;  neck  very  long,  and 
having  a  short  thick  mane;  body  short;  hind  legs  short;  false 
hoof  none;  tail  elongate,  with  a  tuft  of  thick  hair  at  the  end." 
This  animal  at  once  impresses  the  beholder  with  its  towerin'g 
height,  varying  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet.  The  males  are 
generally  fifteen  or  sixteen,  and  the  females  thirteen  or  fourteen 
feet  in  height,  and  their  young  at  birth,  six  feet.  Its  thickness 
is  not  what  might,  perhaps,  be  expected  from  the  height.  In 
order  to  support  its  very  long  neck,  (but  having  only  the 
number  of  bones  found  in  the  human  neck,)  the  withers  are  ele 
vated;  the  spinal  processes  of  the  vertebrae  are  prolo^ed  to 
meet  the  elastic  ligament  which  rims  along  the  neck,  anu  assist 
to  keep  it  in  its  natural  position.  It  is  said  above,  —  "the  hind 
legs  are  short."  This  describes  them  as  they  appear;  but  in 
reality  the  front  and  hind  legs  are  about  the  same  length  ;  the 

*  The  Commentator  on  the  "Pictorial  Bible,"  where  a  good  cut  of  the 
Giraffe  is  given,  says,  with  reference  to  the  word  Chamois,  used,  Genesis 
iii.,  21,  "The  Arabic  version  understood  that  the  word  Giraffe  is  meant 
here,  which  is  very  likely  to  have  been  the  case,  for  the  Chamois  is  not  met 
with  so  far  to  the  Southward  as  Egypt  and  Palestine."  The  Jews  had, 
probably,  many  opportunities  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  animal  while 
in  Egypt,  as  had  also  the  seventy  (translators  of  the  Septuagint)  who 
resided  there,  and  who  indicate  their  knowledge  of  it  in  their  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  name/ 


RUMINANTIA. 


193 


thighs  in  front  are  so  long  in  comparison  with  those  behind,  that 
the  back  of  the  animal  seems  inclined  like  the  roof  of  a  house; 
and  this  gives  to  it  an  appearance  of  unwieldiness  and  unfitness 
for  active  movements.  But  the  seeming  drawbacks  related  to  its 
structure  and  condition,  are  balanced  by  marked  and  peculiar 
advantages.  A  man  on  horseback  can,  without  stooping,  ride 
under  the  body  of  the  animal, — the  height  to  the  tip  of  the 
shoulder  being  ten  feet.  Why  that  neck  of  prodigious  length? 
Why  the  disproportioned  height  of  the  fore  and  the  hind  parts  of 
the  body,  giving  to  the  animal  its  appearance  of  unwieldiness 
and  clumsiness?  The  answer  is, — the  animal  derives  a  large 
part  of  its  food  from  the  leaves  of  trees,  particularly  the  mimosa, — 
a  species  of  acacia,  called  acacia  giraffe.  The  peculiarity  of  the 
Giraffe's  form  enables  it  to  reach  the  high  branches  which  are 
uncropped,  because  above  the  reach  of  ordinary  animals;  and  a 
shorter  neck,  on  the  other  hand,  would  not  have  allowed  it  to 
reach  the  earth  in  districts  where  woods  are  less  common.  In 
reaching  the  high  branches,  it  is  also  aided  by  the  tongue,  which 
has  the  power  of  motion  in  such  a  degree,  accompanied  with  the 
faculty  of  extension,  that  it  performs  "the  office  of  the  proboscis 
of  an  elephant  in  miniature."  This  organ  may  be  extended  sev 
enteen  inches  after  death,  but  in  the  living  animal,  can  lie  so 
diminished  in  size  as  to  be  inclosed  within  its  mouth.  Ac 
cording  to  Sir  Everard  Home,  its  actions  depend  on  the  com 
bined  powers  of  muscular  contraction  and  elasticity  ;  its  increase 
and  diminution  of  size  arising  from  the  blood  vessels  being  at 
one  time  loaded  with  blood,  and  at  another  empty.  The  Cam- 
elopard  seizes  the  foliage  with  its  long  and  narrow  tongue, 
using  it  as  a  prehensile  organ,  and  a  beautiful  accessary  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  structure, — rolling  it  around  the  object  with 
considerable  pliability. 

The  tongue  is  used  as  an  organ  of  examination,  for  the  power 
of  prehension  is  so  great,  that  when  extended  to  the  utmost,  it 
can  grasp  an  ordinary  lump  of  sugar,  of  which  the  animal  seems 
very  fond.  He  retroverts  the  tongue  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing 
the  nostrils, — an  office  which  its  flexibility  enables  him  to  per- 
form  in  the  most  perfect  manner.  The  tongue,  it  is  said,  can  be 
so  tapered  as  to  enter  the  ring  of  a  very  small  key.  The  eyes 
are  large  and  prominent,  and  soft  and  gentle  in  their  expression ; 
the  ears  large  and  spreading ;  the  lips,  especially  the  lower  one, 
being  movable  ;  the  head  is  small,  but  elegantly  modeled,  taper 
ing  to  the  singularly  narrow  muzzle,  with  a  well-formed  mouth. 

Both  the  male  and  female  Camelopard  have  horns, — not  such 
as  are  periodically  shed  and  renewed ;  nor  yet  true  and  promi- 


iql  RUMINANT1A. 

nent  horns,  like  those  of  the  Antelope,  but  consisting  of  two 
porous,  bony  substances,  about  three  inches  long,  with  which 
the  top  of  the  head  is  armed,  placed  just  above  the  ears,  and 
crowned  with  a  thick  tuft  of  stiff  upright  hairs;  a  considerable 
protuberance  also  rises  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  between 
the  eyes.  By  some,  these  horns  muffled  with  skin  and  hair,  are 
said  to  be  "useless  as  instruments  of  defence," — others  say, — 
"  We  have  seen  them  wielded  by  the  males  against  each  other 
with  fearful  and  reckless  force."  The  Giraffe  does  not  butt  by 
depressing  and  suddenly  elevating  the  head;  but  strikes  the  cal 
lous  obtuse  extremity  of  the  horns  against  the  object  of  his  attack 
with  a  sidelong  sweep  of  the  neck.  The  imperfection  of  the  horns 
has  been  plausibly  ascribed  "to  the  state  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  the  arteries  of  the  skull."  The  long  neck  is  supposed 
to  impede  the  circulation,  so  that  the  vital  stream  ascends  with 
difficulty, — it  rises  slowly,  in  more  moderate  quantity,  and  is 
"  inadequate  for  a  supply  of  osseous  matter,  remarkable  either  for 
its  abundance,  or  its  rapid  elaboration."  Who  does  not  see  the 
wisdom  of  this  ordering?  What  could  the  long-necked  Cam- 
elopard  do  with  the  ponderous  horns  of  the  Moose,  or  the  Wa- 
pite  ?  "  It  is  not  for  nothing  that  the  neck  is  elongated,  that  the 
head  is  light,  and  the  tongue  made  flexible; — it  is  not  without 
design  that  the  horns  are  rudimentary;  for  such  modifications 
the  instincts  and  the  habits  of  the  creature  demand  ;  the  one  part 
involves  the  other."  Professor  Owen  has  noticed  a  further 
beautiful  provision  in  this  animal,  which  is,  that  its  nostrils  are 
provided  with  cutaneous  sphincter  (Gr.  aqruj'j'w,  sphingo,  to  con 
strain  )  muscles,  and  can  be  shut  at  will,  like  the  eyes.  He 
supposes  that  the  object  of  this  mechanism,  is  to  keep  out  the 
sand  when  the  storms  of  the  desert  arise. 

The  hair  of  the  Giraffe  is  short  and  close;  the  ground  color 
of  a  light  grayish  fawn,  marked  with  numerous  triangular  spots, 
with  a  darker  hue,  less  regularly  shaped  on  the  sides  than  on 
the  neck  and  shoulders.  The  Northern  variety  of  the  animal  is 
of  a  paler  color  than  the  Southern. 

The  eyes  of  the  Giraffe  are  so  placed  that  he  can  see  much  of 
what  is  passing  on  all  sides,  and  even  behind,  without  turning  the 
head.  Hence  it  is  difficult  to  approach  him  ;  and  when  surprised 
or  run  down,  he  directs  most  accurately  the  rapid  storm  of  kicks 
with  which  his  defence  is  made.  Ordinarily,  however,  this  ani 
mal  seeks  safety  in  flight.  Its  motion  is  extremely  rapid,  espe 
cially  along  rising  ground ;  but  cannot  be  maintained  for  a 
sufficient  time  to  enable  it  to  escape  from  the  Arab  mounted  on 
his  long-winded  steed.  The  pace  is  an  amble ;  the  animal 


RUMINANTIA.  195 

moves  two  legs  on  each  side  at  the  same  time,  but  when  put  in 
motion,  it  can,  for  a  while,  keep  a  horse  at  a  pretty  smart  gallop. 
The  lamented  Anderson  says,  in  his  "Lake  Ngami," — "It  is  a 
curious  sight,  a  troop  of  Giraffes  at  full  speed,  balancing  them 
selves  to  and  fro  in  a  manner  not  easily  described  ;  and  whisking, 
at  regular  intervals,  from  side  to  side,  their  tails,  tufted  at  the 
end,  while  their  long  and  tapering  necks,  swaying  backward 
and  forward,  follow  the  motion  of  their  bodies.  They  are  so 
long-winded,  that  a  swift  horse  seldom  overtakes  them  under  less 
than  two  or  three  miles."  The  author  of  the  "Menageries" 
remarks, — "Until  the  year  1827,  when  a  Giraffe  appeared  in 
England,  and  one  in  France,  the  animal  had  not  been  seen  in 
Europe  since  the  15th  century,  when  the  Soldan  of  Egypt  sent 
one  to  Lorenzo  De  Medici,  which  was  familiar  to  the  inhabit 
ants  of  Florence,  where  it  was  accustomed  to  walk  at  ease  about 
the  streets,  stretching  its  long  neck  to  the  balconies,  and  first 
floors,  for  apples  and  other  fruits,  upon  which  it  delighted  to 
feed."  In  1836,  four  Giraffes  were  introduced  into  England  by 
the  Zoological  Society,  at  an  expense  of  between  eleven  and 
twelve  thousand  dollars.  One  of  them  soon  died  ;  but  the  others 
lived,  and  one  of  the  females  had  several  young  ones,  which 
were  sold  and  taken  to  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  our  own 
country,  the  Camelopard  is  often  exhibited.  The  animal,  it  is 
said,  is  often  seen  in  a  tame  state,  it  Grand  Cairo,  in  Egypt,  and 
is  found  figured  in  the  sculptured  remains  of  that  country. 
Pompey  the  Great  exhibited  in  the  theatre,  ten  of  these  ani 
mals,  which  he  had  brought  from  the  scenes  of  his  military 
enterprise.  His  rival,  Julius  Caesar,  also  exhibited  them.  After 
him,  several  Roman  Emperors  showed  them  in  the  public  games 
and  processions.  All  these  were  probably  obtained  from  the 
northern  or  north-eastern  part  of  the  African  Continent,  and  by 
way  of  Egypt. 

What  is  said  of  the  structure  of  the  Camelopards?  How  many  varieties 
and  where  found?  What  are  the  general  chai'acters  of  this  animal?  What 
its  size?  How  is  its  long  neck  supported?  Are  its  hind  legs  really  shorter 
than  its  fore  legs?  What  compensation  is  referred  to?  What  aids  it  to 
reach  high  branches?  What  is  said  of  the  tongue?  Has  this  animal 
horns?  Why  are  they  imperfect?  What  provision  is  noticed  by  Professor 
Owen?  How  do  the  varieties  differ  in  color?  How  do  the  eyes  of  the 
Giraffe  assist  him  in  self-defence?  What  is  the  remark  of  Anderson? 
What  more  is  said? 


What  is  said  on  the  chart  of  its  size  ? 


195  RUMINANTIA. 

SECTION  XXV. 

MOSCHIDAE,  or  MUSK  DEER.     (Gr.  /MOO-/O?,  moschos,  a  Musk.) 

These  are  so  called,  from  the  fact,  that  one  species  yields  the 
well-known  perfume,  called  musk.  According  to  Cuvier,  "they 
are  much  less  anomalous  than  the  Camels,  and  only  differ  from  the 
other  Ruminants  in  the  absence  of  horns,  in  having  a  long  canine 
tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  comes  out  of  the 
month  in  the  males,  and,  finally,  in  having  in  their  skeleton,  a 
slight  fibula,  (clasp,  or  connecting  link,)  which  has  no  existence 
in  the  Camels." 

The  distinction  of  the  other  canine  tooth  noticed  by  Cuvier,  is 
not,  however,  confined  to  the  Musks, — as  some  of  the  males  of 
other  deer,  the  Muntjak,  for  example,  show  a  similar  forma- 
tion ;  that  of  the  Moschus  moschiferus,  (Lat.  musk-bearing,)  is 
three  inches  long.  In  general  form,  the  Musk  deer  differ  only 
a  little  from  other  Deer ;  but  the  body  is  rounded  and  stouter, 
arid  the  neck  shorter, — the  head  is  not  carried  erect,  and  the 
bearing  not  so  bold ;  the  limbs  are  more  tapering,  and  the  hind 
quarters  considerably  elevated ;  the  face  is  narrow  and  length 
ened,  and  they  are  destitute  of  horns,  None  of  them  have  tear 
openings,  or  tufts  of  bushy  hair  on  their  legs,  like  the  other  deer. 
They  have  large,  dark  and  brilliant  eyes,  rather  small  ears,  and 
short  tails;  they  have  also  front  and  hind  hoofs, — the  front  hoofs 
being  long,  narrow  and  pointed,  the  hind  ones  high  set,  small  and 
conical.  In  the  true  musks,  however,  the  hoofs  are  broad  and 
expanded;  the  hind  ones  large,  almost  touching  the  ground. 
Besides  the  true  and  celebrated  Musk  Deer,  the  family  includes 
four  other  species,  one  found  in  Ceylon,  and  three  in  Java,  in 
cluding  the  smallest,  and  according  to  some,  the  most  elegant  of 
the  Ruminants. 

Moschus  moschiferus.    The  THIBET  MUSK.    (Plate  VII.  fig.  1.) 

This  is  a  mountain  animal, — timid,  shy,  and  a  lover  of  soli 
tude,  having  somewhat  the  form  of  a  roebuck,  but  thicker  and 
more  clumsy.  It  is  six  inches  higher  behind  than  at  the  shoulder, 
where  it  measures  about  two  feet  three  inches.  The  ears  are 
long,  and  rather  narrow;  in  the  inside,  pale  yellow,  and  dark 
brown,  outside.  The  hair  is  long,  coarse  and  harsh,  and  mixed 
with  brown  yellow,  and  whitish,  which  produces  a  dark  red 
tinge  on  the  back,  fading  off  to  whitish  beneath. — the  tail  is  nearly 
rudimentary,  and  covered  by  the  hair  ;  a  tuft  hangs  on  each  side 
from  the  lower  jaw.  This  animal  being  extremely  cautious,  and 


THE 

UNIVERSITY 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  VII. 


1.  The  Musk-Deer,  Moschus  Moschiferus. 

2.  The  Common  Stag,  or  European  Red  Deer,  Cervus  Elephas. 

3.  The  Moose,  Flat-Horned  Elk,  or  Black  Elk,  C.  alces. 

4.  The  American  Elk,  Round-Horned  Elk,  or  Wapiti  Deer,  filephas  Cana- 
densi*. 

5.  The  Caribou,  or  American  Reindeer,  C.  ranyifer  or  R.  Tarandus. 

6.  The  Fallow  Deer,  C.  Dama  or  Dama  vulgaris. 

7.  The  Roe-buck,  C.  Capreolus  or  Capreolus  Dorcas. 

8.  The  Muntjak,  C.  vaginalis. 

ox. 

9.  The  Musk  Ox,  Ovibos  Moschatlts,  Little  Bison  of  the  Chipewyans  and 
Copper  Indians. 

SHEEP. 

10.  The   Moufflon,  Ovis  musimou  or  Caprovis  musimont  Wild  Sheep  or 
Siberian  Goat  of  Pennant. 

11.  The  Argali,  or  Wild  Sheep,  Caprovis  Argalis* 

12.  The  Many-Horned  Sheep,  Ov is  polycerata. 

GOATS. 

13.  The  Syrian  Goat,  Capra  Syriaca.     Its  large  pendulous  ears  are  from 
one  to  two  feet  long,  and  at  times  so  troublesome  that  the  owners  are 
obliged  to  trim  them.     Amos  iii.  12. 

14.  The  Ibex,  Capra  Ibex. 

ANTELOPES. 

15.  The  Kudoo,  Antilope  strepsicoros. 

16.  The  Blessbok,  A.  albifrons. 

17.  The  Prong-Horned  Antelope,  A.  Americana  or  Antilocapra  A. 

18.  The  Common  Antelope,  or  Sasin,  A.  ccrvicapra. 

19.  The  Dorcas  Gazelle,  A.  Dorcas,  or  Gazella  Dorcas. 

20.  The  Oryx,  A.  Oryx,  or  Oryx   Gazella. 

21.  The  Chamois,  or  Gems,  A.  rupricapra,  or  7?.  Tragus. 

22.  The  Mhorr,  Gazella  Mhorr,  or  A.  Mhorr. 

23.  The  Gnu,  or  Gnoo,  A.  Gnu,  or  Catoblepas  Gnu. 

24.  The  Bekker-el-Wash,  or  Wild-Ox  of  the  Arabs,  A.  Bubalis.  or  Alcepha- 

lus  Bubalis. 


200  RUMINANTIA. 

residing  among  broken  crags  and  precipices  covered  with  pines 
is  yet  eagerly,  and  often  with  peril  of  life,  hunted  for  its  perfume' 
peculiar  to  the  male  alone.  Its  habits  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
Chamois, — it  climbs  and  bounds  over  the  Alpine  ridges  of  Cen 
tral  Asia  with  astonishing  activity,  assembling  in  herds,  and 
sometimes  in  considerable  numbers.  Occasionally,  it  is  killed 
with  a  cross-bow,  a  string  having  been  set  in  the  path  of  the 
animal.  The  bag  containing  the  perfume,  is  kidney. shaped,  and 
about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  It  has  two  openings,  the  larger 
one  oblong,  the  smaller  round,  and  covered  with  hair.  The 
musk,  on  the  application  of  pressure,  may  be  driven  through  the 
openings, — it  is  an  unctuous,  dusky  red  substance,  and  when  dry, 
is  more  or  less  granulated.  The  hunters  cut.  off  the  bag  and  tie 
it  up  for  sale ;  but  like  many  other  articles  of  commerce,  it  is 
often  adulterated  by  the  addition  of  blood  and  other  matter,  and 
pieces  of  lead  have  sometimes  been  found  enveloped  in  it  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  the  weight.  The  quality  and  quantity  of 
the  musk  in  a  given  bag  vary,  according  to  the  age  of  the  ani 
mal.  To  the  taste,  it  is  bitter,  and  somewhat  acrid.  No  sub- 
stance  is  known  to  have  a  stronger,  or  more  subtle  and  perma 
nent  smell.  It  strikingly  illustrates  the  extreme  divisibility  of 
matter,  for  a  single  grain  of  it  will  perfume  a  whole  room,  and 
its  odor  continue  for  days  without  any  diminution.  When  once 
introduced,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  destroy  its  perfume. 
Vessels  of  silver  do  not  for  a  long  time  part  with  the  scent  of 
musk  that  has  been  placed  in  them.  When  exposed  in  large 
quantity,  its  effect  is  really  violent  upon  the  nervous  system  ; 
blood  has  been  forced  from  the  nose,  eyes  and  ears  of  those  who 
have  imprudently  inhaled  a  large  amount  of  the  vapor.  Pur 
chasers  of  the  article  sometimes  secure  themselves  from  the  sud 
den  effects  of  the  smell  by  covering  the  face  with  a  handkerchief 
several  times  folded.  For  nervous  diseases  and  convulsions,  it 
has  been  used  as  a  medicine.  Orientalists  make  warm  winter 
dresses  for  themselves  out  of  this  animal's  skin,  with  the  fur 
preserved;  they  also  prepare  from  it  a  soft  and  shining  leather. 
The  Romans  and  Tartars  even  eat  the  flesh,  though  that  of  the 
male  is  highly  flavored  with  musk. 

Moschus  Meminna.     The  MEMINNA. 

This  beautiful  little  Musk,  about  seventeen  inches  in  length, 
and  weighing  only  five  and  a  half  pounds,  is  a  native  of  Ceylon, 
frequenting  woods  and  groves,  but  never  found  in  the  plains.  It 
has  large  dark  eyes,  and  smooth  shining  hair,  of  an  olive  color, 
clouded  with  reddish  about  the  limbs.  The  sides  are  dappled 
with  interrupted  lines  and  irregular  dots  of  white  ;  the  throat 


RUMINANTIA.  201 

and  chest  are  also  white,  and  from  the  former,  two  lines  of  the 
same  color  on  each  side  radiate  backwards,  the  lower  one  ex 
tending  to  the  shoulders.  (This  peculiar  marking  specifically 
varied  in  a  slight  degree,  characterises  the  remaining  species  of 
this  genus.) 

Moschus  Napu.     The  NAPTJ,  or  CHEVROTAIN. 

This  Musk  Deer  is  a  native  of  Java,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a 
rabbit, — the  legs  are  scarcely  as  thick  as  a  common  quill ;  the 
general  color  is  a  uniform  ferruginous  brown,  clouded  with 
black;  and  the  animal  has  throat  marks  as  above  referred  to. 

To  this  species,  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  has  given  the  specific 
name  Javanicus.  He  remarks,  that  it  "  frequents  thickets  near 
the  sea-shore  ;  and  feeds  principally  upon  the  berries  of  a  species 
of  Ardisia  ;  can  be  easily  trained  when  taken  young,  and  will 
become  quite  familiar." 

Moschus  Kanchil.     KANCHIL  MUSK  DEER. 

This  is  by  some  regarded  as  the  most  elegant,  as  it  is  one  of 
the  smallest  of  the  Ruminantia, — and  is  also  found  in  Java  and 
Sumatra.  Its  height  is  about  nkie  inches;  its  length,  four 
teen.  The  color  is  a  deep  yellow  brown,  approaching  to 
black  on  the  back,  a  bright  bay  on  the  sides,  and  on  the  under 
parts  white.  The  markings  of  the  throat  have  the  upper  line  of 
white  extending  from  the  face  to  the  shoulder,  differing  in  this 
respect  from  those  of  the  Napu.  It  has  long  canine  teeth,  and 
a  tail  tufted  and  white  at  the  tip.  Berries  and  wild  fruit  consti 
tute  its  food.  Among  the  Javanese,  it  is  said  to  have  a  reputa 
tion  for  strategy  similar  to  that  of  the  fox.  A  Malay  proverb 
doscribes  a  great  rogue  as  being  "as  cunning  as  a  Kanchil." 
"If  taken  in  a  noose  laid  for  it,  the  Kanchil,  when  the  hunter 
arrives,  will  stretch  itself  out  motionless,  and  feign  to  be  dead  ; 
and  if,  deceived  by  this  manoeuvre,  he  disengage  the  animal,  it 
seizes  the  moment  to  start  on  its  legs,  and  disappears  in  an  in 
stant."  A  still  more  singular  expedient  is  mentioned,  viz.,  "that 
when  closely  pursued  by  the  dogs,  the  Kanchil  will  sometimes 
make  a  bound  upwards,  hook  itself  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  by 
means  of  its  bent  tusks,  and  there  remain  suspended,  until  the 
dogs  have  passed  beneath." 

Linnseus  placed  tbe  Musk  Deer  between  the  Camels  and  Deer. 
Swainson  places  them  between  the  Camelopards  and  Deer. 

Why  arc  the  MuskDeer  so  called  ?  What  is  Cuvier's  remark  respecting 
them?  What  is  said  of  their  general  form,  &c.  ?  How  many  species  does 
the  family  include  ?  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  these  animals  ?  Describe 
the  Thibet  Musk?  What  is  its  great  peculiarity?  What  shows  the  powerful 
nature  of  the  Musk  ?  What  property  of  matter  does  this  illustrate  ?  To 


202  RUMINANTIA. 

what  medicinal  use  has  it  been  applied?  Give  some  account  of  the  Mc- 
minna?  What  peculiarity  has  it  in  common  with  the  remaining  species  of 
this  genus?  Where  is  the  Napu  found  ?  What  does  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  say 
of  it?  Where  is  the  Kanchil  found?  What  is  its  size?  What  reputation 
has  it  among  the  Javanese?  What  Malay  proverb  is  mentioned?  How  is 
its  cunning  illustrated?  Where  did  Linnaeus  and  Swainson  place  Musk 
Deer?  Where  are  they  placed  on  the  Chart? 

SECTION  XXVI. 
SOLID-HORNED  RUMINANTS. 

CERVIDAE.     (Lat.  Cervus,  a  stag.)     The  DEER  FAMILY. 

We  come  now  to  a  group  of  animals  which  have  been  ever 
greatly  admired.  They  seem,  many  of  them,  to  have  been 
formed  to  embellish  the  forest,  and  impart  animation  to  the  sol 
itudes  of  nature.  In  their  internal  structure,  they  closely 
resemble  the  ox,  but  they  are  "without  the  gall-bladder;  the 
kidneys  are  formed  differently;  and  the  spleen  is  larger  in  pro 
portion  to  the  size  of  the  animals."  Of  the  genus  Cervus,  the 
general  characters  are  simple.  Incisor  teeth  are  found,  eight  in 
number,  in  the  lower  jaw  alone  ;  the  grinders  are  six  on  each 
side  above  and  below;  the  canine  teeth  are  generally  wanting. 
The  pupils  of  the  eye  are  elongated,  and  below  the  inner  angle 
of  the  eye,  there  is  a  deep  fossa,  or  opening,  generally  known  as 
the  lachrymal  sinus.  In  some,  this  opening,  called  by  the 
French,  larmiers,  (from  Fr.  larme,  a  tear,)  is  of  considerable 
size.  It  has  been  supposed  "to  communicate  with  the  nostrils, 
and  assist  them  in  maintaining  respiration,  during  great  exertion 
or  swiftness;  "  but  its  use  is  not  fully  ascertained.  The  cavity 
secretes  a  wax-like  substance,  which  sends  forth  a  strong  odor. 
The  ears  are  large  and  pointed  ;  the  tail  short ;  the  legs  slender; 
and  the  feet  bisulcated.  The  horns,  or  antlers, — excepting  in  the 
case  of  the  Rein  Deer,  found  alone  in  the  males, — are  solid,  and 
in  a  large  part  of  these  animals,  annually  shed  and  renewed. 
"The  form  of  the  horns  is  various.  Sometimes  they  spread  into 
broad  palms,  which  send  out  sharp  snags  around  their  outer 
edges;  sometimes  they  divide  fantastically  into  branches,  some 
of  which  project  over  the  forehead,  whilst  others  are  reared  up 
ward  in  the  air,  or  they  may  be  so  reclined  backwards,  that  the 
animal  seems  almost  forced  to  carry  its  head  in  a  stiff,  erect 
posture  ;  yet,  in  whatever  way  they  grow,  they  appear  to  give 
an  air  of  grandeur  to  the  animal."  The  geographical  range  of 
the  Deer  includes  the  entire  globe,  with  the  exception  of  Austra 
lia  and  Southern  Africa.  The  species  found  in  the  colder 


RUMINANTIA.  203 

regions,  are  generally  marked  by  superior  size,  and  a  greater 
development  of  the  horns  ;  and  by  having  a  broad  muzzle  cov 
ered  with  hair. 

The  production,  loss  and  renewal  of  the  antlers  of  this  family 
of  quadrupeds,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of 
animal  physiology.  The  subject  is  treated  with  great  ability 
and  clearness  in  W.  C.  L.  Martin's  work  on  the  Mammalia,  from 
which  we  extract  the  following : 

"  The  horns  are  seated  upon  an  osseous  peduncle,  or  footstalk, 
rising  from  each  frontal  bone  at  its  central  point  of  ossification, — 
thes3  peduncles  are  enveloped  in  skin.  It  is  not  until  in  the  spring, 
or  beginning  of  the  second  year,  that  the  first  pair  of  horns  begin 
to  make  their  appearance.  At  this  epoch,  a  new  process  com 
mences,  the  skin  enveloping  the  peduncle  swells,  its  arteries 
enlarge,  tides  of  blood  rush  to  the  head,  and  the  whole  system 
experiences  a  fresh  stimulus.  The  antlers  are  now  budding," 
for,  on  the  top  of  their  footstalks,  the  arteries  are  depositing  lay 
ers  of  osseous  matter,  particle  by  particle,  with  great  rapidity. 
As  they  increase,  the  skin  increases  in  an  equal  ratio,  still  cov 
ering  the  budding  antlers,  and  continues  so  to  do  until  they  have, 
acquired  their  due  development  and  solidity.  This  skin  is  a 
tissue  of  blood  vessels,  and  the  courses  of  the  large  arteries  from 
the  head  to  the  end  of  the  antlers  are  imprinted  in  the  latter  in 
long  furrows,  which  are  never  obliterated.  In  ordinary  lan 
guage,  the  skin,  investing  the  antlers,  is  termed  velvet,  being 
covered  with  a  fine  pile  of  close  short  hair.  Suppose  then,  the 
antlers  of  the  young  deer,  now  duly  grown,  and  still  invested 
with  this  vascular  tissue ;  but  the  process  is  not  yet  complete. 
While  this  tender  velvet  remains,  the  deer  can  make  no  use  of 
his  newly  acquired  weapons,  which  are  destined  to  bear  the 
brunt  of  many  a  conflict  with  his  compeers;  it  must,  therefore, 
be  removed ;  but  without  giving  a  sudden  check  to  the  current 
of  blood  rolling  through  this  extent  of  skin,  lest,  by  directing  the 
tide  to  the  brain,  or  some  internal  organ,  death  be  the  result. 
The  process  then  is  this : — As  soon  as  the  antlers  complete,  (ac 
cording  to  the  age  of  the  animal,)  the  footstalk,  always  covered 
with  skin,  they  begin  to  deposit  round  it  a  bone,  or  rough  ring  of 
lone,  with  notches,  through  which  the  great  arteries  still  pass. 
Gradually,  however,  the  diameter  of  these  openings  is  contracted 
by  the  deposition  of  additional  matter ;  till,  at  length,  the  great 
arteries  are  compressed  as  by  a  ligature,  and  the  circulation  is 
effectually  stopped.  The  velvet  now  dies  for  the  want  of  the 
vital  fluid  ;  it  shrivels,  dries  and  peels  off  in  shreds,  the  animal 


204  RUMINANTIA. 

assisting  in  getting  rid  of  it  by  rubbing  his  antlers  against  the 
trees.  They  are  now  firm,  hard  and  white  ;  and  the  stag  bears 
them  proudly,  and  brandishes  them  in  defiance  of  his  rivals. 
From  the  burr  upwards,  these  antlers  are  no  longer  part  and 
parcel  of  the  system, — they  are  extraneous,  and  held  only  by 
their  mechanical  continuity  with  the  footstalk  on  which  they 
were  placed ;  hence  their  deciduous  character  ;  for  it  is  a  vital 
law,  that  the  system  shall  throw  off  all  parts  no  longer  intrinsic, 
ally  entering  into  the  integrity  of  the  whole, — an  absorption 
process  soon  begins  to  take  place  just  beneath  the  burr,  removing 
particle  after  particle,  till  at  length  the  antlers  are  separated  and 
fall  by  their  own' weight,  or  by  the  slightest  touch,  leaving  the 
living  end  of  the  footstalk  exposed  and  slightly  bleeding.  This 
is  immediately  covered  with  a  pellicle  of  skin  which  soon  thick 
ens,  and  all  is  well.  The  return  of  spring  brings  with  it  a  re- 
newal  of  the  whole  process,  and  a  finer  pair  of  antlers  branch 
forth." 

The  rapidity  with  which  this  firm  mass  of  bone  is  secreted,  is 
worthy  of  particular  notice.  The  budding  horns  of  a  male 
Wapite,  are  several  inches  high  in  ten  days  from  their  first  ap 
pearance  ;  a  month  afterwards  there  is  an  interval  of  two  feet 
between  them,  measuring  from  branch  to  branch.  When  the 
process  is  ended  that  completes  the  horn,  the  deer  seems  con 
scious  of  his  strength,  and  goes  forth  prepared  to  encounter  any 
creature,  even  man  himself,  that  may  dare  to  invade  his  haunts. 
Thus  he  continues  for  a  season, — but  when  he  again  sheds  his 
horns,  betakes  himself  to  the  recesses  of  the  forest  until  they  are 
replaced.  The  Common  Stag  sheds  his  horns  about  the  end  of 
February,  or  in  the  month  of  March  ;  the  Fallow  Deer  from  the 
middle  of  April  to  the  first  week  of  May.  In  the  Stag,  the  horns 
do  not  appear  until  the  second  year.  The  first  shed,  is  straight,  or 
single,  like  a  small  thrust  sword  or  dagger, — whence  the  young 
male  is  termed  Daguet,  (Fr.  dague,  a  dagger,)  by  the  French ; 
the  next  horn  has  commonly  but  one  antler  ;  the  third  has  two, 
and  sometimes  three  ;  the  fourth  has  three  or  four,  sometimes 
five  or  six.  Up  to  this  time,  the  animal  is  called  a  Young 
Stag, — the  fifth  horn  has  five  or  six  antlers;  the  sixth  is  shed 
when  the  animal  is  about  seven  years  of  age.  In  addition  to 
the  growth  of  antlers,  the  horns  become  larger,  have  the  fur 
rows  more  marked,  the  burr  more  projecting;  and  the  supports 
of  the  horns  become,  every  year,  shorter  and  wider.  By  these 
signs,  the  age  of  the  animal,  from  eight  years  and  upwards,  is 
determined.  After  the  seventh  year,  there  is  no  fixed  rule  as  to 
the  antlers.  They  are  multiplied  towards  the  summit  of  the 


RUMINANTIA.  205 

beam,  where  they  are  united  into  a  sort  of  crown,  and  are  said 
to  be  palmated.  The  oldest  have  not  usually  more  than  ten  or 
twelve  antlers;  though  it  is  said  some  have  borne  the  enormous 
number  of  thirty-three.  (See  Plate  VII.  fig.  2.) 

Deer  are  remarkable  for  the  acuteness  of  their  hearing  and 
smelling,  and  it  is  therefore  very  difficult  for  the  hunter  to  ap 
proach  them  when  he  follows  the  course  of  the  wind.  They 
are  very  nice  in  choosing  their  food,  and  will  not  eat  that  which 
has  been  handled  or  touched  by  any  foreign  substance.  The 
flesh  of  many  of  these  animals,  as  is  well  known,  is  used  for 
food,  and  familiarly  known  under  the  name  of  venison.  Strong 
and  lasting  leather  is  made  from  their  skins.  According  to  Dr. 
De  K;»y,  (N.  H.  S.  N.  Y.,)  this  family  "comprises  forty-five 
real  or  nominal  species,  distributed,  according  to  the  ideas  of  sys 
tematic  writers,  into  eight  or  ten  genera.  But  six  species  are 
found  within  the  United  States,  and  of  these  three  only  exist  in 
the  State  of  New  York." 

Elaphus    Canadensis,   or    C.    Canadensis.      The    AMERICAN 
STAG,  or  WAPITI,  or  ROUND-HORNED  ELK. 

This  animal,  which  is  frequently  called  the  Canada  Stag,  is 
of  a  much  larger  and  stronger  make  than  the  Stags  of  Europe; 
and  in  fact  is  one  of  the  most  gigantic  of  the  deer  tribe,  being 
from  four  to  five  feet  in  height  and  from  seven  to  eight  feet  in 
length.  Their  horns  are  shed  annually  ;  they  are  round  and  very 
large,  branching  into  serpentine  curves,  but  never  palmated,  and 
measuring  six  feet  from  tip  to  tip.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  4.)  Under  the 
throat  of  the  male  is  a  dewlap  composed  of  black  hair  from  four 
to  six  inches  long  ;  the  tail,  in  both  sexes  is  very  short.  Most  of  the 
upper  parts  of  the  Wapiti  are  of  a  lively  yellowish  brown  color;  the 
neck  is  mixed  red  and  black ;  the  rump  yellowish,  bounded  by  a 
dark,  circular  marginal  line  ;  the  limbs  on  the  front  are  deep 
brown  ;  the  tail  yellowish.  The  Wapiti  feeds  on  grass  and 
young  shoots  of  trees;  is  easily  tamed  and  has  been  trained  to 
the  harness.  It  is  said  to  make  a  shrill,  quivering  noise,  "not 
very  unlike  the  braying  of  an  ass."  The  flesh  is  somewhat 
coarse,  and  not  highly  valued;  but  its  hide,  when  made  into 
leather  is  said  not  to  turn  hard  in  drying  after  having  been  wet, 
a  quality  which  places  it  in  high  estimation.  The  Wapiti  is 
found,  not  only  in  the  northern  parts  of  this  continent,  but  on  the 
western  prairies,  and  in  California,  Oregon,  and  New  Mexico. 
C.  axis.  The  Axis.  (So  named  by  Pliny.) 
Of  this  beautiful  deer  there  are  two  varieties.  The  common 
Axis,  in  its  size  and  general  form,  nearly  resembles  the  fallow 
deer,  being,  at  the  shoulder,  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in  height. 


206  RUMINANTIA. 

It  has  a  rich  fawn-colored  skin,  spotted  with  white,  and  hence 
sometimes  receives  the  specific  name  maculosa,  (.spotted.)  Along 
the  back  the  ground-color  changes  to  nearly  black ;.  but  the  un 
der  parts  are  snow  white.  A  broad  dusky  spot  appears  upon  the 
forehead,  and  a  line  of  the  same  color  extends  along  the  middle 
of  the  nose.  The  Axis  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  particularly 
numerous  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges.  It  roams  among  the 
thick  jungles,  near  streams  of  water,  and  is  hunted  under  the 
name  of  the  Spotted  Hog-Deer.  This  animal  feeds  in  the  night, 
is  timid,  mild  and  inactive,  excepting  when  the  females  have 
young,  at  which  time  the  male  is  bold  and  fierce.  It  has  been 
kept  with  success  in  menageries  and  parks,  to  which,  from  its 
form  and  color,  it  is  highly  ornamental.  The  larger  variety,  A. 
major,  (Lat.  greater,)  a  native  of  Borneo  and  Ceylon,  is  about 
the  height  of  a  horse,  and  has  horns  which  are  three-forked, 
thick  and  rugged,  and  nearly  three  feet  long. 

Capreolus  Dorcas,  (Gr.  doyxug,  dorkas.a  gazelle,)  or  C.  capre- 
olus,  (Lat.  Roebuck  or  Chamois.)  The  ROEBUCK. 

This  species  of  deer,  once  common  in  England,  is  now  con 
fined  chiefly  or  entirely  to  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  They  are 
of  less  size  than  the  fallow  deer,  being  only  two  feet  four  inches 
in  height,  and  three  feet  six  inches  in  length.  The  color  is  reddish 
brown  on  the  back,  the  chest  and  under  parts  of  the  body  are  yel 
lowish,  and  the  croup  white  ;  the  horns  are  round,  divided  into  three 
branches,  and  about  nine  inches  long.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  7.)  The 
Roebuck  does  not  live  in  herds,  but  singly  and  in  pairs,  amongst  the 
shady  thickets  and  rising  slopes.  This  deer  is  very  cunning,  when 
pursued,  sometimes  baffling  the  dogs  by  making  a  few  enormous 
leaps,  waiting  until  the  dogs  have  passed  and  then  resuming  its 
former  track.  It  is  said  to  be  very  fond  of  the  Rulus  saxatus, 
called  in  the  Highlands,  the  Roebuck-berry.  In  winter,  when 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  these  animals  browse  on  the 
tender  branches  of  the  fir  and  birch.  The  flesh  is  delicate  food, 
and  the  horns  are  used  for  carving-knives.  By  the  old  Welsh 
laws,  a  Roebuck  was  valued  at  the  same  price  as  a  she-goat.  It 
can  be  easily  subdued,  but  never  perfectly  tamed,  always  retain 
ing  some  portion  of  its  natural  wild  ness. 

C.  leucurus.  (Gr.  levxog,  leukos,  white ;  oi>oa,  oura,  a  tail.) 
The  WHITE-TAILED  DEER. 

This  resembles  the  European  roebuck.  On  the  Columbia 
river  it  is  the  most  common  deer;  the  tip  and  under  part  of  the 
tail  are  of  a  cream  white. 

C.  macrotis.  (Gr.  /uax^og,  makros,  long;  olz,  ous,  ear.)  The 
MULE  DEER. 


RUMINANTIA..  207 

This  takes  its  name  from  its  long  ears,  which  are  half  the 
length  of  the  whole  antler.  The  hair  is  waved  or  crimped  like 
that  of  the  elk  ;  upon  the  thighs  near  the  croup  it  looks  like  white 
thread  cut  off  abruptly. 

C.  elaphus.  (Gr.  skacpog,  elaphos,  a  stag.)  The  RED  DEER, 
or  STAG. 

This  noble  species  is  found  native  in  the  European  forests  and 
in  those  of  Asia  where  the  climate  is  temperate.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  English  Deer,  associated  with  the  forest  laws,  so 
oppressive  that  they  affixed  a  less  value  to  the  life  of  a  man  than 
that  of  a  stag ;  and  it  is  blended  with  the  legends  of  deadly  feud, 
as  in  the  celebrated  ballad  of  "Chevy  Chase."  The  Red  Deer 
is  distinguished  by  its  brown  color,  and  a  pale  spot  on  the  rump, 
and  sometimes  attains  a  great  size.  Pennant  speaks  of  one  that 
weighed  314  Ibs.,  exclusive  of  the  entrails,  head  and  skin.  Ac 
cording  to  Buffon,  the  small  size  of  some*  of  these  animals  is  ow 
ing  to  a  deficiency  of  nourishment,  as  in  rich  pastures  its  size  be 
comes  greatly  increased.  The  horns  are  round,  having  the  antlers 
turned  towards  the  front,  the  summit  terminating  in  a  fork,  or  snags 
from  a  common  center.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  2.)  It  is  very  common  in 
France,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  introduced  from 
that  country  into  England.  In  the  latter  country  it  is  now  largely 
superseded  by  the  common  or  Fallow  Deer,  which  is  of  a  more 
manageable  and  placid  disposition  and  affords  far  superior  venison. 
The  Red  Deer  has  a  fine  eye,  an  acute  smell  and  a  good  ear  ; 
when  listening,  raises  his  head  and  erects  his  ears ;  when  going 
into  a  coppice,  or  other  half-covered  place,  stops  to  look  around 
him  on  all  sides,  and  scents  the  wind  to  discover  if  any  object  be 
near  that  might  disturb  him.  He  eats  slowly,  and  after  his  stom 
ach  is  full,  lies  down  and  leisurely  ruminates. 

The  pursuit  of  this  deer  is  a  very  favorite  amusement  in  Eng 
land,  summoning  into  action  all  the  energy  of  youth  and  man 
hood.  The  animal  in  stalking  is  generally  shot ;  but  when 
wounded  and  yet  able  to  fly,  the  dogs  are  let  loose  in  the  chase. 
In  olden  times,  the  dogs  were  mainly  relied  on  for  taking  and 
killing  deer,  so  that  fleet  and  courageous  hounds  became  the 
pride  of  nobles  and  princes.  It  is  said  he  is  particularly  de 
lighted  with  the  sound  of  the  shepherd's  pipe,  and  is  by  that  instru 
ment  sometimes  lured  to  his  own  destruction.  In  winter  and 
spring,  this  animal  rarely  drinks,  the  dews  and  herbage  being  suffi 
cient  to  satisfy  his  thirst ;  but  during  the  parching  heats  of  summer, 
he  not  only  frequents  the  brooks  and  springs,  but  searches  for  deep 
water  wherein  to  bathe  and  refresh  himself.  He  swims  with  great 
ease  and  strength,  particularly  when  he  is  in  good  condition,  his 


203  RUMINANTIA. 

fat  contributing  to  his  buoyancy.  The  female  bears  one  young, 
seldom  more,  in  or  near  the  month  of  May.  The  fawn,  or  calf, 
as  it  is  called,  the  first  year,  does  not  quit  the  dam  during  the 
entire  summer.  The  female  is  most  assiduous  in  concealing  and 
tending  the  young  one,  which  is  needful  to  secure  it  against  as 
saults,  not  only  from  the  cat  and  dog  tribes,  but  even  from  the 
stag  himself,  who  is  not  overstocked  with  paternal  affection,, 

C.  Dama,  (Lat.  a  Fallow  Deer.)     The  FALLOW  DEER. 

This  has  the  same  general  form,  aspect  and  manners  as  the 
Stag,  with  a  more  gentle  disposition.  The  size  is  smaller,  but 
the  chief  difference  between  the  Fallow  Deer  and  the  Stag  re 
lates  to  the  horns,  (Plate  VII.  figs.  2  and  6,)  which,  in  the  former, 
are  broad  and  palmated,  at  their  extremities  pointing  a  little  for 
ward,  and  branched  on  their  hinder  sides.  It  is  less  delicate 
than  the  stag  in  its  choice  of  food,  and  browses  much  closer  ;  is  at 
full  maturity  when  three  years  old. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  animal  in  England,  where  it 
adorns  the  modern  parks.  The  beautiful  dappled  variety  is  sup- 
posed  to  have  been  brought  from  the  south  of  Europe,  or  the 
western  parts  of  Asia;  the  other  very  deep  brown  variety  is 
said  by  Pennant  to  have  been  introduced  by  James  I.,  from  Nor 
way.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  England,  they 
are  confined  in  parks  ;  but  they  are  found  wild  in  Moldavia  as 
well  as  Lithuania.  The  venison  of  this  Deer  is  of  the  richest 
and  most  delicate  kind  ;  the  skins  of  the  buck  and  doe.  are  unri 
valed  for  durability  and  softness;  the  horns,  like  those  of  the 
stag,  are  manufactured  into  knife  handles  and  other  articles, 
while  from  the  refuse,  ammonia  or  hartshorn  is  extracted.  This 
species  is  represented  in  the  sculptures  of  Nineveh. 

C.  Virginianus.     The  AMERICAN  DEER. 

This  species  resembles  the  English  Fallow  Deer,  and  is  so 
named  by  Professor  Emmons,  (Mass.  Report.)  The  color  is 
bluish  gray  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  dusky  reddish  in  the 
spring,  changing  to  bluish  in  the  summer;  the  young  animal  is 
spotted  with  white.  The  horns  are  of  moderate  size,  curving 
forward,  having  the  concave  part  in  front,  "  with  from  one  to  six 
points  occasionally  palmated."  In  the  adult  males  the  horns 
show  a  great  variety,  which  is  regulated  by  their  age,  the  season 
of  the  year,  and  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  their  food.  These 
animals  range  from  Canada  to  Mexico.  In  some  places,  the 
united  attacks  of  men  and  wolves  are  largely  diminishing  their 
number.  Their  horns  are  usually  cast  in  the  winter.  Dr.  De 
Kay  says  the  reason  so  few  of  the  horns  are  found,  is  that  as 
soon  as  they  are-  shed  they  are  eaten  up  by  the  Rodents  or  gnaw- 


RUMINANTIA.  209 

ing  animals.  In  frontier  countries  these  animals  are  exceedingly 
useful,  not  only  for  the  food  which  they  furnish,  but  for  their 
skins,  which  form  an  important  article  of  commerce.  They  live 
upon  twigs  of  trees,  shrubs,  berries  and  grasses ;  for  the  buds 
and  flowers  of  the  pond-lily,  they  are  said  to  show  a  peculiar 
fondness.  The  female  has  one,  sometimes  two  fawns  at  a  birth, 
in  the  latter  part  of  spring  or  early  in  the  summer. 

C.  alces.  The  ELK  or  MOOSE.  Flat-Horned  Elk,  Black 
Moose  or  Elk.  (See  Plate  VII.  fig.  3.) 

This  animal,  surpassing  all  the  true  deer  in  size  and  strength,  is 
found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  The  name 
which  it  bears  is  of  Celtic  origin,  coming  from  "Elch,"  whence 
is  derived  the  latter  word  alee  or  alces,  which  is  the  Celtic  trans 
ferred  to  the  Roman  language.  In  America,  it  is  known  under 
the  various  names  of  Flat-Horned  Elk,  Black  Elk,  or  Moose. 
The  latter,  which  is  the  more  common  term,  is  a  corruption  of 
the  Indian  appellation,  Moosoa  or  Musee,  wood  eater. 

The  Elk  is  six  or  seven  feet  in  length,  and  from  four  to  five 
and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  withers ;  the  head  is  large  and  elon 
gated,  and  is,  including  the  upper  lip,  covered  with  short  pro 
jecting  and  flexible  hair,  something  like  that  of  the  Tapir  ;  the 
eyes  are  moderately  large,  and  placed  near  the  base  of  the 
horns  ;  the  ears  long  and  asinine ;  the  neck  very  short  and  strong 
and  furnished  with  a  mane;  the  lachrymal  pit  is  small  ;  horns 
are  found  in  the  male  only.  The  hair  of  the  lips  and  throat,  in 
connection  with  its  very  long  and  flexible  tongue,  serves  to  direct 
food  to  the  mouth.  The  food  consists  of  shoots  and  twigs 'of 
trees,  particularly  of  striped  maple;  the  Elk  also  feeds  upon 
high  coarse  grasses,  but  when  wishing  to  graze,  reaches  the 
ground  with  difficulty,  and  sometimes  feeds  leaning  on  its  knees. 
It  likewise  peels  old  trees  and  feeds  upon  the  bark.  During  the 
summer,  Elks  frequent  the  neighborhood  of  lakes  and  streams, 
often  resorting  to  the  water  as  a  refuge  from  tormenting  musqui- 
toes,  and  feeding  upon  aquatic  plants;  like  the  C.  Virginianus, 
they  are  said  to  be  particularly  fond  of  the  roots  of  the  pond- 
lily.  In  winter,  they  betake  themselves  to  the  wooded  hills. 
The  Elk  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  gregarious,  but  two  or  three 
being  seen  together,  except  at  particular  seasons.  Some  natu 
ralists  consider  the  Moose  of  this  country  to  be  a  different  species 
from  the  Elk  of  Europe,  asserting  that  in  the  heavy  palmated 
horns  of  both,  there  is  a  difference  which  indicate  a  diversity 
of  species ;  but  according  to  DeKay,  this  difference  is  not  uni 
form,  and  the  animals  should  be  considered  of  the  same  species. 
The  horns,  perfected  in  the  fifth  year,  are  from  ten  to  twelve  feet 


210  B.UMINANTIA. 

apart,  and  weigh  from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds.  The  snags  or 
branches  sometimes  amount  to  twenty-eight.  The  body  of  the 
Elk  is  round  and  compact,  supported  by  legs  of  disproportionate 
length ;  the  hair  is  full  and  coarse,  longest  upon  the  head  and 
withers;  it  is  black  at  the  tips,  gray  in  the  middle,  and  white  at 
the  roots.  The  dress  of  summer  is  of  a  browner  tint  than  that 
of  the  winter.  (See  the  figure  above  the  Camelopard  on  the 
Chart.) 

In  its  ungainly  form  and  awkward  movements,  this  animal  ex- 
hibits  a  strong  contrast  to  the  others  of  the  same  family.  The 
shoulders  being  rather  higher  than  the  croup,  it  does  not  bound 
like  the  deer,  nor  gallop  like  the  horse,  but  shuffles  or  ambles 
along,  its  joints  or  hoofs  cracking  at  every  step.  Like  those  of 
the  Rein  Deer,  the  hoofs  are  broad  and  divided  so  that  they  di 
verge  on  pressing  the  ground,  thus  giving  the  animal  a  sort  of 
natural  snow-shoes.  When  each  part  is  brought  smartly  together 
by  the  sudden  raising  of  the  limbs,  the  cracking  noise  above 
mentioned  is  produced  and  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  dis 
tance.  When  increasing  its  speed,  the  animal  straddles  his 
hind  legs  to  avoid  treading  on  its  fore  heels,  tossing  about  the 
head  and  shoulders  when  breaking  from  a  trot  into  a  gallop.  In 
its  progress,  it  holds  up  its  nape  so  as  to  lay  the  horns  horizon 
tally  back,  and  prevent  their  entanglement  among  trees.  The 
Moose  is  a  timorous  and  wary  animal,  and  as  its  senses  of  hear 
ing  and  smell  are  acute,  must  be  approached  with  great  caution. 

When  it  notices  the  coming  of  the  hunter,  it  at  once  endeav 
ors  to  escape,  trotting  off  with  great  rapidity;  at  this  gait,  it  soon 
leaves  the  hunter  far  in  the  rear,  stepping  with  ease  over  fallen 
timber  of  the  largest  size.  When  hard  pressed  by  the  hunters 
wearing  snow  shoes,  if  it  breaks  into  a  gallop  they  soon  overtake 
it;  though  in  the  winter  it  may  sink  at  every  step,  it  still  keeps 
on  its  way,  the  sharp  ice  wounding  its  feet,  and  its  lofty  horns 
becoming  entangled  in  the  branches  of  the  forest  as  it  passes 
along.  The  trees  are  broken  with  ease,  and  wherever  the 
Moose  runs,  the  hunter  perceives  it  by  the  snapping  off  of 
branches  of  trees  as  thick  as  a  man's  thigh  with  its  horns.  The 
chase  may  last  in  this  manner  for  a  whole  day,  sometimes  for 
two  or  three  days  together;  for  the  pursuers  are  often  "not  less 
excited  by  famine  than  the  pursued  by  fear."  The  poor  animal 
"at  last  quite  tired  and  spent  with  loss  of  blood,  sinks  like  a 
ruined  building,  and  makes  the  earth  shake  beneath  his  fall." 
The  flesh  is  highly  esteemed ;  the  nose  and  tongue  in  particular 
are  thought  to  be  great  dainties.  The  Elk  can  be  easily  domes 
ticated,  and  has  been  used  for  draught.  The  male  sometimes 


KUMINANTIA.  211 

becomes  very  large,  attaining  the  weight  of  eleven  hundred 
pounds.  Elks  were  formerly  used  in  Europe  for  conveying 
couriers,  and  could  accomplish  36  Swedish,  or  234  English 
miles  in  a  day,  when  attached  to  a  sledge.  Dorelli,  a  Swedish 
gentleman,  recommended  that  they  should  be  used  in  time  of  war 
as  flying  artillery,  to  reconnoitre  and  carry  dispatches.  The 
skin  is  so  tough  that  a  regiment  of  soldiers  was  furnished  with 
waistcoats  made  of  Elk's  hide,  which  could  hardly  be  penetrated 
by  a  ball. 

C.  rangifer,  or  Rangifer  tarandus.     The  REIN  DEER. 

The  Deer  of  this  species  have  received  many  names.  They 
are  found  throughout  the  arctic  regions  of  Europe,  Asia  and 
America  ;  but  those  of  Lapland  and  Spitzbergen  are  said  to  be 
the  finest.  Their  general  height  is  about  four  and  a  half  feet; 
their  horns  are  long  and  slender,  having  round,  branched  and 
recurved  antlers,  the  summits  of  which  are  palmated  ;  (Plate  VII. 
fig.  5  ;)  the  body  is  of  a  thick  and  square  form  ;  the  legs  are  stouter 
in  proportion  than  those  of  the  Stag  ;  the  size  differs  with  the  cli 
mate,  those  in  regions  farthest  north  being  the  largest ;  the  color 
is  brown  above,  varying,  however,  with  the  age  of  the  animal  and 
the  season  of  the  year.  As  the  Rein  Deer  grows  older,  it  often  be 
comes  of  a  grayish  white  beneath,  and  sometimes  almost  entirely 
white;  the  space  about  the  eyes  is  always  black.  Both  sexes 
have  canine  teeth;  both  also  have  horns,  but  those  of  the  male 
are  larger,  longer,  and  more  branched  than  those  of  the  female. 

The  male  sheds  his  horns  about  the  last  of  November  ;  the  fe 
male  retains  hers  until  she  brings  forth  ;  if  barren,  she  drops 
them  in  the  beginning  of  November.  The  horns,  during  the 
early  part  of  their  growth,  are  extremely  sensitive,  and  the  ani 
mal  experiences  much  suffering  from  the  gnats  and  musquitoes. 
The  hoofs  are  long,  large  and  black,  as  also  are  the  false  or  sec 
ondary  hoofs  behind.  While  the  animal  is  running,  the  latter 
hoofs,  as  in  the  Elk,  make,  by  their  striking  together,  a  remark 
able  clattering  noise,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  dis 
tance.  Richardson,  who  has  given  many  particulars  respecting 
this  Deer,  thinks  that  in  the  fur  countries  of  this  continent,  at 
least  two  varieties  exist,  called  by  him  the  "  Barren  Ground 
Caribou,"  and  the  "  Woodland  Caribou."  The  Woodland  animal 
goes  south  in  the  spring,  and  is  confined  to  wooded  districts  ;  the 
Barren  Ground  animal  goes  northward,  retiring  to  the  woods 
only  in  the  winter,  and  passing  the  summer  on  barren  grounds, 
or  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Seas.  Bucks  of  this  latter  vari 
ety,  when  in  good  condition,  weigh,  according  to  Richardson, 
from  90  to  130  Ibs.,  without  the  offal.  Sir  John  Franklin  states 


2]2  RUMINANTIA. 

the  weight  of  the  Woodland  Caribou  to  be  from  200  to  240  Ibs. 
It  has  been  asserted  that  some  Rein  Deer  have  weighed  as  much 
as  400  Ibs.,  though  the  correctness  of  this  is  questioned.  The 
Rein  Deer  of  Norway  and  Sweden  are  small  when  compared 
with  those  of  Finland  and  Lapland,  which;  in  their  turn,  yield 
to  those  of  Spitzbergen,  and  those  again  fall  short  of  the  Polar 
races.  The  Barren  Ground  Caribous  feed,  in  summer,  upon  the 
shoots  of  grasses  growing  in  the  valleys  of  the  north,  returning 
to  the  woods  in  September ;  they  there  feed  upon  the  tree  lichens 
and  mosses  found  on  the  rocks  and  ground.  They  root  for  the 
lichen  like  swine  in  a  pasture.  The  forehead,  nose,  and  feet, 
are  covered  with  a  hard  skin  closely  attached  to  those  parts,  and 
are  thus  guarded  against  injury  by  the  icy  crust  which  covers 
the  surface  of  the  snow.  The  Rein  Deer  of  the  Eastern  conti 
nent  are  sustained  by  the  same  kind  of  food  as  the  American 
animal.  The  Caribou  is  not  less  necessary  for  the  support  of 
our  northern  native  tribes,  than  the  Rein  Deer  of  the  Eastern 
Continent  for  that  of  the  Laplander  and  other  people  of  the  north. 
Of  the  Caribou  horns  the  Indians  make  their  fish  spears  ;  the 
hide,  dressed  with  close  and  compact  fur  and  remarkably  imperv 
ious  to  cold,  forms  their  winter  clothing,  and  from  it  is  made  a 
soft  and  pliable  leather  for  moccasins  and  summer  garments. 
When  sixty  or  seventy  skins  are  sewed  together,  they  make  a 
tent  sufficient  in  size  for  the  residence  of  a  large  family.  By 
pouring  one  third  part  of  melted  fat  over  the  pounded  meat,  and 
incorporating  them  well  together,  a  composition  called  pemmican 
is  made.  This,  if  kept  dry,  may  be  preserved  for  three  or  four 
years,  and  containing  much  nourishment  in  small  bulk,  is  well 
fitted  for  use  in  extensive  journeys,  as  is  abundantly  proved  by 
the  experience  of  traders  and  others  traversing  the  northern  lati 
tudes.  Another  mixture,  called  thucchawgan,  made  of  pounded 
deer's  meat  and  fish,  is  either  eaten  raw  or  made  into  soup. 

The  Caribous  travel  in  herds  varying  in  number  from  eight  or 
ten  to  two  or  three  hundred  ;  their  daily  excursions  being  gener 
ally  towards  the  quarter  from  which  the  wind  blows.  They  are 
approached  with  more  ease  than  any  other  deer  found  on  this 
continent.  A  single  family  of  Indians  have  sometimes  destroyed 
two  or  three  hundred  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  To  the  In 
dians  this  animal  is  solely  a  beast  of  chase,  not,  as  among  the 
Laplanders,  being  used  for  purposes  of  draught.  It  is  hunted  or 
taken  in  traps  or  pounds,  or  lured  to  its  fate  by  other  artifice. 
Sometimes  the  hunter  takes  advantage  of  the  animal's  inquisi- 
tiveness,  by  creeping  behind  an  object  affording  him  partial  con 
cealment,  where  he  imitates  the  bellowing  of  the  animal,  at  the 


RUMINANTIA.  213 

same  time  having  his  deer  skin  coat  and  hood  drawn  over  his 
head.  In  this  attempt  he  seldom  fails  to  shoot  down  the  animal 
before  he  comes  within  a  distance  of  twelve  paces.  The  rude 
inhabitants  of  the  whole  of  northern  Asia  use  the  Rein  Deer  as 
a  beast  of  burden  ;  but  in  Lapland,  where  it  is  essential  to  meet 
the  wants  of  a  pastoral  people,  it  is  most  highly  appreciated.  In 
that  country  the  horse  and  ox  could  not  exist ;  but  the  Rein  Deer 
supplies  their  place,  furnishing,  as  it  does,  food  and  clothing,  and 
submissively  and  patiently  yielding  its  labor.  The  movements 
of  the  Laplander  and  his  habits  of  life  are,  in  fact,  controlled  by 
his  deer.  He  must  go  where  they  go  in  search  of  lichens  an'd 
mosses,  and  is  obliged  to  make  periodical  journeys  involving 
much  labor  and  fatigue,  in  order  to  keep  them  from  being  an 
noyed  by  the  gadfly  (Oestrus  Tarandi,)  which  not  only  torments 
them  with  its  sting,  but  even  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  wound  which 
it  makes  in  their  hides.  Often  the  hides  are  pierced  in  a  hun 
dred  places,  like  a  sieve,  by  this  insect ;  and  some  deer  die  in 
the  third  year  from  this  cause.  The  Laplander  flees  with  his 
deer  to  the  mountains  in  .order  to  escape  this  insect,  not  only,  but 
the  scarcely  less  dreaded  musquitoes,  which  are  more  ferocious 
in  the  cold  climates  than  in  the  tropics.  His  deer  are  the  Lap 
lander's  wealth.  When  in  good  circumstances  he  has  three  or 
four  hundred  of  them,  and  can  live  in  comfort.  He  who  has 
only  one  hundred  is  thought  to  be  in  a  condition  somewhat  pre 
carious,  while  he  who  has  but  fifty  commonly  joins  his  animals 
with  the  herd  of  some  richer  man,  and  himself  performs  the  neces 
sary  menial  service.  The  civilization  of  Lapland,  which  is  on 
the  advance  and  promoted  by  intercourse  with  other  nations, 
depends  upon  the  Rein  Door  as  the  only  beast  of  burden  and 
conveyance.  When  a  traveler  crosses  the  border  line  of  Lap 
land,  he  must,  for  further  progress,  like  Bayard  Taylor,  step 
into  the  sledge  drawn  by  the  rapid  Rein  Deer.  The  sledge  is  a 
light  vehicle,  running,  not  on  wheels,  but  on  its  flat  boards,  which 
are  covered  with  leather.  The  Rein  Deer  is  yoked  to  it  by  a 
collar,  and  guided  by  reins  attached  to  its  horns. 

"Obsequious  at  their  call,  the  docile  tribe 
Yield  to  the  sledge  their  necks,  and  whirl  them  swift 
O'er  hill  and  dale,  heap'd  into  one  expanse 
Of  marbled  snow,  far  as  the  eye  can  sweep, 
With  a  blue  crust  of  ice  unbounded,  glazed." 

With  the  usual  load  of  from  two  to  three  hundred  pounds, 
they  will  trot  over  the  glazed  snow  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an 
hour.  Journeys,  by  these  animals,  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 


214  RUMINANTIA. 

miles  in  nineteen  hours  are  not  uncommon.  In  truth,  some  sto 
ries  of  their  swiftness  would  appear  incredible,  if  not  so  fully  (it- 
tested.  Pictet,  with  three  deer,  went  in  1769  to  the  north  of  Lap- 
land,  in  order  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  "The  first  per- 
formed  3089  feet,  8  inches  and  T9yCF  in  two  minutes,  making  a 
rate  of  nearly  nineteen  English  miles  an  hour;  the  second  went 
over  the  same  ground  in  three  minutes,  and  the  last  in  three 
minutes  and  twenty-six  seconds."  One  is  recorded  to  have 
"drawn,  in  1699,  an  officer,  with  important  dispatches,  eight 
hundred  English  miles  in  forty-eight  hours;  and  the  portrait  of 
the  poor  deer,  which  fell  dead  at  the  end  of  its  remarkable 
journey,  is  still  preserved  at  the  palace  of  Drottingholm,  Sweden." 
C.  muntjac,  or  Cervulus  (Lat.  dim.)  vaginahs.  (Lat.  sheathed.) 
The  MTJNTJAC  or  KIJANG.  of  India.  (PI.  VII.  fig.  8.) 

This  animal  is  a  little  larger  than  the  Roebuck ;  has  a  pointed 
head  and  rather  large  ears  ;  its  eyes  are  large  with   lachrymal 
sinuses ;  the  tail  is  short   and    flattened ;  the  male  has  large  ca 
nine  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  ;  the  female  has  none,  and  is  without 
horns.      The  horns  in  the   male   are  short   and   simple,  "  rising 
from  a  footstalk  apparently   beneath  the  skin,  and   running   ob 
liquely  upwards,  one  on  each  side  of  the  forehead,  beginning  as 
low  down  as   the   inner   angle  of  the  eye."     On  the    face,  two 
rough  folds  of  the  skin,  following  the  direction  of  the  prominent 
part  of  the  forehead,  unite  so  as  to  mark  the  face  with  the  letter 
V.      The  general   color  is   a   reddish   brown   above ;  the    under 
parts  and  front  of  the  thighs,  pure  white.     The  Chinese  Muntjak 
is  of  a  grayish  brown  color,  with  pale  ringed  hair.     The  Munt 
jak  is  one  of  the  most  elegant   and  beautiful  of  the  deer  kind. 
It  possesses  "  a  great  portion  of  craftiness,  combined  with  much 
indolence."     As  it  gives  forth  a  strong  scent,  dogs  easily  follow 
its  path.     In  its  flight,  it  is  at  first  very  swift;  but  it  soon  slack 
ens  its  speed,  and  taking  a  circular  course,  returns  to  the  spot 
from  which  it  started.     After   making  several  such   circuits,  if 
still  followed,  it  thrusts  its  head  into  a  thicket,  and  thus  remains 
fixed,  as    in  a  secure  place,  unmindful  of  the  approach  of  the 
sportsman.     The  male  animal  has  a  great  share  of  courage,  and 
when  the  dogs  are  at  bay  with  him,  he  makes,  with  his  tusks,  a 
most  vigorous  defence,  and  many  dogs  are  wounded  in  the  attack. 
Dr.  Horsefield,  whose  account  of  this  animal  is  the  most  satis 
factory,  states  that  the  Muntjak  "selects  for  its  retreat  certain  dis 
tricts  which   it  never  voluntarily  deserts.      Many  of  these  dis 
tricts  are  known  as  the  favorite  resort  of  the  animal  for  several 
generations.     They  consist  of  moderately  elevated  grounds,  di 
versified  by  ridges  and  valleys,  tending  towards  the  acclivities 


RUMINANTIA.  215 

of  the  more  considerable  mountains,  or  approaching  the  con- 
fines  of  extensive  forests."  These  districts,  common  in  Java,  are 
"  covered  with  long  grass,  and  shrubs,  and  trees  of  moderate 
size,  growing  in  groups  or  sirr-1!  thickets."  The  long  grass, 
saccharum  spicatum,  and  a  plant  called  PJiyllanthus  Emblica, 
constitute  the  principal  food  of  the  Muntjak.  The  flesh  is  said 
to  afford  excellent  venison,  and  is  often  found  on  the  tables  of 
European  residents.  Among  the  Mali rattas,  this  animal  iscalled 
Baikar.  It  uses  its  long  sinuses  apparently  for  the  purpose  of 
smelling,  "dilating  them  to  a  great  extent,  and  applying  them  to 
various  objects." 

The  SOUTH  AMERICAN  DEER  form  a  beautiful  group.  Of 
these  we  can  notice  only  1st,  C.  nemorivagus,  (Lat.  nemus,  a 
wood;  vagus,  wandering,) — the  GAUZU-VIVA,  a  delicate  little 
deer,  which  is  but  twenty-six  inches  in  length,  approaching,  in 
its  aspect,  that  of  the  sheep.  In  this  species,  the  lachrymal  si 
nus,  or,  tear  pit,  is  scarcely  perceptible.  The  lower  part  of  the 
head  and  legs  is  whitish  ;  about  the  eyes,  on  the  inside  of  the 
fore  legs  and  under  part  of  the  body,  the  color  is  a  palish  cinna 
mon  ;  the  neck  and  other  parts  brownish.  The  horns  are  very 
short.  It  is  found  in  Brazil. 

2.   C.  rufus,  (Lat.  red.)     The  PITA. 

This  is  about  twenty-nine  inches  in  height;  in  its  general 
color  reddish  brown,  but  in  some  parts  whiter.  It  lives  in  the 
low  marshy  grounds  of  South  America  ;  is  found  in  large  herds, 
and  "as  ten  females  are  seen  for  one  male,"  and  as  the  former 
are  without  horns,  the  existence  of  deer  on  this  continent,  with 
out  horns,  has  by  some  been  incorrectly  reported.  The  Pita 
shows  little  power  of  endurance  when  pursued,  being  soon  run 
down  by  dogs ;  sometimes  it  is  captured  by  the  lasso  and  balls. 

FOSSIL  CERVIDJE  have  been  discovered,  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  is  the  Megaceros  (great  horned)  Hibernicus,  the  gigantic 
Irish  Deer,  larger  in  size  than  the  Moose  ;  the  antlers  over  five 
feet  in  length,  from  'the  burr  to  the  tip,  in  a  straight  line,  and 
nearly  eleven  feet  apart,  reckoning  from  the  extreme  tip  of  the 
right  to  that  of  the  left  antler. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  said  of  the  internal  structure  of  the  DEER  FAMILY  ?  Give  their 
general  characters.  Are  the  horns  found  in  both  sexes  ?  What  is  said  of 
their  form  ?  How  extensive  is  the  range  of  the  Deer  ?  What  is  remarked 
of  the  loss  and  renewal  of  the  antlers?  Briefly  describe  the  process.  At 
what  time  does  the  Common  Stag  shed  his  horns  ?  How  soon,  in  the  young 
animal,  do  the  horns  appear?  What  determines  the  age  of  the  Stag? 


218  RUMINANTIA. 

How  many  antlers  have  the  oldest?  What  is  said  of  their  hearing  and 
smell?  How  many  species  does  the  family  include?  How  does  the  W<']i>- 
ti  compare  with  thie  European  Stag?  What  is  said  of  his  horns?  What 
other  characteristics  are  given  ?  Upon  what  does  it  feed  ?  Is  its  flesh 
highly  valued?  Where  is  it  found?  How  many  varieties  of  the  Axis? 
Describe  the  Common  Axis.  Where  found  ?  What  do  the  hunters  call  it  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  larger  variety?  Where  is  the  Roebuck  now  found? 
Give  its  size  and  other  particulars.  What  is  said  of  the  White-tailed  Deer  ? 
What  of  the  Mule  or  Long-eared  Deer  ?  Where  is  the  Red  Deer,  or  Stag 
found?  With  what  is  this  associated  ?  How  is  this  distinguished ?  What  is 
said  of  its  size  or  weight  ?  What  species  has  largely  superseded  this  in 
England,  and  why?  What  is  said  of  the  chase  of  the  Deer?  Give  other 
particulars.  How  does  the  Fallow  Deer  compare  with  the  Stag?  When  is 
it  mature?  How  many  varieties  in  England?  Where  is  it  found  wild? 
What  is  said  of  its  venison  ?  From  what  part  of  the  animal  is  hartshorn 
obtained  ?  Which  English  sp.  does  the  American  or  Virginia  D.  resemble  ? 
Describe  it.  What  is  its  range  ?  Why  are  so  few  of  its  horns  found  ? 
How  is  it  useful  in  frontier  countries?  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  the  Elk? 
What  is  the  origin  of  its  name?  What  is  the  animal  called  in  this  country? 
Explain  the  term  Moose.  Name  its  characteristics.  Of  what  roots  and 
twigs  is  it  particularly  fond?  Does  the  Am.  differ  from  the  Eur.  sp.? 
What  is  said  of  its  horns,  hair,  £c.  ?  How  does  it  contrast  with  other 
Deer  ?  What  is  peculiar  in  its  hoofs  ?  What  of  its  efforts  to  escape  from 
hunters?  For  what  purpose  were  Elks  formerly  used  in  Europe?  Of  what 
regions  is  the  Rein  Deer  a  native  ?  Give  its  size  and  other  characteristics. 
How  many  varieties,  according  to  Richardson,  are  found  on  this  continent? 
Give  the  weight  of  each?  Which  Rein  D.  are  the  largest?  On  what  doi's 
the  Caribou  feed  ?  What  is  said  of  its  uses?  What  is  pemmican  ?  What 
is  thucchawgan  ?  How  does  the  Caribou  travel  ?  For  what  do  the  In 
dians  use  it?  How  is  it  hunted?  What  are  the  uses  of  the  Rein  D.  on 
the  Eastern  Continent  ?  How  does  it  affect  the  character  and  condition  of 
the  Laplander  ?  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  the  Muntjac  ?  Give  some  ac 
count  of  its  disposition  and  habits.  What  S.  American  Deer  are  mentioned  ? 
Give  some  account  of  them.  Which  is  the  most  remarkable  of  the  fossil 
Deer? 

Compare  the  description  of  the  Flat-Jiorned  Elk  with  the  figure  above 
Camelopard,  on  the  chart.  Give  the  genera,  species,  &c.,  of  the  Round- 
horned  Elk  or  Wapiti.  What  else  is  it  called?  Trace  the  Rein  D.  and 
compare  the  description  in  the  book  with  the  figure  on  the  chart. 

SECTION  XXVII. 

BOVIDAE.  (Lat.  Bos,  an  ox.)  The  OXEN. — Bisulcated.  (Lat. 
^  Bis,  two;  sulcus,  furrow,  two  hoofed  or  furrowed. )(P1. VI.  fig.  1.) 

The  animals  of  this  family  have  characteristics  easily  recog 
nized  and  generally  familiar.  Both  sexes  have  horns  which  are 
permanent,  hollow  and  smooth,  except  at  their  base,  where  they 
are  ringed  ;  also  rounded  and  tapering  to  a  point,  so  as  to  form 
a  crescent.  The  horns  are  supported  by  bony  cores,  having 
cavities,  or  cells  communicating  with  the  interior  of  the  skull  ; 


RUMINANTIA.  217 

the  muzzle  is  large  ;  the.  neck  thick,  deep  and  compressed, — its 
skin  forming  a  pendulous  dewlap ;  the  body  is  heavy  and  mas 
sive  ;  the  limbs  stout ;  there  is  a  distinct  ridge  upon  the  back, 
which  is  sometimes  produced  into  a  dorsal  hump  ;  the  expression 
of  the  countenance  is  often,  particularly  in  the  males,  malignant 
and  threatening,  betokening  the  ferocity  that  belongs  to  several 
of  the  species ; — the  Cow  and  Ox,  however,  exhibit  a  quiet, 
decided  gentleness  of  physiognomy.  The  oxen  are  social  in 
their  habits ;  and  some  are  gregarious,  associating  in  immense 
herds,  as  the  Bison  or  Buffalo.  The  organs  of  digestion  in  this 
family  are  after  the  same  plan  as  those  of  the  other  ruminant,  or 
cud-chewing  animals,  and  need  not  be  here  particularly  de 
scribed.  The  main  food  of  the  Ox  family  is  herbivorous ;  for 
although  they  do  browse  upon  shrubs  and  trees,  yet  grass  and 
herbage  they  prefer.  (For  the  kind  of  teeth  in  this  family,  see 
Plate  IV.  fig.  10.)  When  hungry,  they  have  been  known  to  feed 
on  plants  not  designed  for  their  use,  and  by  which  they  have  been 
injured.  Meadow-Saffron,  (colchicum  autumnale,)  for  instance,  is 
deleterious  to  them  if  taken  in  any  large  quantity  ;  and  Hellebore, 
(Helleborus ,)  is  said  to  be  poisonous  to  them  ;  Yew,  (t,axus  bac- 
cata,)  is  fatal  to  them,  as  it  is  to  herbivorous  animals  generally.  In 
a  state  of  "domesticated  nature," — that  is,  when  not  stall-fed,  or  at 
all  using  artificial  grasses,  but  roaming  at  large,  oxen  are  said 
to  eat  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  plants,  and  to  reject  two 
hundred  and  eighteen.  Heifers  waste  away  in  enclosures  where 
the  Meadow-Sweet,  (spiraea  ulmaria,)  grows  in  abundance,  and 
covers  the  ground  ;  but  to  the  GOAT  this  is  nourishing  food.  The 
present  races  of  wild  cattle  are  probably  all  descended  from 
those  which  were,  at  some  period,  subservient  to  man.  The  an 
cient  Urus,  or  Wild  Ox,  was  a  savage,  untamable  animal,  with 
large  spreading  horns,  and  of  great  size. 

Bos  taurus.  (Lat.  a  Bull.)  This  animal,  with  flat  forehead, 
and  the  withers  not  humped,  was  properly  regarded  as  the  type  of 
the  entire  tribe.  This  species  includes  the  Common  Ox  which  is  so 
widely  diffused,  and  of  such  extended  and  varied  utility  ; — of 
which  more  than  forty  synonyms  have  been  given.  The  horns  dif 
fer  much  as  to  their  form  and  direction,  from  the  influence  of 
domestication;  the  colors  are  various,  as  reddish,  white,  gray, 
brown  and  black.  "The  male  is  called  a  bull;  the  female,  a 
cow;  and  the  young,  a  calf;  the  name  Ox  is  given  to  the  gelded 
male  ;  and  he  is  called  an  ox-calf,  or  bull-calf,  until  he  is  twelve 
months  old ;  a  steer  until  he  is  four  years  old.  and  after  that  an 
ox  or  bullock." 

The  Ox  is  less  used  for  farming  purposes  than  formerly ;  the 


218  RUMINANTIA. 

horse  and  improved  agricultural  implements  taking  its  place ;  it 
reaches  its  full  vigor  in  three  years,  and  its  term  of  life  is  about 
fourteen.  The  breeds  of  the  animal  are  numerous,  and  gener 
ally  distinguished  by  the  length  or  shape  of  the  horns.  The 
"  Durham,"  or  short-horned  breed,  is  perhaps  most  valuable  for 
the  dairy,  as  well  as  for  a  tendency  to  fatten  rapidly,  and  at  an 
early  age."  The  "long-horned,"  the  "  middle-horned,"  and  the 
"polled,"  or  hornless  breeds,  have  each  their  particular  values. 
The  "Alderney  Cow,"  with  "crumpled  horn,"  has  long  been 
celebrated  for  the  richness  of  its  milk.  Within  the  last  half 
century,  many  and  successful  efforts  have  been  made  to  improve 
the  breed  of  cattle  both  in  England  and  in  this  country.*  Con 
siderable  benefit  has  resulted  from  the  labors  of  Agricultural 
Societies,  and,  in  particular,  from  the  stimulus  which,  by  the 
offer  of  premiums,  they  have  given  to  the  raising  of  cattle  for 
exhibition  at  the  annual  COUNTY  and  STATE  FAIRS.  The  uses 
of  the  Ox  are  well  known,  and  we  need  not  describe  them  ;  every 
part  of  the  animal  is  of  value.  Formerly,  the  cruel  sport  of  bull- 
baiting  was  much  practiced  ;  and  in  some  countries,  particularly 
Spain,  it  is  still  a  popular  diversion. 

Bos  Indicus.  The  ZEBU,  or  BRAHMIN  BULL,  of  India.  (See 
Chart.) 

This  is  distinguished  for  a  more  lengthened  form  of  the  head, 
with  a  decidedly  concave  line  of  profile  ;  an  arched  neck  ;  a 
lump  of  fatty  substance  rising  from  the  withers ;  an  arched  back, 
sinking  and  rounded  qff  on  the  hinder  part ;  an  enormous  dew 
lap  dangling  down  in  folds ;  long,  pendulous  ears ;  a  mild 
and  sleepy  eye  ;  and  long  and  tapering  limbs.  The  size  varies 
from  that  of  a  large  mastiff  to  that  of  a  full  grown  buffalo.  Over 
the  whole  of  Southern  Asia,  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipela 
go,  and  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  the  Zebu  supplies  the  place 
of  the  Ox.  In  some  places,  it  is  saddled  and  ridden,  or  harnessed 
in  a  carriage ;  traveling  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  in  a  day. 
Its  beef  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  Ox.  The  hump  is  deemed  the 
most  delicate  part.  This  sometimes  becomes  greatly  increased 
in  size,  and  has  even  been  known  to  reach  "  the  enormous  weight 
of  50  IDS."  Among  the  Hindoos,  the  Zebu  has  a  "charmed 
life."  They  venerate  this  animal,  and  hold  its  slaughter  to  be 
a  sin  ;  though  they  do  not  object  to  work  it.  In  the  streets  of 
Calcutta,  "some  particularly  sanctified"  Zebus  may  be  seen 
wandering  at  their  ease  in  the  public  streets,  and  taking  their 
food  where  they  list.  The  utmost  a  native  does  when  he  sees 
them  honoring  his  goods  too  much,  is  to  "urge  them  by  the 

*  See  "American  Herd  Book,"  and  other  Agricultural  works.. 


EUMINANTIA.  219 

gentlest  hints,  to  taste  some  of  the  good  things  in  his  neighbor's 
stall."  If  lying  down  in  some  narrow  way,  a  person  must  not 
disturb  them  ;  but  he  must  either  proceed  by  another  road,  or 
wait  until  the  sacred  animals  are  pleased  to  rise  ! 

B.  Dante.  THE  DANTE.  This  is  an  Egyptian  species,  re 
sembling  the  preceding,  figures  of  which  are  found  on  ancient 
tombs  of  Egypt. 

BISON.  (Gr.  Biacav.  named  from  the  Thracian  BlaToveg,  Bis- 
tones.)  The  BISON. 

This  generic  name  first  used  by  Pliny,  applies  to  two  living 
species,— -one  of  them  European,  and  now  almost  extinct;  the 
other  American,  and  still  found  in  great  numbers.  AUDUBON 
enumerates  five  species,  three  of  which,  however,  are  more  gen 
erally  arranged  either  with  the  genus  Bos,  or  the  genus  Bubabus. 
The  European  Bison  is  now  found  living  in  the  Moldavian  and 
Wallachian  districts,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Caucasus  ;  the 
other  species  at  one  time  "  ranged  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
North  America;"  it  is  now  found  in  vast  herds  in  some  of  the 
Western  prairies,  and  is  thinly  scattered  along  the  valleys 
which  border  upon  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  districts  which 
these  animals  inhabit,  are  described  very  graphically  in  Washing 
ton  Irving's  "Tour  in  the  Prairies."  They  delight  in  level 
prairies,  covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  bordering  the  hills  of 
limestone  formation,  where  saline  springs  or  marshes  abundantly 
occur.  The  American  species,  B.  Americanus,  has  fifteen  pairs  of 
ribs  ;  the  European  has  fourteen,  (one  more  than  the  common  ox.) 
This  points  out  the  main  difference  between  the  two  species. 

The  Bison  is  marked  by  its  broad  and  slightly  arched  fore 
head,  and  the  long  and  wavy  hair  upon  it,  forming  on  the  chin 
and  breast  a  kind  of  beard  ;  by  the  elevation  of  the  withers,  aris 
ing  from  the  lengthened  spinous  processes  for  the  attachment  of 
the  ligament  and  enormous  muscles  of  the  neck,  serving  to  sup 
port  the  large  and  ponderous  head ;  and  by  a  continuous  fatty 
deposition,  or  sort  of  hunch, — from  which  the  back  gradually 
declines,  the  hind  quarters  appearing  disproportionately  weak 
arid  small  ;  and  by  its  short  but  amazingly  powerful  limbs. 
The  horns  are  short,  tapering  and  erect;  the  general  color  dark 
umber  brown,  becoming  in  winter  tinged  with  a  grayish  white. 
The  aspect  of  ihis  anim  il  is  fierce,  wild  and  malicious;  the 
eyes  being  small,  fiery,  and  half  hid  in  the  shaggy  hair  inter 
mingled  with  wool,  which  copiously  overspreads  its  head  and 
shoulders.  The  height  at  the  shoulders  is  upwards  of  six  feet ; 
the  length  (exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  twenty  inches)  is  eight 
and  a  half  feet;  the  weight  of  a  fat  bull  is  generally  near  two 


220  RUMINANTIA. 

thousand  pounds ;  that  of  a  fat  cow,  nearly  twelve  hundred,  which 
is  considered  a  good  weight  in  the  fur  countries.  The  Indians 
have  long  been  hunters  of  this  animal,  which  they  call  the  Buffalo  ; 
using  bows  and  arrows,  which,  wielded  by  their  skillful  hands, 
strike  the  huge  creature  to  the  ground.  The  female  is  beyond 
all  comparison  swifter  than  the  male,  and  is  the  constant  object 
of  the  hunter,  from  the  superior  quality  of  her  flesh.  The  Bison 
is  a  shy  and  wary  animal ;  usually  it  flies  before  its  pursuers ; 
but  sometimes,  led  by  an  infuriated  individual,  the  whole  herd 
will  turn,  and  rushing  towards  the  hunters,  trample  them  down 
in  their  headlong  course.  Next  to  man,  the  enemies  which 
these  animals  most  greatly  dread,  are  the  grizzly  bear  and  the 
wolf,  by  which  many  of  them  are  destroyed;  the  wolves  assail 
ing  them  in  packs  and  making  great  havoc,  especially  among 
the  smaller  animals. 

While  feeding,  they  are  frequently  scattered  over  a  vast 
surface ;  but  when  they  move  onwards  in  a  mass,  they  form  a 
dense,  impenetrable  column,  which  once  fairly  in  motion,  is 
scarcely  to  be  turned.  They  swim  large  rivers  in  nearly  the 
same  order  in  which  they  traverse  the  plains;  and  when  flying 
from  pursuit,  it  is  vain  for  those  in  front  to  halt  suddenly,  as  the 
rearward  throng  rush  madly  forward  and  force  their  leaders  on. 
The  Indians  sometimes  avail  themselves  of  this  habit.  Driving 
a  herd  of  these  animals  to  the  vicinity  of  a  precipice,  and  setting 
the  whole  in  rapid  motion,  they,  by  shouting  and  other  artifices, 
impel  the  affrighted  animals  onward  to  their  own  destruction. 
The  herds  of  these  animals  found  together,  sometimes  number 
"countless  thousands."  Lewis  and  Clark  say,  that  "20,000 
would  be  no  exaggerated  number"  for  a  herd  which  they  saw, 
and  which  "darkened  the  whole  plain."  To  Cat! in 's  account  of 
his  travels  among  the  North  American  Indians,  reference  may 
be  had  for  many  interesting  accounts  of  "buffalo  hunts."  The 
risk  of  this  chase  is  considerable,  but  its  rewards  are  great;  few 
animals  minister  more  largely  to  the  wants,  and  even  to  the 
comforts  of  man,  than  the  Bison.  The  flesh  is  said  to  be  juicy, 
bearing  (<the  same  relation  to  common  beef  that  venison  does  to 
mutton. :>  The  tongue,  well  cured,  is  thought  to  surpass,  as  a 
relish,  that  of  the  common  ox, — the  hump  also  is  esteemed  pecul 
iarly  rich  and  delicate.  Much  of  the  pemmican  used  by  North 
ern  voyagers,  or  by  those  attached  to  the  fur  companies,  is  made 
of  bison  meat, — one  bison  furnishing  meat  and  fat  enough  :o 
make  90  Ibs.  of  the  article.  The  Indian  tribes  make  every  part 
of  the  animal  subservient  to  their  necessities  and  comfort, — the 
"Buffalo  robes," — the  skin  dressed  with  the  hair  on, — defenvling 


RUMINANTIA.  221 

them  against  the  cold  ;  the  horns  are  converted  into  powder-flasks ; 
and  the  ribs  of  the  animal,  strengthened  by  some  of  the  stronger 
fibres,  are  made  to  furnish  the  bow,  by  which  others  of  the  spe 
cies  are  to  be  destroyed.  Catlin  says,  that  "there  are,  by  a  fair 
calculation,  more  than  300,000  Indians  who  are  now  subsisting 
on  the  flesh  of  the  buffaloes,  and  by  these  animals  supplied  with 
all  the  luxuries  of  life  which  they  desire,  as  they  know  no 
others."  The  advance  of  white  population  over  the  regions  of 
the  West,  bearing  with  "them  the  institutions  of  civilization  is, 
however,  modifying  this  statement,  and  gradually  contracting 
the  range  of  the  Bison. 

Bubalus  Buffalus,  or  Bos  Bubalus.     The  BUFFALO  of  Asia. 

This  animal,  in  its  general  aspect  and  carriage,  resembles  the 
Bison,  or  perhaps  the  Domestic  Ox,  though  larger  and  stronger, — 
but  differs  from  the  Bison  in  its  horns,  which  are  enormously 
large,  bent  down  and  recurved  at  the  tip ;  in  its  ears,  which  are 
half  the  length  of  the  head,  and  slightly  covered  with  hair;  and 
in  the  fur,  which  is  rough,  irregular  and  bristly.  Of  this 
species,  there  are  two  varieties,  the  B.  Arnee,  (Shaw,)  and  the 
B.  Rhainsa.  The  Arnee  is  the  wild  Buffalo  of  India,  found  on 
the  margins  of  old  and  thick  forests;  and,  like  the  Rhinoceros, 
confining  itself  to  the  most  swampy  parts  of  the  region  where 
it  dwells.  Its  horns  are  often  five  feet  in  length,  and  so  in 
clined  together  at  the  points,  as  to  form  a  figure  somewhat  lyre- 
shaped.  It  is  also  remarkable  for  the  shortness  of  its  tail,  which 
reaches  no  lower  than  the  hock.  It  is  one  third  larger  than  the 
Rhainsa,  or  tame  Buffalo,  being  ten  and  a  half  feet  long,  and 
six  to  six  and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  shoulders.  Its  strength  is  so 
great,  it  is  a  formidable  enemy  even  to  the  tiger,  who  shuns  an 
encounter  with  him  ;  and  such  is  the  power  of  his  charge,  that 
he  frequently  prostrates  a  well-sized  elephant.  The  Rhainsa  is 
universal  in  India  and  adjacent  countries,  and  was  formerly,  as 
now,  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  in  Egypt,  Greece  and  Italy.  In 
the  latter  country,  it  is,  on  account  of  its  great  strength,  very  use 
ful  for  carrying  purposes,  especially  in  marshy  and  swampy  dis 
tricts,  where  the  roads  are  two  or  three  feet  deep  with  mud. 
The  hide  of  the  Asiatic  Buffalo  is  peculiarly  thick  and  strong, 
and  in  great  request  for  making  harness. 

Bos  Gaums,  the  Gour,  or  Gaur,  of  mountainous  parts  of  Central 
India. 

This  has  the  hind  hoof  only  half  the  size  of  the  fore  one,  — 
the  general  color  is  brown,  but  the  legs  are  white ;  the  horns  are 
bent  downwards  at  the  front ;  "the  limbs  have  more  of  the  form 
of  the  deer  than  any  other  of  the  bovine  genus."  It  is  asserted 


222  RUMINANTIA. 

that  the  tiger  has  no  chance  in  a  combat  with  a  full  grown  Gour. 
This  animal  does  not,  like  the  Buffalo,  wallow  in  swamp  and 
mire.  The  large  quantity  of  milk  given  by  the  cow,  is  said 
to  be  occasionally  so  rich  as  to  cause  the  calf's  death. 

Poephagus.  (Gr.  noy,  poe,  grass  ;  qpdyw,  phago,  I  eat,)  or  .Bos 
grunniens,  (of  Linnaeus.)  The  YAK. 

Of  this  genus,  there  is  but  one  species,  P.  grunniens,  found  in 
the  woods  and  recesses  of  the  Thibet  mountains.  It  has  fourteen 
or  fifteen  pair  of  ribs,  and  resembles  the  Buffalo  in  its  form,  but 
is  smaller.  Both  sexes  grunt  like  a  pig,  whence  the  specific 
name,  grunniens,  (Lat.  grunting.)  The  tail  has  full  flowing 
hair  like  that  of  a  horse,  and  is  used  in  India  as  a  fan  or  whisk 
to  keep  off  the  musquitoes, — when  fixed  into  an  ivory  or  metal 
handle,  it  is  called  a  cJwwrie.  Elephants  are  sometimes  taught 
to  carry  a  chowrie,  and  waive  it  about  in  the  air.  The  neck 
and  back  are  surmounted  by  a  sort  of  mane ;  the  hair  of  the 
body  is  black, — smooth  and  short  in  summer,  but  thick  and  harsh 
in  winter;  the  back  and  tail  are  often  white.  The  Yaks  dislike 
the  heat  of  summer,  and  hide  themselves  in  the  shade  and  water. 
The  hair  is  applied  to  various  purposes  by  the  Tartars.  They 
weave  it  into  cloth,  of  which  they  not  only  make  articles  of  dress, 
but  also  tents  and  the  ropes  which  sustain  them.  There  are  two 
varieties, — those  used  for  the  plough,  and  those  used  for  riding. 
The  former  are  ugly  and  short-legged,  and  guided  by  the  nose, 
carry  their  heads  very  low;  the  latter  much  handsomer,  having 
twisted  horns,  a  noble  bearing,  and  an  erect  head ;  also  a  stately 
hump,  and  a  rich  silky  tail  reaching  nearly  to  the  ground. 

Bos  moschatus.  (Lat,  musky,)  or  Ovibos  moschatus.  The 
MUSK  Ox.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  9.) 

This  animal  has  sometimes  been  removed  from  the  genus  JBos, 
in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  the  naked  muzzle  which  is 
possessed  by  others  of  the  bovine  groups,  and  ranked  as  a  con 
necting,  or  intermediate  link  between  the  ox  and  the  sheep  ; 
hence  the  generic  term  ovibos,  (Lat.  ovis,  a  sheep;  and  bos, 
ox.)  It  may  be  doubted,  however,  whether,  on  this  account,  it 
should  be  separated  from  the  bovines.  The  full-grown  male  is 
about  the  size  of  a  small  two  year  old  cow  ;  the  female  is  con 
siderably  smaller ;  the  horns  are  united  at  the  top  of  the  head, — 
flat,  broad,  and  bent  down  against  the  cheeks,  but  become  round 
and  tapering,  and  turning  up,  end  in  a  sharp  point  about  the 
level  of  the  eyes.  The  animal  is  covered  with  long  bushy  hair, 
which  reaches  almost  to  the  ground.  The  general  color  of  the 
hair  is  brown,  or  brownish  black,  except  a  portion  in  the  middle 
of  the  back,  which  is  dirty  gray ;  in  the  female,  the  general 


RUMINANTIA.  2'23 

color  is  black;  the  head  is  large  and  square;  the  eyes  mod 
erately  large;  the  ears  short,  and  scarcely  visible  through  the 
surrounding  long  hair.  Under  the  hair  of  the  body,  is  an  admir 
able  second  coat,  consisting  of  brown,  or  ash-colored  wool ;  the 
legs  are  short  and  thick,  covered  with  close  hair,  unmixed  with 
wool;  the  tail  very  short ;  the  hoofs  are  small  compared  with 
the  size  of  the  animal, — resembling  those  of  the  Rein  Deer.  It 
is  said  "none  but  an  experienced  hunter  can  distinguish  the  dif 
ference  of  the  impressions  made  by  the  toes  on  the  snow."  Its 
food  is  also  like  that  of  the  Rein  Deer, — lichens  in  winter; — grass 
in  summer.  The  length  of  the  Musk  Ox  from  the  nose  to  the 
root  of  the  tail,  is  ahout  five  and  a  half  feet ;  and  its  weight,  ac 
cording  to  Parry,  about  700  Ibs.  It  is  gregarious,  being  found 
in  herds,  twenty  or  thirty  in  number.  The  home  of  these  ani 
mals  is  in  the  barren  lands  of  North  America,  in  regions  above 
the  60lh  degree  of  latitude.  They  are  hunted  by  the  Esquimaux, 
bul  not  without  danger,  as  when  provoked  or  wounded,  they  are 
apt.  to  turn  upon  the  pursuer.  The  poor  creatures  seem  to  fancy 
that  the  report  of  guns  is  thunder,  and  crowd  together  in  a  mass, 
so  that  they  afford  a  good  mark.  If,  however,  they  get  sight  of 
one  of  their  assailants,  they  instantly  charge  at  him,  and  then  they 
are  very  dangerous  enemies.  Sometimes  the  Esquimaux  turn 
the  animals'  irritation  to  good  account; — for,  after  the  adroit 
hunter  has  provoked  the  animal,  and  induced  it  to  attack  him,  he 
wheels  around  it  more  quickly  than  it  can  turn ;  and  by  re 
peated  stabs,  puts  an  end  to  its  life.  The  speed  of  the  Musk  Ox 
in  running,  is  great,  and  it  climbs  rocky  paths  and  broken  and 
uneven  sides  of  hills,  with  great  agility.  Sir  John  Richardson 
says,  the  wool  of  this  animal  "resembles  that  of  the  Bison,  but  is 
perhaps  finer,  and  would  be  highly  useful  in  the  arts,  if  it  could 
be  procured  in  sufficient  quantity."  The  same  author  informs 
us,  that  "  when  the  animal  is  fat,  its  flesh  is  well  tasted,  and  re 
sembles  that  of  the  Caribou,  but  has  a  coarser  grain."  When 
lean,  these  animals  "  smell  strongly  of  musk,  their  flesh,  at  the 
same  time,  being  very  dark  and  tough,  and  certainly  far  inferior 
to  that  of  any  other  ruminant  animal  in  North  America." 

QUESTIONS  UPON  THE  BOVIDAE,  (OX  FAMILY.) 

How  is  Bovidae  derived  ?  What  is  said  of  the  general  character  of  this 
family  ?  What  of  the  horns  in  particular  ?  What  of  the  appearance  and 
habits  of  these  animals  ?  What  kind  of  food  do  they  use  ?  What  plants 
are  hurtful  to  them  ?  How  many  plants  do  oxen  eat?  How  many  do  they 
reject?  Which  species  furnishes  the  type  of  the  entire  tribe  ?  How  many 
synonyms  have  been  given  ?  Give  the  different  names  appropriated  to  this 
animal  ?  How  arc  the  breeds  of  this  animal  usually  distinguished  ?  What 

10 


223  RUMINANTIA. 

is  said  of  the  Durham  breed?  What  other  breeds  are  mentioned?  By 
what  means  has  the  breed  of  cattle  been  improved?  How  is  the  Zebu  dis 
tinguished  ?  How  extensively  does  it  supply  the  place  of  the  ox  ?  What 
uses  are  made  of  it?  How  is  it  regarded  by  the  Hindoos?  What  is  said 
of  the  Egyptian  species  ?  How  many  species  of  Bison  are  there  ?  Where 
is  the  European  species  now  found  ?  What  has  probably  prevented  its  en 
tire  extinction  ?  In  what  part  of  North  America  is  the  other  species  found? 
What  is  the  main  difference  between  the  European  and  the  American 
species  ?  How  many  ribs  has  the  common  ox  ?  Give  the  distinctive  marks 
of  the  Bison?  Describe  its  disposition  and  habits.  What  enemies  does  it 
most  dread  ?  How  do  the  Indians  avail  themselves  of  the  habits  of  this 
animal  ?  What  is  said  of  the  largeness  of  the  herds  ?  Mention  the  uses 
made  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Bison.  How  many  Indians  does  Catlin 
estimate  are  daily  supported  by  its  flesh  ?  How  does  the  Asiatic  Buffalo 
differ  from  the  Bison  ?  How  many  varieties  of  this  species  ?  What  is  said 
of  them  ?  In  what  countries  is  the  animal  used  ?  Where  is  it  especially 
useful  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Gour  ?  How  does  it  differ  from  the  Buffalo*? 
Give  the  derivation  of  the  term  Pocphagus  ?  How  many  species  of  the 
Yak  ?  What  renders  the  specific  name  appropriate  ?  What  use  is  made  of 
its  tail?  What  of  its  hair  ?  How  many  varieties  of  this  animal  ?  Why  is 
the  generic  Ovibos  applied  to  the  Musk  Ox  ?  What  is  the  composition  of 
that  term  ?  What  characteristics  are  given  ?  Where  is  the  home  of  this 
animal  ?  What  more  is  said  of  it  ? 


Name  the  genera  and  species  of  the  Ox  Family  found  upon  the  chart, 
tracing  and  giving  some  account  of  each  as  you  proceed. 

SECTION  XXVIII. 

Ovidae.     (Lat.  ovis,  a  sheep.)     The  SHEEP. 

These  differ  so  slightly  from  the  Goat  in  anatomical  struct 
ure  that  both  genera  are  by  some  naturalists  united. 

The  chief  distinctive  characters  consist  "in  the  sheep  having 
no  beard  ;  in  the  horns  being  directed  backwards,  and  then  in- 
clining  spirally  more  or  less  forwards ;  in  having  a  convex  fore 
head  ;  and  in  the  existence  of  a  sac,  or  fossa,  situated  at  the 
base  of  the  toes,  lined  with  hair,  and  furnished  with  sebaceous 
follicles."  The  males  also  differ  from  the  goat  in  being  inodo 
rous.  The  age  of  sheep  is  reckoned  from  the  first  shearing. 
Their  value,  both  for  food  and  clothing,  is  well  known,  and  is  in- 
calculably  great,  while  they  are  reared  upon  soils  where  other 
animals  could  not  obtain  sufficient  for  their  support.  The  fila 
ments  of  wool  taken  from  a  healthy  sheep,  present  a  polished, 
glittering  appearance;  those  of  a  sickly,  or  half-starved  animal, 
exhibit  a  paler  hue.  The  dressed  skin  is  largely  used  for  the 
binding  of  books,  and  for  different  kinds  of  apparel.  The  bones, 
when  calcined,  are  employed  as  tests  in  refining  processes  ;  from 
the  entrails  are  prepared  strings  for  musical  instruments.  Sheep 
furnish  milk  which  is  thicker  than  that  of  cows,  and  yields  a 


RUMIN.ANTIA.  225 

greater  quantity  of  butter  and  cheese.  In  some  cases,  water 
must  be  added  in  order  to  produce  whey.  The  history  of  these 
animals  is  intermingled  with  poetical  descriptions  and  national 
customs  and  enactments.  They  are  mentioned  in  the  earliest 
scripture  records,  and  formed  the  chief  wealth  of  the  ancient 
patriarchs.  Among  the  Jews,  under  the  economy  of  Moses,  the 
lamb  was  offered  in  sacrifice, — pointing  to  "Christ,  the  Heav 
enly  Lamb;"  and  in  the  New  Testament  these  animals  are  the 
subjects  of  many  beautiful  and  touching  parables. 

Ovis  aries.     The  COMMON  SHEEP. 

This  exhibits  numerous  varieties,  and  many  of  its  form  have 
been  raised  to  the  rank  of  species.  The  Ovis  Hispanicus,  the 
Spanish,  or  Merino  Sheep,  is  among  the  most  celebrated.  These 
sheep,  it  is  said,  are  the  regenerated  stock  of  the  sheep  of  Boeotia, 
and  survived  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Goths  and  Vandals. 
They  have  been  transferred  to  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  the 
United  States ;  and  are  remarkable  for  the  fineness  of  their 
wool.  In  Germany,  the  wool  has  been  brought  to  the  highest 
perfection.  Merino  Sheep  were  introduced  into  Great  Britain  in 
1787.  The  original  stock  in  this  State,  (N.  Y.,*)  was  derived 
from  Holland;  the  Merino  variety  was  first  introduced  in  1801 ; 
though  their  importance  was  not  fully  appreciated  until  seven  or 
eight  years  after  that  period ;  when  the  excitement  respecting 
them  became  very  great,  and  they  were  sold  at  enormous  prices. 

Of  the  Merino  Sheep,  there  are  three  varieties,  viz.,  the 
Paular,  the  Negretti,  and  the  Gaudaloupe  breeds.  The  quality 
of  the  wool  has  been  improved  by  the  introduction  of  Saxony 
Sheep,  (originally  of  the  same  Merino  race,) 

The  breeds  of  sheep  are  distinguished  by  the  comparative 
length  of  the  fibres,  which  compose  their  fleece.  They  are  de 
signated  as  short  wooled,  middle- wooled,  and  long-wooled  sheep. 
1o  the  short-vvooled  division  belong  the  *'  Merino,  Saxony  and 
Australian  breeds,  whose  short,  fine  and  silky  wool  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  broadcloths.  The  middle-wooled  breeds, 
such  as  the  English  South-down,  Suffolk  and  Cheviot,  furnish 
material  for  the  coarser  cloths,  flannels  and  similar  fabrics. 
The  Leicester  breed,  and  some  others,  are  long-wooled.  The 
fibre  of  the  wool  in  these  sheep  is  strong  and  transparent,  but  is 
deficient  in  the  powet  of  felting,  on  which  the  compactness  of 
cloth  depends.  This  wool  is  used  for  merinoes,  moussehnes  de 
lame,  hosiery,  etc.  Welsh  sheep  are  noted  for  the  superior  flavor 
of  their  flesh,  and  "in  the  London  market  Welsh  mutton  is  always 
in  demand." 

*  DeKay. 


226  RUM1NANTIA. 

O,  Ammon  Argalis,  or  Siberian  Sheep.     The  ARGALI. 

This  is  one  of  the  varieties  of  wild  sheep,  native  to  Siberia, 
and  ranging  over  the  mountains  of  Asia, — a  strong,  muscular,  and 
active  animal,  about  as  large  as  a  small  fallow  deer,  and  having 
thick,  roughly  ringed  horns.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  12.)  In  summer, 
its  hair  is  smooth,  and  of  yellowish  gray  color  ;  but  in  winter, 
it  becomes  thick,  harsh  and  reddish  ;  the  muzzle,  throat  and  under 
parts,  continuing  white  at  all  seasons.  The  whole  form  of  this 
animal  appears  better  adapted  for  agility  than  that  of  the  com- 
mon  sheep. 

O.  Canadensis.     The  TAYE,  or  BFG  HORN  SHEEP,  of  Canada. 

This  is  identical  with  the  O.  Montanus,  of  Geoffrey,  and  a 
variety  is  the  O.  California,  of  Douglas,  which  Dr.  Gray  says  is 
probably  the  same  as  the  Ammon,  of  Siberia. 

O.  Musimon,  or  Musmon.  The  MOUFFLON,  of  Cyprus,  Can- 
dia,  and  Corsica.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  10.) 

This  differs  from  the  Argali,  only  in  being  rather  smaller, 
and  in  me  horns  being  very  small,  .^r  altogether  absent  in  the 
female.  Like  the  Argali,  it  makes  its  home  upon  the  mountains. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  the  primitive  stock  may  be  traced  either 
to  this,  or  the  preceding  species, — the  hair  of  both  species  possess 
ing  the  essential  character  of  wool, — an  imbricating  scaly  sur. 
face, — which  gives  to  the  covering  of  the  domestic  breeds  the  re- 
mzrkable  felting  property  upon  which  its  utility  so  much  depends. 

O-  polycerata.  (Gr.  no'^vy,  polus,  many  ;  xt'^aj,  kcras,  horn.) 
The  MANY-HORNED  SHEEP. 

This  species  found  in  Iceland  and  the  most  northern  parts  of 
the  Russian  dominions,  resembles  the  common  sheep  in  its  body 
and  tail,  but  has  three,  four,  five  or  more  horns.  (See  Plate  VII. 
fig.  13.)  The  wool  is  long,  smooth,  hairy,  and  of  a  dark  brown 
color.  Under  its  outer  coat,  is  a  fine,  short  and  soft  kind  of 
wool,  or  fur. 

O.  laticauda.  (Lat.  latus,  broad  ;  ciuda,  tail.)  The  BROAD- 
TAILED  SHEEP, — is  common  in  Tartary,  Arabia,  Persia,  Barbary, 
Syria  and  Egypt.  This  sheep  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  large, 
heavy  tail,  often  so  loaded  with  fat  as  to  weigh  from  ten  to  twelve 
pounds,  and  according  to  some,  double  that  weight,  and  a  foot 
broad  ;  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  support  it  artificially.  The 
upper  part  is  covered  with  wool,  but  it  is  bare  underneath,  and 
the  fat,  of  which  it  consists,  is  regarded  as  a  great  delicacy. 

O.  strepsiceros.  (Gr.  OT^E'CJPW,  strepho,  to  twist ;  xeyug,  keras, 
horn.)  THE  CRETAN  SHEEP. 

This  is  chiefly  found  in  the  Island  of  Crete,  but  is  kppt  in 
several  parts  of  Europe  on  account  of  its  singular  appearance  ; 


RUMINANTIA.  227 

the  horns  being  very  large,   long  and  spiral,  those  of  the  male 
upright. — of  the  female,  at  right  angles  with  the  head. 

O.  Guineensis.  The  AFRICAN,  or  GUINEA  SHEEP, — found  in 
all  the  tropical  climates  of  Africa.  It  is  large,  with  rough,  hairy 
skin,  short  horns  and  pendulous  ears,  a  kind  of  dewlap  under  the 
chin,  and  a  long  mane  reaching  below  the  neck.  It  is  stronger, 
larger  and  more  fleet  than  other  sheep,  and  better  suited  to  a 
forest  life ;  but  the  flesh  is  quite  indifferent  food. 

SHEEP. 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  the  Sheep  ?  How  does  the  wool 
of  the  healthy  sheep  appear  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  this  animal  ?  With 
what  is  it  associated  ?  What  Scripture  references  are  given  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  varieties  of  the  Common  Sheep?  Which  is  the  most  celebrated? 
What  is  said  of  their  origin  ?  Where  is  their  wool  brought  to  the  highest 
perfection?  When  was  this  variety  first  introduced  into  the  State  of  New 
York  ?  How  has  the  quality  of  the  wool  been  improved  ?  How  are  the 
breeds  of  sheep  distinguished,  and  how  designated?  What  breeds  are 
included  in  the  Short-  Wooled  division  ?  What  in  the  Middle-  Wooled,  and 
what  in  the  Long- Wooled?  In  what  respect  is  the  fibre  of  the  Long- 
Wooled  Sheep  deficient?  For  what  is  the  wool  much  used  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Welsh  variety ?  Where  is  the  Argali  found?  What  is  said  of  it? 
How  does  the  Moufflon  differ  from  the  Argali  ?  In  what  respects  does  it 
resemble  it?  What  is  said  of  the  Many-Horned  Sheep?  Where  is  the 
Broad-Tailed  Sheep  ?  What  is  said  of  its  tail  ?  Where  is  the  Cretan 
Sheep  found?  What  is  said  of  its  horns?  Where  is  the  Guinea  Sheep 
found,  and  what  is  said  of  it  ? 

Trace  the  varieties  mentioned  on  the  chart, — tell  where  they  are  found, 
and  their  peculiarities. 

SECTION  XXIX. 

Capridae,  (Lat.  capra,  a  goat.)     The  GOAT  FAMILY. 

The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Goat  family  are  that 
they  have  hollow  horns  turned  upwards  and  ringed  ;  that  they 
have  eight  cutting  teeth  on  the  lower  jaw  and  none  in  the  upper; 
and  that  the  male  has  a  beard.  The  muzzle  is  comparatively 
narrow,  with  no  naked  space  about  the  nostrils ;  the  tail  is  short ; 
there  are  no  fissures,  or  tear-pits,  beneath  the  eyes,  nor  tufts  of 
hair  upon  the  knees.  Either  "  native  or  naturalized,"  this  ani 
mal  appears  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world.  It  is  capable  of 
enduring  all  kinds  of  weather,  being  found  in  high  northern  lati 
tudes,  and  also  thriving  in  the  hottest  parts  of  Africa  and  India. 
The  internal  organization  of  the  animal  is  almost  entirely  simi 
lar  to  that  of  the  sheep,  (Ovida.)  "He  is,  however,  stronger, 
lighter,  and  more  agile,  and  less  timid  than  the  sheep.  The  sup 
pleness  of  his  organs,  and  the  strength  and  nervousness  of  his 


228  RUJVIINANTIA. 

frame,  are  hardly  sufficient  to  support  the  petulance  and  rapidity 
of  his  natural  movements."     (BufFon.) 

The  milk  of  the  Goat  "is  sweet,  nutritious,  and  medicinal,  ow- 
ing  to  the  character  of  its  food,  which  consists  chiefly  of  what  is 
obtained  from  high  hills,  or  from  pastures  where  aromatic  shrubs 
.  abound.  Anciently  the  skin  was  deemed  valuable  for  clothing  ; 
the  best  Turkey  or  Morocco  leather  is  made  from  it,  and  from 
the  skin  of  the  kid  is  prepared  the  softest  and  handsomest  leather 
for  gloves.  The  strong  odor  of  the  Goat  is  well  known,  and  it  is 
said  to  be  "refreshing"  to  horses.  The  female  bears,  generally 
in  the  last  of  February,  usually  two,  sometimes  three  and  even 
four  young.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  Goat,  because 
an  enemy  to  the  vine,  was  sacrificed  to  Bacchus.  This  animal 
is  remarkably  sure  footed.  Pennant  says,  "two  yoked  together, 
as  they  often  are,  as  if  by  consent,  take  large  and  hazardous 
leaps,  and  vet  so  time  their  mutual  efforts  as  rarely  to  miscarry 
in  the  attempt."  The  Goat  butts,  raising  himself  on  the  hind 
legs,  and  then  coming  down  sidewise  against  his  enemies.  The 
varieties  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  have  been  exalted  to 
the  rank  of  species. 

Hircus  (or  Copra)  Aegagrus.  The  WILD  GOAT.  This  is  re 
garded  by  Cuvier  and  others,  as  the  parent  stock  of  the  Domes 
tic  Goat  in  all  its  varieties. 

It  is  found  in  herds,  freely  ranging  in  the  great  mountain 
chains  of  Asia.  In  Persia  it  is  called  the  Paseng.  The  size  is 
rather  larger  than  that  of  the  domestic  breed  ;  the  horns  also 
usually  exceed  those  of  the  common  Goat ;  the  color  is  a  brown 
ish  gray  above  and  white  beneath.  The  male  has  a  large  brown 
ish  beard  ;  the  female  neither  beard  nor  horns. 

Capra  hircus.    The  DOMESTIC  GOAT.  (Lat.  hircus,  a  he-goat.) 

This  animal,  like  others  reclaimed  and  subject  to  man,  exhib 
its  great  varieties  in  respect  to  size,  color,  the  quality  of  the  hair, 
and  even  the  largeness  and  number  of  the  horns. 

C.  Angorensis.     The  ANGORA  GOAT.     (See  Chart.) 

This  is  a  native  of  Angora,  in  Asia  Minor ;  generally  is  of  a 
milk-white  color,  short  legged,  with  black,  spreading,  and  spi 
rally  twisted  horns  and  pendulous  ears;  its  silk-like  wool,  which 
is  its  chief  excellence,  covers  the  entire  body  in  long,  hanging 
and  spiral  ringlets,  and  from  it  the  finest  camlets  are  made. 

The  CASHMERE  GOAT,  which  is  found  in  Thibet  and  roams  the 
pastures  of  the  Himalaya  mountains,  has  an  undercoat  of  wool, 
exquisitely  delicate  and  fine.  From  this  are  manufactured  the 
Cashmere  shawls  so  highly  valued  by  the  fashionables  of  both 
hemispheres.  It  is  remarked  that  the  lower  the  temperature 


RUMINANTIA.  229 

where  the  animal  pastures,  the  heavier  and  finer  is  its  wool. 
The  Goats  which  feed  in  the  highest  vales  of  Thibet  are-  of  a 
bright  ocre  color  ;  in  lower  ground  the  color  changes  to  a  yel 
lowish  white,  and  still  lower  down  to  entirely  white.  The  high 
est  parts  of  the  Himalaya  mountains  inhabitable  by  man  have  a 
kind  of  black  Goats,  which  yield  wool  from  which  are  made 
shawls  that  in  India  command  the  highest  price.  The  fine  curled 
wool  of  these  Goats  lies  close  to  the  skin,  just  as  the  under  hair 
of  the  common  Goat  lies  below  the  coarse  upper  hair.  The  flesh 
of  the  Himalaya  Goats  is  said  to  taste  as  well  and  its  milk  to  be 
as  rich  as  that  of  the  common  Goat. 

The  Angora  Goat  loses  the  delicacy  of  its  hairy  covering 
when  exposed  to  a  change  of  climate  and  pasture.  It  is  said  the 
people  of  Cashmere  constantly  work  16,000  looms,  each  loom 
giving  employment  to  three  men,  the  annual  sale  being  calcu 
lated  at  30,000  shawls. 

The  "NATURALISTS'  LIBRARY,"  (RUMINANTIA,  part  II.  by 
Sir  William  Jardine,)  says  that  "a  fine  shawl,  with  a  pattern  all 
over  it,  takes  nearly  a  year  in  making.  The  persons  employed 
sit  on  a  bench  at  the  frame,  sometimes  four  people  at  each,  but 
if  the  shawl  is  a  plain  one,  only  two.  The  borders  are  marked 
with  wooden  needles,  there  being  a  separate  needle  for  each  color, 
and  the  rough  part  of  the  shawl  is  uppermost  while  it  is  in  a 
process  of  manufacture.  The  Cashmeres  which  are  obtained 
from  the  kingdom  of  that  name  are  most  sought  after.  India, 
however,  produces  several  Goats  besides  the  true  Cashmere  breed 
which  yield  wool  from  which  shawls  are  made.  Twenty-four 
pounds  weight  of  the  best  wool  of  Thibet,  sells  at  Cashmere  for 
twenty  rupees." 

C.  Jaela,orC.  Niibiana.  The  ABYSSINIAN  GOATS,  found  in  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia  and  Upper  Egypt,  and  also  on  Mount 
Sinai,  differ  from  the  Goats  of  Thibet,  in  having  close  smooth 
hair,  a  convex  forehead,  and  a  projecting  lower  jaw. 

The  SYRIAN  GOAT,  (Capra  Syriaca,)  is  distinguished  by  its 
large  pendulous  ears,  (see  Plate  VII.  fig.  14,)  which  are  usually 
from  one  to  two  feet  in  length,  and  sometimes  so  annoying  to  the 
animal  that  the  owners  are  obliged  to  trim  them  to  enable  it  to 
feed  with  more  ease.  It  has  black  horns  which  bend  a  little  for 
wards,  and  are  only  about  two  inches  long.  The  hair  is  colored 
like  that  of  a  fox,  and  it  has  two  fleshy  protuberances  under  its 
throat.  It  is  very  numerous  in  Syria,  where  it  finds  pastures 
specially  adapted  to  its  wants.  Pennant  says  that  "it  supplies 
Aleppo  with  milk."  It  is  no  unimportant  part  of  the  wealth 
of  a  pastoral  people,  its  flesh  being  used  for  food  and  its  hair 


•230 


EUMIXANTIA. 


wrought  into  cloth.  This  was  one  of  the  animals  offered  in  sac 
rifice  by  the  ancient  Hebrews ;  it  was  this  Goat  over  which  the 
Jewish  High  Priest,  putting  his  hands  on  the  Goat's  head,  "  con- 
fessed  the  iniquities  of  the  children  of  Israel,"  and  then  "sent 
him  away  by  the  hand  of  a  fit  man  into  the  wilderness."  The 
long  ears  of  this  animal  illustrate  those  words  of  scripture, 
Amos  iii.  12,  "As  the  shepherd  taketh  out  of  the  mouth  of  the 
lion  ....  a  piece  of  an  ear."  So  large  and  thick  are  the  ears 
of  this  Goat  that  they  make  a  considerable  mouthful  even  for  a 
lion. 

C.  Ibex.     The  IBEX. 

Of  this  species  there  are    several  varieties  in  the  mountain 
ranges  of  Europe,  Asia  and    Africa,  but  more  especially   those 
of  Asia  and  the  bordering  parts  of  Europe,  all,  however,  resem 
bling  each  other  in  their  structure  and  general  habits.     This  ani 
mal  is  much  larger  and  stronger   than   the  common    domestic 
Goat.     "  The  color  is  a  deep  hoary  brown,  the  under  parts  of 
the  body  and  insidesof  the  limbs  are  of  a  much  paler  and  whitish 
hue  ;  the  body  is  thick,  short  and  strong ;  it   has  a  small    head, 
large  eyes,  and  strong  legs;  very  short  hoofs  ;   a  short  tail ;   and 
extremely  large  and  long  arched,  brown  colored  horns,  with  knobs 
on  the  upper  surface."     (Plate  VII.  fig.  15.)     The  fore  legs  are 
considerably  shorter  than  the  hind,  which   enables  the  animal 
to  ascend  more  easily  than  he  can  descend  lofty  mountain  heights. 
In  manners  and  voice  the  Ibex  is  much  like  the    Chamois.     It 
is  found  in  small  flocks  consisting  of  ten  or  fifteen  individuals. 
When  hard  pressed,  these  animals  sometimes  turn    upon    the 
hunter,  hurling   him  down  the  most  frightful  declivity.     It  is  a 
native  of  the  Carpathian  and  Pyrenean  mountains  and  of  the  Alps. 
C.  Americana.     ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  GOAT. 
These  animals  inhabit  the  lofty  chain  of  mountains  whence 
they1  derive  their  name,  ranging  from  40o  to  65o  North  Latitule- 
They  resort  to  grassy  knolls  begirt  with  craggy  rocks  as  afford- 
ing  them  places  of  refuge  against  the  onsets  of  dogs  and  wolves  , 
visiting,  daily,  caves  in  the  mountains  said  to  be  encrusted  with 
an  effervescence  of  salt,  of  which  they  are  fond  ;  they  are  of 
larger  size  than  the  common  Goat,  have  black   horns,  which  are 
smooth  and  polished  at  the  tips,  and  curved  backwards,  and  ol)- 
7  scurely  ringed  at  the  base,  where  they  are  sometimes  a  foot  in 
circumference.     On  account  of  the  great  size  of  the  horns,  :.his 
animal  is  called  by  the  hunters,  the  *'  Big-horn."     The  muzzl* 
is  extremely  small  ;  the  color  white  ;  the  hair  long  and  straight; 
the  skin  very  thick  and  spongy,  and  principally  used  in  making 
moccasins.     The  flesh,  when  it  is  in  season,  is  said  to  exceed  in 


RUMINANTIA. 


231 


flavor  the  venison  obtained  in  the  same  region,  and  the  fleece  is 
also  highly  valued,  being  next  to  that  of  the  Cashmere  Goat  in 
fineness. 

Give  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Goat  Family.  What  is  Buffon's  re 
mark?  What  are  the  uses  of  the  Goat?  What 'remark  is  quoted  from 
Pennant  ?  Has  this  family  many  varieties  ?  Which  species  is  regarded  as 
the  purest  stock?  Where  is  it  found?  How  does  it  compare  in  size,  &c., 
with  the  domestic  breed  ?  In  what  respects  does  the  Domestic  Goat  vary  ? 
Describe  the  Angora  Goat.  Where  is  the  Cashmere  Goat  found  ?  What 
articles  are  manufactured  from  its  wool  ?  What  shawls  command  the  high 
est  price  in  India  ?  What  is  said  of  the  wool  of  which  they  are  made  ? 
Has  change  of  climate  any  effect  upon  the  wool  of  the  Angora  Goat? 
What  is  said  of  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  the  Cashmere  shawls?  How 
do  the  Abi/ssii.i  in  Goats  differ  from  those  of  Thibet?  For  what  is  the  Syri 
an  Goat  distinguished  ?  What  is  said  of  its  hair,  &c.  ?  What  use  was 
made  of  it  by  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ?  What  words  of  Scripture  do  the  ears 
of  this  animal  illustrate  ?  What  is  the  habitat  of  the  Ibex  ?  What  is  said  . 
of  its  varieties?  How  do  they  compare  with  the  Domestic  Goat?  Give 
the  character  of  this  animal.  Does  it  ascend  or  descend  most  easily?  What 
animal  is  it  much  like?  What  is  the  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Goat? 
What  are  their  particular  resorts?  What  do  the  hunters  call  this  animal? 
For  what  are  its  skin  and  flesh  used? 

Name,  trace  and  characterize  the  species  on  the  chart. 

SECTION  XXX. 

Antelopida.  "Bright  eyed."  (Gr.  avOog,  anthos,  a  flower  or 
beautiful  ornament ;  wt/;,  dps,  eye.) 

ANTELOPES.       (Bisulcated  or  Cloven-footed.) 

This  beautiful  family  of  Ruminants  is  by  some  considered  a 
connecting,  link  between  the  Goat  and  Deer  families.  Like  the 
Goats,  they  never  shed  their  horns ;  in  size  and  general  struc 
ture,  the  nature  and  color  of  their  hair,  and  their  swiftness  of 
foot,  they  resemble  the  Deer.  The  hind  limbs,  like  those  of  the 
hare,  are  much  longer  than  the  fore  ones.  This  not  only  helps 
them  to  be  more  fleet,  but  increases  their  security  in  climbing 
precipices,  which  they  are  delighted  in  doing.  The  larger  part 
of  the  species  are  brown  on  the  back,  and  white  on  the  under 
part  of  the  body,  with  a  black  stripe  between  the  brown  and 
white.  The  tail  is  of  various  lengths,  but  always  covered  with 
pretty  long  hair ;  the  ears,  which  are  beautiful  and  well  placed, 
terminate  in  a  point.  The  hoof  is  cloven  like  that  of  a  sheep  ; 
the  perennial  horns  are  conical,  bent  back,  and  ringed  at  the 
base,  never  showing  the  angles  and  ridges  which  distinguish 
those  of  the  sheep  and  goats.  This  last  is,  perhaps,  the  most  general 


232  RUJVIINANTIA. 

character  of  the  family.  The  case  of  the  horns  is  thin,  and  as  a 
group,  the  Antelopes  are  numbered  among  the  HOLLOW-HORNED 
ANIMALS.  A  large  part  of  them  have  lachrymal  sinuses  or 
"tear-pits,"  as  seen  in  the  Deer,  and  which  can  be  opened  at  the 
will  of  the  animal.  These  are  furnished  at  the  bottom  with  a 
gland  that  secretes  an  oily,  viscous  substance  of  the  color  and 
consistency  of  ear-wax,  and  turning  black  upon  exposure  to  the 
air.  The  common  Indian  Antelope,  and  the  Gazelle,  according 
to  observations  of  them  away  from  their  native  climes,  use  this 
organ  when  any  strange  substance  is  brought  to  their  notice,  par 
ticularly  if  it  be  odoriferous ;  and  they  appear  to  derive  great 
pleasure  from  protruding  the  sinus  and  rubbing  it  against  the 
odorous  body.  The  possession  of  sinuses  distinguishes  the  An 
telopes  from  the  Goats  and  the  Sheep  ;  and  this,  connected  with 
the  absence  of  horns  in  the  females  of  many  species,  also  makes 
this  family  an  intermediate  link  between  the  rest  of  the  Hollow- 
Horned  Ruminants  and  the  Cervine,  or  Solid-Horned  Animals. 
A  few  species  of  Antelopes  have  an  additional  gland  running 
lengthwise  between  the  sub-orbital  sinus  and  the  mouth,  but  hav- 
ing  no  internal  opening,  and  secreting  an  oily  substance.  An- 
other  and  more  general  character  of  this  family  than  even  the 
lachrymal  sinuses,  is  the  inguinal  pores  or  folds  opening  inwards 
and  secreting  a  substance  similar  to  that  of  the  other  glands  to 
which  we  have  now  referred. 

The  form  of  the  upper  lip  is  quite  various  In  some  species 
it  forms  a  broad  naked  muzzle,  as  in  the  ox  ;  in  ethers  it  is  hairy 
and  attenuated,  as  in  the  goat ,  and  in  still  others  it  shows  a  mod 
ification  of  both  these  characters.  The  hair  of  the  Antelope  is 
usually  short  and  smooth,  and  of  an  equal  length  on  every  part 
of  the  body ;  some,  however,  have  bristly  manes  along  the  neck 
and  shoulders,  and  a  very  few  species,  like  the  Gnu,  have  a 
beard  on  the  chin  and  throat.  Generally  these  animals  are 
found  in  large  herds,  but  some  species  reside  in  pairs  or  families. 
Africa  may  be  regarded  as  the  "head  quarters"  of  the  Ante 
lopes.  The  nature  of  their  habitat  varies  in  different  species. 

This  family  has  been  arranged  into  two  grand  divisions,  the 
ANTELOPES  OF  THE  FIELDS,  and  the  ANTELOPES  OF  THE  DES- 
ERT,  between  which  the  most  obvious  distinction  is  that  in  the 
Antelopes  of  the  Fields  "the  nostrils  are  free  from  hairs,  whilst 
in  the  Antelopes  of  the  Desert,  the  nostrils  are  beaded  within,  or 
covered  with  bristles."  (English  Cyclopedia.) 

I.  ANTELOPES  OF  THE  FIELDS.  These  are  arranged  into  three 
groups. 

1st.   True  Antelopes,  "  which  have  a  light,  elegant  body ;  slen- 


IIUMINANTIA.  233 

der  limbs  ;  small  hoofs ;  a  short  or  moderate  tail,  covered  with 
elongated  hairs  at  the  base ;  lyrate  or  conical  horns,  placed  over 
the  eye  brows." 

2d.  Cervine  Antelopes,  "  approaching  the  Deer  in  character. 
They  have  a  rather  heavy,  large  body  ;  strong,  slender" limbs; 
a  long  tail,  cylindrical  at  the  base,  with  the  hair  longer  at  the 
end,  often  forming  a  compressed  ridge."  The  muffle  resembles 
that  of  the  Deer. 

3d.  Goal-like  Antelopes,  having  *'  a  heavy  body  ;  strong  legs  ; 
large  hoofs  and  false  hoofs ;  very  short  tail,  flat  and  hairy  above  ; 
recurved,  conical  horns." 

The  species  in  each  of  these  groups  are  quite  numerous;  but 
though  all  are  handsome  creatures,  we  must  content  ourselves 
with  noticing  the  more  prominent. 

TRUE  ANTELOPES. 

A.  Dorcas.  (Gr.  deQjto/uat,,  derkomai,  to  see.)  The  GAZELLE, 
or  the  CORINNE.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  19.) 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  Antelopes.  Its 
large,  mild,  and  black  eyes  beam  with  lustre,  and  its  light  and 
graceful  figure  has  made  it  a  favorite  with  Oriental  poets.  In 
the  sacred  writings  it  is  alluded  to  under  the  name  of  the  Roe, 
"  swift  upon  the  mountains."  The  Gazelle  is  common  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa,  where  large  troops  of  them  bound  along 
with  such  amazing  fleetness  that  they  seem  bird-like.  The  Ariel 
(A,  Arabica\  a  variety  of  this  species,  abounds  in  Arabia  and 
Syria. 

"  The  wild  Gazelle  o'er  Judah's  hills 

Exulting  still  may  bound ; 

And  drink  from  all  the  living  rills  -  .    .. 

That  gush  on  holy  ground." 

So  swift  is  this  animal  that  the  greyhound  is  generally  unable 
to  overtake  it,  unless  aided  by  falcons  which  fly  at  its  head,  and 
thus  check  its  speed  until  the  dogs  regain  their  lost  distance.  In 
some  parts  of  Syria,  the  gazelle  is  taken  by  driving  a  herd  into 
an  extended  enclosure  surrounded  by  a  deep  ditch.  A  few  open- 
ings  are  made  through  which  the  affrighted  animals  leap  and  fall 
into  the  ditch,  when  they  are  easily  taken.  If  pursued  in  the 
open  field,  it  flies  to  some  distance,  then  stops  to  gaze  a  mo 
ment  at  the  hunters,  and  again  renews  its  flight.  A  flock 
when  attacked  in  a  body,  disperse  in  all  directions,  but  soon 
come  together  again,  and  when  brought  to  bay,  defend  themselves 


234  RUMINANT1A. 

with  courage  and  obstinacy,  uniting  in  a  close  circle,  with  the 
females  and  fawns  in  the  center,  and  presenting  their  horns  at 
all  points  to  their  enemies;  yet  notwithstanding  their  courage, 
they  are  "the  common  prey  of  the  lion  and  panther,  and  are 
hunted  with  great  courage  by  the  Arabs  and  Bedouins  of  the  des 
ert."  When  taken  young,  the  Gazelle  is  easily  domesticated  ; 
and  it  is  frequently  seen  at  large  in  the  court-yards  of  the  houses 
in  Syria,  the  exquisiteness  of  its  form,  and  its  great  beauty  and 
playfulness  rendering  it  a  special  favorite. 

The  size  of  the  Gazelle's  body,  (3J  feet  long,)  about  equals 
that  of  the  Roebuck,  but  the  legs  are  considerably  longer,  and 
the  entire  form  is  lighter  and  more  elegant;  the  fur  is  short  and 
close  pressed  ;  the  color  a  dark  fawn  above,  and  white  beneath, 
the  upper  parts  being  divided  from  the  lower  by  a  deep  dark 
band  along  the  flanks.  The  horns  are  black,  lyre-shaped,  and 
have  twelve  or  fourteen  rings.  Upon  the  monuments  of  Egypt 
and  Nubia,  this  animal  is  frequently  found  sculptured.  A  cir 
cumstance  of  this  creature's  extreme  affection,  and  which  ended 
fatally,  occurred  not  very  long  since  in  the  island  of  Malta.  A 
female  gazelle  having  suddenly  died  from  something  it  had  eaten, 
the  male  stood  over  the  dead  body  of  his  mate,  butting  every  one 
who  attempted  to  touch  it ;  then  suddenly  making  a  spring,  struck 
his  head  against  the  wall,  and  fell  dead  by  the  side  of  his  com 
panion. 

A.  (or  G.}  mhorr.     The  MOHR.     (Plate  VII.  fig.  22.) 

This  Gazelle  is  4  feet  2  inches  long,  and  2J  feet  high  at  the 
shoulder,  (8  inches  taller  than  the  preceding,)  found  in  Western 
Africa,  and  much  sought  after  by  the  Arabs  on  account  of  pro 
ducing  the  bezoar  stones,  called  Mohr's  eggs  in  Morocco,  and 
valued  in  eastern  medicine.  The  Mohr  is  said  to  live  in  pairs, 
not  in  flocks  like  the  other  species. 

A.  euchore.  (Gr.  si),  eu,  well;  ^o^og,  choros,  dance.)  The 
SPRINGBOK,  or  the  SPRING-BUCK. 

This  animal  of  Southern  Africa,  in  the  gracefulness  of  its 
proportions  and  the  beautiful  variety  of  its  colors,  is  scarcely 
surpassed  by  any  other  of  the  Antelope  tribe.  It  is  nearly  a 
third  larger  than  the  Gazelle  ;  its  horns  are  black,  irregularly 
lyrated,  and  of  moderate  length.  The  most  marked  peculiarity 
of  this  species  is  a  line  of  long  white  hairs  arising  from  two  lon 
gitudinal  foldings  of  the  skin,  commencing  about  the  middle  of 
the  back  and  extending  to  the  tail.  In  their  ordinary  state,  the 
edges  of  these  foldings  approach  each  other,  and  are  so  near  to 
gether  as  to  conceal,  in  a  great  measure,  the  stripe  of  white. 
But  when  the  animal  leaps,  as  it  sometimes  does,  perpendicularly 

S, 


RUMINANTIA.  235 

to  the  height  of  six  or  seven  feet,  the  folds  are  expanded  and 
form  a  broad  circular  mark  of  the  purest  white  extending  over 
the  whole  croup  and  hips,  producing  a  very  remarkable  and 
pleasing  effect.  Immensely  large  herds  of  these  animals  are 
found  on  arid  plains  of  the  interior  of  South  Africa;  but  when 
the  pools  and  pastures  to  which  it  has  been  wont  to  resort,  are 
dried  and  burnt  up  by  the  excessive  heat,  it  migrates  to  the  cul 
tivated  districts  of  the  Cape.  Travelers  who  have  witnessed 
these  marches  estimate  the  numbers  that  unite  in  their  migra 
tions  at  from  10,000  to  50,000.  "Cumming's  Adventures"  give 
some  graphic  views  of  these  "  grand  migrations."  Before  the 
migration  is  closed,  it  is  said,  those  which  happen  to  get  in  the 
rear  of  the  troop  are  lean  and  half  starved,  being  left  nearly 
destitute  of  food  in  consequence  of  the  cropping  of  the  scanty 
pastures  almost  bare  by  the  preceding  ranks  ;  but  when  the  troop 
begin  to  retrace  their  steps  northward,  those  which  formed  the 
van  during  the  advance,  are  necessarily  in  the  rear  returning  ; 
hence  they  soon  lose  their  plump  condition,  and,  in  their  turn, 
are  subjected  to  want  and  starvation.  In  their  approaches  to  the 
settlements  of  men,  thousands  of  these  animals  are  killed  for 
food.  Great  numbers  of  them  are  also  destroyed  by  panthers, 
hycenas  and  wild  dogs.  On  the  return  of  the  rainy  season,  they 
retrace  their  steps  to  the  plains  of  the  interior,  and  in  a  brief  pe 
riod  not  a  Spring-Buck  is  to  be  seen.  So  fearful  is  this  animal 
of  man,  it  is  said,  that  "if  it  has  to  cross  a  path  over  which  a 
man  has  passed  before,  it  does  not  walk  over,  but  takes  a  leap 
ten  or  twelve  feet  high  and  about  fifteen  feet  long,  at  the  same  time 
curving  its  back  in  the  most  extraordinary  manner."  It  is  from 
this  habit  of  leaping,  the  dwellers  at  the  Cape  have  given  it  the 
name  of  Spring-Suck. 

A.  cervicapra.  (Lat.  stag-goat.)  The  COMMON  ANTELOPE, 
or  SASIN,  of  India. 

This  species  is  spread  in  large  families,  over  every  part  of  In 
dia's  rocky  and  open  plains.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  form  and 
beauty  of  its  horns,  which  are  ringed  and  spirally  convoluted, 
(Plate  VII.  fig.  18,)  having  two  or  more  turns,  according  to  the  age 
of  the  animal.  When  full  grown,  it  is  four  feet  long  and  two  and 
a  half  feet  high  ;  almost  black  above  and  white  beneath  ;  on  the 
knees  are  tufts  of  long  bristles,  forming  small  knee  brushes;  the 
other  parts  have  the  hair  short  and  close.  The  Sasins  are  soswift 
that  except  when  taken  by  surprise,  greyhounds  are  slipped  after 
them  in  vain  ;  the  dogs  are  more  likely  to  be  injured  than  the 
game.  Capt.  Williamson,  in  his  "  Wild  Sports  'of  the  East," 
says  he  has  seen  an  old  buck  Antelope  lead  a  herd  of  females 


236  RUMINANTIA. 

over  a  net  at  least  eleven  feet  high ;  and  that  these  animals  fre 
quently  vault  to  the  height  of  twelve  or  thirteen  feet,  passing 
over  ten  or  twelve  yards  at  a  single  bound.  They  are  usually 
hunted  by  the  Cheetah,  which  "creeps  cat-like  towards  the  herd 
and  bounding  upon  a  selected  victim,  dashes  it  to  the  ground 
with  a  blow."  In  size  they  equal  the  fallow  deer.  They  are 
bold  and  familiar  in  captivity,  and  would  be  graceful  ornaments 
to  public  parks.  The  fakirs  and  dervishes  of  the  East  polish 
their  horns  and  wear  them  at  their  girdles  instead  of  swords  and 
daggers,  which  their  religious  vocation  prevents  them  from  using. 

A.  tragulus.  (Lat.  dim.  goat.)  The  STEIN-BOCK,  or  STONE- 
BUCK.  (3  ft.  4  in.  long,  1  ft.  7  in.  high.) 

This  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  elegant  and  graceful  of  the 
Antelope  tribe.  The  legs  are  longer  and  smaller  in  proportion  to 
its  bulk  than  in  any  other  species.  A  remarkable  distinction  in 
this  species,  (existing  also  in  the  Spring  or  Prong  Buck,)  is  the  to 
tal  absence  of  spurious  hoofs,  both  on  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  a 
character  which  "  no  other  ruminating  animals  of  the  hollow- 
horned  family  possess."  The  Stein-Buck  resides  in  pairs  on  the 
stony  plains  and  mountain  valleys  of  South  Africa.  When 
closely  pressed,  and  without  power  to  escape,  it  will  hide  its 
head  in  the  first  hole  or  corner  it  meets  with,  and  thus  patiently 
resign  itself  to  its  fate. 

A.  oreotragus.  (Gr.  t^o?  oros,  mountain  ;  igbyog,  tragos,  goat. 
Mountain-goat.)  The  KAINSI,  or  KLIPPSPRINGER.  (3  ft.  2  in.  long.) 

This  is  an  antelope  which  inhabits  the  most  barren  and  inacces 
sible  mountains  of  the  Cape,  and  appears  to  supply,  in  South  Af 
rica,  the  place  of  the  Chamois  and  Ibex  ;  the  general  color  of 
the  hair  above  is  a  lively  mixture  of  yellow  and  green,  and  light 
sandy  yellow  tinged  with  red  beneath  ;  the  texture  of  the  hair  in 
this,  as  in  the  Spring  or  Prong  Bock,  is  so  fragile  that  it  breaks 
with  the  slightest  touch,  crushing  like  straw  between  the  fingers, 
and  it  is  so  wanting  in  elasticity  that  it  never  regains  its  original 
form.  The  legs  are  more  robust  than  in  most  other  species ; 
and  the  hoofs,  instead  of  being  pointed  and  flat  beneath,  are  en 
tirely  round  and  cylindrical,  being  worn  only  at  the  tips,  upon 
which  alone  the  animal  treads.  This,  with  other  peculiarities  of 
structure  enables  the  Klippspringer  to  bound  with  very  surprising 
agility  among  the  most  dangerous  rocks  and  precipices. 

A,  saltiana.  (Lat.  leaping  or  bounding.)  The  MADOQUA.  (2 
ft.  long,  14  in.  high.) 

This  antelope  is  found  in  all  parts  of  Abyssinia,  where  it  was 
first  discovered  by  Bruce,  and  lives  in  pairs  in  mountainous  dis 
tricts.  It  is  well  nigh  the  smallest  of  all  horned  animals,  be- 


RUMINANTIA..  237 

ing  "  scarcely  the  size  of  a  good  English  hare ;  "  the  color  is  like 
that  of  the  American  Gray  Squirrel,  intermixed  with  deep  red 
dish  brown  above,  and  pure  unmixed  white  beneath  ;  the  tail  is  a 
mere  stump  ;  the  legs  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of 
the  body,  and  so  small  that  they  scarcely  equal  the  little  finger 
in  thickness. 

A.  perpusilla.     (Lat.  very  small.)     KLEENE-BOC. 

This  is  an  exceedingly  small  species,  about  a  foot  high  with 
horns  only  an  inch  and  a  half  long  ;  found  at  the  Cape  of  South 
Africa,  and  called  by  the  Dutch  Colonists,  Kleene-Boc,  (Little 
Goat-)  When  domesticated,  it  soon  becomes  familiar,  and  learns 
to  answer  to  its  name. 

CERVINE  ANTELOPES. 

A.  oryx.  (Gr.  "o£»u£,  orux,  a  gazelle.)  The  GEMS-Boc  or 
ORYX.) 

This  strong  cervine  animal  is  about  five  feet  long,  and  from 
three  to  four  feet  high,  found  in  the  southern  and  central  parts 
of  Southern  Africa,  and  once  common  but  now  rare  in  the  Cape 
Colony.  It  possesses  many  of  the  beautiful  peculiarities  of  the 
antelopes,  but  in  form  it  is  somewhat  anomalous..  The  horns  are 
black  and  almost  perfectly  straight,  and  situated  in  the  plane  of 
the  forehead,  about  2J  feet  long,  blunt  in  the  male,  but  very  sharp- 
pointed  in  thd  female  ;  (Plate  VII.  fig.  20.)  the  general  color  of 
the  body  is  dark  rusty  iron  gray  above,  but  the  head  and  under 
parts  are  white.  There  are  beautifully  black  bands  on  the  head 
and  flanks,  producing  a  contrast  of  colors  which  has  a  singular 
effect  upon  the  animal's  appearance.  In  coloring  and  height, 
the  Gems-Boc  resembles  the  Ass  ;  but  in  its  erect  mane  and  its 
long  sweeping  tail  it  is  like  the  horse,  while  its  head  and  hoofs 
are  those  of  the  antelope.  It  always  keeps  to  the  open  field, 
living  in  small  families. 

Anderson  says  "it  is  the  swiftest  quadruped  he  met  in  South 
Africa,  and  lives  on  grass,  succulent  plants,  (often  of  a  very  ac 
rid  taste,)  shrubs,  &c.  It  rarely  if  ever  attacks  man,  but  can 
defend  itself  with  its  formidable  horns,  even  against  the  lion." 
Others  say  that  even  "  the  lion  himself  is  afraid  to  attack  this 
powerful  and  courageous  animal,  and  that  sometimes  when 
pressed  by  famine,  he  has  ventured  to  do  so,  he  has  been  beaten 
off  with  disgrace,  or  even  paid  for  his  temerity  with  his  life." 
The  Oryx  has  been  said  to  live  without  water,  but  Anderson  re 
marks  that  "troops"  of  this  animal  "have  been  found  dead  or 
dying  near  pools  purposely  poisoned  by  the  natives  to  capture  wild 
animals." 


238  RUMINANTIA. 

A.  leucoryx.  (Gr.  fovxbg,  leukos ;  OQV%.  orux,  the  gazelle.) 
The  WHITE  ORYX. 

This  species,  called  by  some  the  "Milk-White  Antelope,"  is 
perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  Antelope  genus,  it  being 
the  one  that  gave  rise  to  the  fabulous  unicorn  of  the  ancients. 
The  horns  are  more  distinctly  ringed  for  about  half  their  length 
than  in  the  preceding  species,  gradually  curved  throughout  the 
whole  course,  and  in  a  side  view  appearing  to  be  one  and  the 
same.  The  neck,  throat,  and  some  portions  of  the  face  are 
brown ;  but  the  other  parts  are  milk-white.  This  species  is 
found  represented  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  and  Nubia ;  "  in 
the  inner  chamber  of  the  great  pyramid  at  Memphis,  a  whole 
group  may  be  seen,  (with  one  exception,)  shown  in  profile,  so 
that  but  one  horn  appears  "  The  White  Oryx  is  gregarious;  its 
range  is  more  northern  thanthatof  the  Gems-Boo,  including  Nu 
bia  and  Senegal  ;  its  food  consists  of  different  species  of  acacias. 

GOAT-LIKE  ANTELOPES. 

A  rupicapra.     (Lat.  Rock-Goat,}     The  CHAMOIS,  or  GEMS. 

This  interesting  animal  is  the  only  Antelope  of  Europe,  being 
found  in  all  the  high  mountain-chains  of  that  region,  and  also  those 
of  Western  Asia.  The  horns  of  the  Chamois  are  usually  but  six 
or  seven  inches  long,  nearly  parallel  in  their  whole  extent,— and 
bent  backwards  like  hooks  at  their  tip.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  21.)  Its 
length  is  about  three  feet  three  inches  ;  and  its  height  at  the 
shoulders,  a  little  more  than  two  feet;  the  face  is  straight  and  goat- 
like  ;  the  ears  are  small,  erect,  and  pointed  ,  the  long  hair  of  the  body 
hangs  down  over  the  sides,  and  is  of  a  deep  brown  color  in  winter, 
a  brownish  fawn  in  summer,  and  in  spring,  slightly  mixed  with 
gray  ;  the  pale  yellow  of  the  head  is  banded  with  dark  brown  on 
each  side.  Beneath  the  external  covering,  is  a  short  thick  coat 
of  fine  wool,  which  lies  close  to  the  skin,  and  protects  the  animal 
from  the  severe  weather  of  cold  mountainous  regions,  and  the 
bruises  to  which,  from  its  habitat,  it  is  liable.  The  hoofs  are 
admirably  adapted  for  security,  enabling  it  to  avail  itself  of  every 
little  roughness  and  projection,  either  from  the  naked  granite,  or 
from,  the  icy  glaciers. 

In  its  elevated  home,  the  Chamois  displays  all  the  vivacity, 
restlessness  and  agility  of  the  Common  Goat.  It  does  not  bear 
heat,  and  is,  therefore,  in  summer  found  on  the  tops  of  the  highest 
mountains,  or  in  deep  glens  where  the  snow  lies  during  the  year ; 
in  winter,  it  descends  to  lower  ridges,  and  then  only  is  it  hunted 
with  any  prospect  of  success.  All  its  senses  are  exceedingly 
acute ;  and  these,  combined  with  its  agility,  are  its  means  of 


RUMINANTIA.  239 

security.  Its  sense  of  smell,  it  is  said,  will  enable  it  to  perceive 
an  aggressor  at  the  distance  of  one  and  a  half  miles.  It  is  rest 
less,  and  very  much  alarmed  until  it  gets  a  sight  of  the  object 
of  its  terror,  leaping  upon  the  highest  rocks  at  hand,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  more  extensive  prospect.  When  undisturbed,  its 
voice  is  a  low  kind  of  bleating ;  if  excited  by  the  approach  of 
a  hunter,  it  utters  a  suppressed  whistle,  or  hissing  sound,  and  all 
the  while,  shows  much  agitation ;  but  when  the  hunter  comes 
near,  it  flies  with  its  utmost  speed, — bounding  from  ledge  to  ledge, 
where  the  eye  can  mark  no  footing,—and  from  crag  to  crag,  and 
point  to  point — sweeping  over  the  glacier, — throwing  itself  down 
precipices  of  fearful  depth,  and  pitching,  almost  by  miracle,  upon 
the  slightest  projection.  "  It  does  not  descend  at  a  single  bound, 
nor  in  a  vertical  direction,  but  by  projecting  itself  obliquely  or 
diagonally  forwards,  striking  the  face  of  the  rock  three  or  four 
times  with  its  feet  for  the  purpose  of  renewing  its  force,  or 
directing  it  more  steadily  to  the  point  it  aims  at;  and  in  this 
manner,  it  will  descend  a  rock  almost  perpendicular,  of  twenty 
or  thirty  feet  in  height,  without  the  smallest  projection  upon 
which  to  rest  its  feet." 

The  hunting  of  the  Chamois,  is  among  the  most  perilous  of 
human  undertakings,  and  involves  "a  perversion  of  mental  ener 
gies  capable  of  better  things."  It  has  been  remarked;  "no 
Chamois  hunter  ever  dreams  of  any  other  death  than  that  of  fall 
ing  from  the  brink  of  a  precipice,  or  being  buried  in  some  chasm 
beneath  the  treacherous  snow;"  yet  urged  on  by  a  sort  of  fas 
cination,  "he  pursues  his  course  of  life  with  feelings  allied  to 
those  of  the  gambler,  alternating  with  hopes  and  fears." 

The  Chamois  seldom  drinks.  Its  food  consists  of  mountain 
herbs,  flowers,  and  the  tender  roots  of  trees  and  shrubs.  This  gives 
a  richness  and  a  fine  flavor  to  the  flesh,  which  is  much  esteemed 
as  a  venison.  For  this  and  the  skins,  the  Chamois  hunters  jeopard 
their  lives.  The  animal  can  seldom  be  captured  alive,  and 
rarely  thrives  in  captivity.  "Like  the  Swiss,  its  congenial 
home  is  among  its  native  mountains,  and  in  its  native  liberty." 

A.  furcifer.     (Lat.  Prong-bearer;] or  Antilocapra  Americana. 
The  PRONG- HORNED  ANTELOPE. 

The  absence  in  this  animal  of  inguinal  and  lachrymal  openings, 
and  6f  accessary  hoofs,  together  with  the  fact  that  it  has  branch 
ing  horns,  (Plate  VII.  fig.  17,)  of  which  no  instance  occurs  among 
the  other  species  of  Antelopes,  led  Audubon  to  refer  it  to  the 
genus  Antilocapra,  derived  from  the  two  genera,  Antilope  and 
Capra,  Goat- Antelope.  This  Antelope  is  confined  to  the  Western 
portions  of  North  America,  and  is  never  seen  East  of  the  Missis- 


040  RUMINANTIA. 

sippi,  but  ranges  as  far  South  as  California  and  New  Mexico, 
feeding  on  moss,  buds,  &c. 

It  is  shortly,  but  more  compactly  built  than  the  Virginia 
Deer,  but  in  its  elegant  and  stately  'form,  resembles  more  the 
Antelope  than  the  Deer  family.  The  horns  of  the  male  are  curved 
upwards  and  backwards,  with  a  short  triangular  prong  about 
the  centre.  In  winter  a  ridge  of  coarse  hairs,  resembling  a 
short  mane,  appears  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  of  which,  in  sum- 
mer,  only  a  black  stripe  remains, — the  color  is  a  reddish  dun, 
with  the  throat  and  the  clink  on  the  hinder  parts  white.  The 
head,  ears  and  legs  are  covered  with  short  close  hair  of  the  com- 
mon  description,  but  that  of  the  body  is  long  and  padded,  and  of 
a  texture  altogether  different  from  that  of  other  animals  ;  it  being 
hollow  like  the  feather  of  a  bird,  brittle,  and  when  bent,  not 
returning  to  the  original  straight  form.  The  animals  are  grega 
rious,  sometimes  several  hundreds  being  found  together,  and 
they  migrate  from  North  to  South  according  to  the  season. 
When  the  ground  is  clear,  their  speed  surpasses  that  of  most 
other  animals,  but  a  good  horse  easily  outstrips  them  after  a 
slight  fall  of  snow.  They  are  sly,  but  extremely  curious ;  and 
the  Indians,  and  even  the  wolves,  it  is  said,  know  how  to  take 
advantage  of  their  curiosity  to  get  within  reach  of  them,  by 
crouching  down  and  moving  forwards,  or  stopping,  alternately. 
These  Antelopes  will  wheel  round  and  round  the  object  of  their 
attention,  decreasing  the  distance  at  every  turn,  till  at  last  they 
approach  sufficiently  near  to  be  shot  or  captured.  Sometimes 
they  are  caught  in  pens,x  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  the 
bison ;  but  in  the  deep  snow  of  winter,  when  they  are  suffering 
for  want  of  food,  they  are  generally  dispatched  with  clubs,— 
Audubon  says,  "principally  by  the  women."  They  are  fattest 
in  autumn.  "Their  liver  is  much  prized  as  a  delicacy,  and  we 
have  heard  that  many  of  these  animals  a-re  killed  simply  to  pro 
cure  this  choice  morsel."  (Anderson.)  Their  flesh,  however, 
is  not  highly  esteemed  by  the  Indians,  who  hunt  them  only  in 
times  of  scarcity. 

II.  GROUP. — ANTELOPES  OF  THE  J^ESERT. 

A.  Gnu.     The  GNOO,  or  HORNED- HORSE. 

This  equine  Antelope  is  sometimes  called  Catobfepas,  (Gr. 
xaTafiltnMv,  Katablepon,  looking  down.)  a  name  well  expressive 
of  its  sinister  aspect,  shaded  as  its  face  is  by  overgrown  horns, 
bent  down  and  outwards,  on  the  sides,  broad  at  the  base,  and  bent 
up  at  the  tip.  (Plate  VII.  fig.  23.)  It  has  a  wide  and  bristly  nose, 


RUMINANTIA.  241 

with  large  covered  nostrils ;  and  in  size  about  equals  a  well  grown 
ass.  The  neck,  body  and  tail,  precisely  resemble  those  of  a  small 
horse,  and  the  pace  also,  which  is  a  species  of  light  gallop,  is  so 
perfectly  similar,  that  a  herd  of  Gnoos,  when  seen  at  a  distance, 
flying  over  the  plains  of  South  Africa,  "  might  be  readily  mis 
taken  for  a  troop  of  the  wild  zebras,  or  quaggas,  which  inhabit 
the  same  locality,  if  their  dark  and  uniform  color  did  not  distin 
guish  them."  They  are  naturally  wild  and  difficult  to  approach, 
and  when  provoked  very  dangerous  if  wounded,  turning  upon 
the  hunter  and  pursuing  him,  dropping  on  their  knees  before 
making  an  attack,  and  then  darting  forward  with  amazing  force 
and  velocity.  "  When  the  hunter  approaches  the  old  bulls,  they 
commence  whisking  their  long  white  tails  in  a  most  eccentric 
manner;  then  springing  suddenly  into  the  air,  they  begin  pranc 
ing  and  capering,  and  pursue  each  other  in  circles  at  their  utmost 
speed.  Suddenly,  they  all  pull  up  together,  to  overhaul  the 
intruder,  when  two  of  the  bulls  will  often  commence  fighting  in 
the  most  violent  manner,  dropping  on  their  knees  at  every  shock  ; 
then  quickly  wheeling  about,  they  kick  up  their  heels,  whisk 
their  tails,  with  a  fantastic  flourish,  and  scour  across  the  plain 
enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  dust."  (Cumming's  South  Africa.) 
They  are  said  to.  be  subject  to  a  cutaneous  eruption  at  particular 
seasons  of  the  year,  which  they  sometimes  communicate  to  do 
mestic  cattle,  and  which  invariably  ends  in  death.  Their  flesh 
is  in  good  repute  both  among  the  natives  and  colonists. 

A.  Caama.     The  LECAMA,  or  HARTE-BEEST. 

This  species  of  Bovine  Antelopes  inhabit  the  plains  of  South 
Africa,  and  are  the  most  common  of  all  the  large  Antelopes  in  that 
country.  They  are  of  a  gray-brown  color;  reside  in  large 
herds ;  and  are  much  hunted  by  the  natives  and  colonists.  Their 
p;»ce  resembles  a  heavy  gallop,  but  yet  is  tolerably  quick.  In 
their  manners,  they  are  mild  and  tractable ;  but  when  put  upon 
their  defence,  they  make  good  use  of  their  powerful  lyrate  horns, 
like  the  Gnoo,  dropping  upon  their  knees  before  charging,  and 
after  advancing  some  distance  in  this  position,  suddenly  darting 
with  great  force  against  the  hunter.  The  flesh  is  much  esteemed, 
being  more  like  ox-beef  than  that  of  any  other  Antelope,  except, 
perhaps,  the  Eland. 

The  Strepsicerae  (twisted  horns)  is  another  small  group  refer 
red  to  in  the  "  Penny  Cyclopedia,"  under  the  name  of  Antelopes, 
and  including  some  very  interesting  Ruminants.  They  are 
named  from  the  subspiral,  or  twisted  form  of  their  horns;  and 
distinguished  among  the  "  Hollow. Horned  Bovine  Ruminants," 
by  being  marked  with  white  stripes  and  spots.  Agassiz  has 


042  RUMINANTIA. 

remarked,  that  the  horns  of  the  Strepsicerae  and  the  sheep  are 
twisted  in  opposite  directions. 

A.  Stepsiceros.     The  KUDOO. 

This  magnificent  animal  is  found  in  South  Africa.  It  is  one 
of  the  largest  of  the  Antelopes,  being  upwards  of  eight  feet  long, 
and  four  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  of  the  Kudoo,  for 
which  it  is  most  remarkable,  are  nearly  four  feet  long,  and  beau- 
tifully  twisted  into  a  large  spiral  form,  of  about  two  turns  and  a 
half.  A  bold  ridge  runs  over  the  horns  and  fbllowstheircurvature. 
(Plate  VII.  fig.  15.)  The  leading  color  is  a  bright  fallow. brown, 
with  a  narrow  white  stripe  along  the  spine.  In  its  external  aspect, 
the  animal  more  nearly  resembles  the  ox  than  the  Antelope. 
Although  large  and  heavy,  it  can  leap  with  wonderful  activity. 
The  weight  of  the  horns  is  considerable,  and  in  part  to  relieve 
itself  from  that  weight,  and  in  part  also  to  keep  the  spreading  horns 
from  entanglement  in  the  bushes  on  which  it  lives  and  feeds,  the 
Kudoo  usually  bends  its  head  back  and  rests  its  horns  upon  its 
shoulders.  When  closely  pursued,  it  takes  to  the  water,  and 
seeks  to  escape  by  its  power  of  swimming. 

A.  areas.  (Gr.ogei&g,  oreias,  of  the  mountain.)  The  ELAND, 
or  the  BOSELAPHUS,  (ox-stag.)  of  the  ancients. 

We  have  in  this  animal  the  largest  of  the  Antelopes, — measur 
ing  eight  feet  two  inches  in  length,  and  full  five  feet  in  height  at 
the  shoulder — being  quite  as  large  as  a  good  sized  horse.  It  has 
very  thick,  nearly  straight  horns,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long, 
and  covered,  for  the  most  part,  with  a  thick  spiral  wreath.  The 
ears  are  large.  A  protuberance,  of  the  size  of  a  man's  fist, 
appears  on  the  larynx  ;  from  this  organ,  the  animal  probably  de 
rived  the  name  of  Eland,  (as  it  is  called  at  the  Cape  Colony.) 
When  full  grown,  it  weighs  from  seven  to  nine  cwt. ;  and,  contrary 
to  the  usual  rule  observed  among  Antelopes,  is  commonly  ex 
tremely  fat.  The  flesh  is  more  highly  prized  than  that  of  any  other 
animal  in  South  Africa.  The  Eland  is  mild  and  inoffensive  in  its 
disposition,  so  that  a  man  may  penetrate  into  the  very  midst  of  a 
herd  without  alarming  them.  Being  quite  heavy,  the  great  ob 
ject  in  hunting  this  animal,  is  to  turn  the  game  in  such  a  direc 
tion  as  to  drive  it  close  to  the  residence  of  the  hunter  before  it  is 
killed;  and  the  Cape  farmers,  it  is  said,  "very  frequently  succeed 
in  accomplishing  this  masterpiece  of  South  African  field  sports." 

A.  picta,  (painted.)     The  NYL-GHAU. 

This  large  and  magnificent  Antelope  is  about  the  same  size  as 
the  Gnoo,  standing  about  four  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  It  is 
found  in  the  forests  of  N.  W.  India,  ranging  thence  as  far  as 
Persia.  The  face  of  this  species  is  long  and  narrow,  surmounted 


RUMINANTIA. -i_  0,4,  ,  243 

-.^-'-l^agf5* 

with  short,  smooth,  and  nearly  parallel  horns.  The  fore-quarters 
are  considerably  raised,  and  there  is  a  slight  elevation  upon  the 
withers;  the  neck  is  long  and  horse-like;  from  the  throat  and 
shoulders  hangs  a  dense  bunch  of  hair  ;  the  haunch  is  small  and 
low,  so  that  the  hinder  limbs  are  short.  The  Nyl-Ghau  is  less 
graceful  in  its  proportions  than  the  Stag,  but  more  muscular  and 
powerful.  The  color  of  this  animal  is  a  slaty  blue  ;  it  has,  how 
ever,  several  white  spots  which,  contrasting  with  the  slaty  blue, 
or  dark  brown  of  the  other  parts,  suggested  the  specific  name  of 
picta.  It  is  extremely  vicious,  and  cannot  be  approached  with 
out  danger.  In  making  an  attack,  it  first  falls  upon  its  knees, 
like  the  Gnoo,  and  then  springs  violently  forward.  It  is  the 
common  prey  of  the  tiger  ;  and  hunters  erect  their  platforms  near 
the  mangled  remains  of  this  animal,  well  knowing  that  the 
tiger  will  return  to  glut  himself  with  the  remainder  of  his  prey. 
During  the  day,  the  Nyl-Ghau  conceals  itself  in  the  forests,  and 
at  night  leaves  its  coverts  to  feed,  often  doing  harm  to  adjacent 
cultivated  fields.  It  has  been  often  taken  to  England,  where  it 
breeds,  and  is  not  an  uncommon  animal. 

QUESTIONS  ON  ANTELOPES. 

What  is  the  derivation  of  the  word  Antelopidae  ?  What  families  are  the 
Antelopes  thought  to  connect  ?  In  what  respect  are  they  like  the  goats  ?  In 
what  like  the  deer  ?  What  advantages  do  their  hind  limbs  give  them  ? 
State  the  color  of  the  larger  part  of  them.  What  is  said  of  the  tail,  ears 
and  hoofs  ?  What  is  the  most  general  character  of  the  family  ?  Are  their 
horns  solid  or  hollow?  What  is  said  of  their  tear-pits?  From  what  do 
these  distinguish  them?  What  makes  this  family  an  intermediate  link  be 
tween  the  two  kinds  of  horned  animals?  What  additional  glands  are 
spoken  of?  What  is  said  of  the  form  of  the  upper  lip  ?  What  of  the  hair  ? 
Are  they  gregarious?  What  two  grand  divisions  do  the  Antelopes  em 
brace  ?  What  is  the  most  obvious  distinction  between  the  two  ?  Name 
the  groups  of  Antelopes  of  the  Field,  with  their  characters.  Where  is  the 
Gazelle  found  ?  Give  some  account  of  its  peculiarities  and  habits.  Where 
is  the  Molir  ?  Why  is  it  sought  after  by  the  Arabs?  What  is  the  locality 
of  the  Springbok?  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  the  Gazelle?  What  is  its 
most  marked  peculiarity?  What  is  said  of  its  leaps?  What  of  its  migra 
tions?  How  widely  is  the  Common  Antelope  diffused?  What  is  said  of  its 
horns?  Illustrate  its  swiftness.  What  animals  are  used  in  hunting  it? 
How  large  is  it?  What  Antelope  is  next  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  it? 
Where  is  the  Klipspringer  found ?  What  is  peculiar  in  its  hair?  What 
enables  it  to  bound  with  very  great  agility?  Who  first  discovered  the 
Madoqua  1  What  is  said  of  its  size,  color,  &c.  ?  Where  is  the  Kleenbok 
found?  What  is  said  of  it?  To  which  division  of  the  Antelopes  of  the 
Field  do  the  preceding  ones  belong?  Where  is  the  Oryx  found?  What 
is. its  size  ?  Give  some  description  of  it  ?  What  is  said  of  it  by  Anderson 
and  others  ?  Which  is  perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  Antelopes  ? 
To  what  fabulous  animal  did  it  give  rise  ?  How  ?  Where  is  it  found  sculp- 


244  CETACEA. 

tured?  What  is  its  range?  To  what  division  do  the  two  preceding  Ante 
lopes  belong  ?  Which  is  the  only  Antelope  of  Europe  ?  What  characteris 
tics  are  mentioned  ?  Further  describe  it.  What  is  said  of  the  hunt  of  this 
animal?  How  is  its  flesh  esteemed?  To  what  genus  is  the  Prong-Horned 
^Antelope  referred?  Name  its  characteristics  and  habits.  To  what  division 
do  the  two  last  named  species  belong?  What  are  Antelopes  of  the 
second  group  called?  Which  of  these  is  first  mentioned?  Name  its  dis 
tinctive  traits  and  habits.  Give  some  account  of  the  Lecama.  What  other 
small  group  of  Antelopes  is  mentioned?  Why  are  they  so  named?  What 
distinguishes  them ?  What  has  Agassiz  remarked?  What  is  said  of  the 
Kudoo?  For  what  is  it  most  remarkable?  What  animal  does  it  most  re 
semble  ?  Which  is  the  largest  of  the  Antelopes  ?  What  gave  it  the  name 
Eyland?  What  is  said  of  it?  Where  is  the  Nyl-Gkau  found?  Give  a 
description  of  it. 

Name  the  species  on  the  Chart.     Trace  them.     Give  the  most  prominent 
characteristics  of  each  as  a  general  review. 


SECTION  XXXI, 


NINTH  ORDER.    CETACEA.     (Gr.  ^ws,  a  whale.)     WHALES, 
DOLPHINS,  ETC. 

MARINE-MAMMALS. 

This  is  an  order  of  mammiferous  animals  inhabiting  the  sea  ; 
surpassing  all  others  in  size,  though  lower  in  organization  than 
those  living  upon  the  land.  Moving  in  the  water  by  means  of 
fin-flippers,  or  paddles,  "the  earlier  naturalists  placed  them 
among  the  fishes;  but  all  now  unite  in  placing  them  among  the 
mammals."  Like  them,  they  are  viviparous,  (born  alive,)  suckle 
their  young,  have  warm  blood,  and  breathe  by  means  of  lungs. 
The  contour  of  the  body,  is  fish-like,  no  neck  being  distinguisha 
ble,  and  the  whole  tapering  down  gradually  from  the  head  to  the 
tail.  The  tail,  however,  terminates,  not  vertically  as  in  fishes, 
but  horizontally,  in  a  cartilaginous  fin,  and  is  moved  upwards  and 
downwards  by  muscles  of  enormous  force  and  volume.  In 
length,  it  is  only  five  or  six  feet  ;  but  in  width,  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-six.  So  powerful  is  it  in  the  largest  varieties,  that  they 
frequently  force  themselves  out  of  water.  The  greatest  velocity 
is  given  by  the  upward  and  downward  strokes  ;  a  slower  motion 
is  obtained  by  cutting  the  water  sidewise,  and  obliquely  down 
wards,  as  a  boat  is  forced  along  by  a  single  oar  in  the  operation 
of  skulling.  So  rapid  are  the  movements  of  the  Cetacea,  they 
have  been  called  the  "birds  of  the  sea."  The  flippers,  or  pad 
dles,  the  anterior  limbs,  are  generally  stretched  out  in  a  horizon 
tal  position.  When  dissected,  the  bones  of  the  paddles  are  found 


CETACEA.  245 

to  be  short  and  flattened,  yet  distinct  and  handlike  ;  but  the  whole 
of  this  osseous  frame-work  is  enveloped  in  a  cartilaginous  cover, 
ing,  so  as  to  form  an  undivided  oar.  The  chief  use  of  the  pad- 
dies  seems  to  be  that  of  balancing  the  animal,  for  as  soon  as  life 
is  extinct,  it  falls  over  upon  its  back;  they  are  also  employed  in 
turning  and  giving  direction  to  the  velocity  produced  by  the  tail. 

The  Cetacea  regularly  resort  to  the  surface  to  take  in  a  fresh 
supply  of  air.  They  also  descend  into  the  remotest  depths  of  the 
ocean  ;  in  the  case  of  the  larger  animals  sometimes  encountering 
a  pressure  which  has  been  estimated  at  two  hundred  thousand 
tons,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  atmos 
phere,  and  sufficient  to  force  water  through  the  hardest  wood, 
causing  it  to  sink  like  so  much  lead.  For  sustaining  so  vast  a 
pressure,  their  structure  is  most  wisely  adapted. 

The  body  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  peculiar  elasticity.  The 
naked  skin  is  itself  much  thickened;  but  by  an  open  texture  of 
its  interwoven  fibres,  it  is  made  to  contain  within  itself,  a  thick 
layer  of  oil  or  blubber,  and  thus  the  animal  can  endure,  without 
injury,  the  greatest  weight  of  water.  "A  soft  wrapper  of  fat, 
though  double  the  thickness  of  that  usually  found  in  the  Cetacea, 
could  not  have  resisted  the  superincumbent  pressure ;  whereas, 
by  its  being  a  modification  of  the  skin,  always  firm  and  elastic, 
and  in  this  case,  being  never  less  than  several  inches,  and  some- 
times  between  one  and  two  feet  thick,  it  operates  like  so  much 
india-rubber,  possessing  a  density  and  resistance  which,  the  more 
it  is  pressed,  resists  the  more."*  As  the  blubber  is  specifically 
lighter  than  water,  it  also  makes  the  animal  more  buoyant.  A 
dead  whale  floats  ;  but  the  body,  when  stripped  of  its  fat,  sinks 
immediately.  Another  important  use  of  the  blubber,  is  to  pre 
serve  the  vital  heat  of  the  body  in  a  cold  medium,  which  has  a 
constant  tendency  to  abstract  caloric.  Without  this  layer  of 
blubber,  which  is  one  of  the  worst  conductors  of  heat,  the  whale 
would  be  unable  to  resist  the  low  temperature  of  the  Arctic  Seas, 
and  must  perish  from  cold.  The  eyes  of  the  Cetacea  are  admi 
rably  adapted  to  the  dense  medium  in  which  the  animals  dwell. 
As  compared  with  the  size  of  the  body,  the  eyes  are  small, — 
generally  not  larger  than  those  of  an  ox  ;  in  the  Beluga,  or 
White  Whale,  they  are  smaller  than  the  human  eye;  in  the  Por 
poise,  not  so  large  as  those  of  a  sheep.  In  the  Cetacea,  "the 
humours  of  the  eye  are  so  adjusted  in  their  form,  density  and 
refractive  power,  as  to  prevent  any  dispersion,  or  decomposition 
of  the  rays."  The  refractive  power  of  the  aqueous  humor, 

*  Naturalist's  Library.     Mammalia,  VII.,  48. 


246  CETACEA. 

which  is  great  in  respect  to  land  animals,  would,  in  water,  be 
comparatively  weak  ;  this  defect  is,  in  the  case  of  the  Cetacea, 
supplied  by  the  spherical  form  and  great  refractive  power  of  the 
lens  of  the  eye.  The  outer,  or  sclerotic  coat  is,  in  these  animals, 
remarkably  thick  and  tough,  it  being  as  dense  as  tanned  leather, 
serving  both  to  preserve  its  spherical  form,  and  to  defend  the  ani 
mal  from  injury.  This  coat  increases  in  thickness  towards  the 
back  part,  and  is  full  five  times  the  thickness  behind,  that  it  is 
on  the  front  part.  To  this,  Dr.  Paley  (see  Nat.  Theol.)  has 
well  referred,  as  strikingly  evincing  Divine  contrivance.  The 
front  part  sustains  the  pressure  from  without,  and  needs  no  addi 
tional  support;  but  were  the  back  part  to  yield,  the  globe  of  the 
eye  would  be  distended  in  that  direction,  and  the  whole  interior 
of  the  eye  suffer  derangement.  As  a  safe-guard,  the  sclerotic 
coat  is,  therefore,  remarkably  strengthened  behind. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary  things  in  the  economy  of  the 
Cetacea,  is  the  length  of  time  during  which  they  can  suspend 
respiration.  While,  in  most  animals,  it  can  be  suspended  only 
for  a  few  minutes,  in  some  of  the  larger  whales  it  may  be  sus 
pended  from  one  to  nearly  two  hours,  they  remaining  under 
water  for  that  time.  This  fact  points  to  the  peculiarity  of  their 
breathing  apparatus.  The  whale  has  a  reservoir  wherein  there 
is  an  overplus  of  oxygenized  blood  which,  on  occasion,  is  emptied 
into  the  general  circulation  ;  it  is  thus  able  to  continue  longer 
under  water,  and  less  frequently  resorts  to  the  surface  in  order 
to  inhale  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere.  Whales  have  no  nostrils, 
properly  so  called,  and  their  mouths  are  seldom  opened  in  the 
free  air.  The  process  of  breathing  is  therefore  carried  on 
through  tubes,  called  blow-holes,  or  spiracles,  opening  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  and  allowing  a  free  passage  to  and  from  the  lungs. 
These  openings  are  called  blow-holes,  because  the  expulsion  of 
the  long-confined  and  heated  air,  as  the  animal  rises  to  the  sur 
face,  is  attended  with  considerable  noise,  and  the  casting  forth  of 
water  or  steam.  The  "  spoutings  "  are  heard  as  far  as  two  miles, 
and  sometimes  reach  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet.  They 
are  most  conspicuous  in  the  larger  genera  ;  quite  marked  in  the 
intermediate  dimensions  ;  but  in  the  smaller,  seldom  or  never  vis 
ible.  After  the  "  spoutings  are  out,"  as  the  whalers  say,  most 
of  the  Cetacea  descend  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  The  lungs 
are  guarded  from  injury  that  might  hence  arise,  by  the  conical 
stopper  which,  like  the  cork  of  a  bottle,  fits  itself  to  the  blow 
hole  so  perfectly,  as  to  exclude  every  drop  of  water.  Habitually, 
the  whales  take  their  sustenance  under  water;  but,  "by  a  slight 
alteration  in  a  few  cartilages  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  and  in 


CETACEA.  247 

the  direction  of  the  air  tubes,  they  feed  as  safely  in  the  deep 
ocean  as  others  do  in  the  most  balmy  atmosphere." 

The  external  opening  of  the  ear  is  minute,  and  in  some  species, 
hardly  discoverable.  This  can  be  closed  at  pleasure.  The 
hearing,  as  well  as  sight,  is  quick  beneath  water, — whales  have 
the  sense  of  smell  in  some  degree;  showing  themselves  sensible 
of  the  noxious  smell  of  bilge-water,  pumped  from  the  hold  of 
vessels.  The  senses  of  taste  and  touch  they  possess,  but  in  a  less 
degree  than  other  animals. 

The  stomach  of  the  whale  is  divided  into  five,  and  sometimes 
seven  distinct  sacs,  or  pouches;  instead  of  a  single  spleen,  they 
have  several,  which  are  small  and  globular.  The  teguments  of 
the  tongue  are  soft  and  smooth.  Those  of  the  Cetacea  which  are 
possessed  of  teeth,  have  them  all  of  conical  shape,  and  all  alike. 

The  brain  in  these  animals  is  small,  though  the  size  of  it 
varies  in  different  genera.  In  a  young  Greenland  whale  it  was 
found  to  be  -^oVo"  Par^  °^  the  whole  animal.  The  proportion  in 
the  Dolphin  is  much  greater,  the  brain  being  Jj  part  of  the 
whole,  and  approaching  quite  near  to  that  of  man. 

The  degrees  of  intelligence  manifested  by  the  Cetacea,  are 
various,  and  so  are  their  dispositions;  but  all  agree  in  the  mutual 
regard  which  they  entertain, — the  mother  for  her  young,  the 
cub  for  its  parents;  _and  members  of  the  same  family,  or  shoal, 
for  one  another.  The  female  has  but  one  young  at  a  time,  in 
the  early  spring,  which  is  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  long  at  birth; 
the  mammae  are  two  in  number,  and  situated  near  the  vent. 

The  Catacea  may  be  divided  into  four  families,  viz  :  I.  The 
DSLPHINIDAE,  including  Dolphins,  Porpoises,  etc. ;  II.  CATADON- 
TIDAE,  or  PHYSETERIDAE,  Spermaceti  Whales;  III.  BALAENIDAE, 
True  Whales,  Common,  Right  or  Whale-Bone  Whales  ;  IV. 
HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA,  including  the  Manatees,  Dugongs,  etc. 

I.   DELPHINIDAE.      (Gr.  Jelcplg,,  Dclphis,  a  dolphin.) 

This  is  tlTe  Dolphin  tribe,  characterized  by  the  moderate  size 
of  the  head,  and  usually  by  the  presence  of  teeth  in  both  jaws. 
They  are  voracious  feeders ;  their  flesh  is,  for  the  most  part, 
rank,  oily,  and  unwholesom3.  They  include  seventeen  genera, 
and  sixty-four  species,  and  are  the  most  numerous  family  of  the 
Cetacea;  are  scattered  in  all  seas,  and  frequently  ascend  rivers. 
One  genus  (Inia)  is  found  in  the  mountain  lakes  of  Peru, — the 
fountains  of  the  Amazon,  and  a  thousand  miles  from  the  ocean. 
"  They  are  the  Carnasslers  of  the  waters,  preying  upon  the 
fkhing  tribes,  which  they  chase  in  all  directions;  and  their  teeth 
are  modified  accordingly." 


2!$  CETACEA. 

Delphinus.     (25  species.) 

Deiphinus  Delpliis.  The  COMMON  DOLPHIN.  (Plate  VIII. 
fig.  4.  and  PI.  VJ.  fig.  12.) 

The  animals  of  the  genus  Deiphinus,  have  more  teeth  than  any 
other  of  the  Mammalia,  the  number  averaging  ninety  in  each 
jaw  ;  in  form,  simple  and  conical,  but  adapted  for  seizing  only. 
The  jaws  of  these  animals  project  so  as  to  be  like  a  slender  beak, 
separated  from  the  forehead  by  a  groove,  or  furrow,  that  resem 
bles  the  bill  of  a  goose.  (Plate  IV.  fig.  11.)  There  is  a  fin 
upon  the  back.  The  Common  Dolphin  is  usually  six  or  seven 
feet  long,  sometimes  nine  or  ten  feet.  Its  form  is  admirably 
adapted  for  swimming.  The  tail  is  large  and  powerful.  This 
animal  is  familiar  to  fishermen  and  mariners,  and  cannot  but  be 
regarded  with  interest,  on  account  of  its  beautiful  and  graceful 
form,  the  fleetness  with  which  it  darts  through  the  waters,  its 
gambols  and  leaps,  and  its  social  habits. 

So  smooth  are  the  bodies  of  Dolphins,  that  "their  sportive  gam- 
bols  create  surprisingly  little  disturbance  of  the  water."  To 
the  ancients,  the  manners  of  the  Dolphin  were  well  known,  and 
to  them,  its  playful,  social  disposition,  made  it  a  great  favorite. 
It  is  accurately  figured  on  many  of  their  coins.  Among  the 
Greeks,  it  was  sacred  to  Apollo,  who  was  worshiped  at  Delphi 
with  Dolphins  for  his  symbols.  It  early  appeared  on  the  shield 
of  some  of  the  princes  of  France,  gave  name  to  a  province  of 
that  empire,  and  a  tille  to  the  heir-apparent  of  the  crown. 

The  brilliancy  and  variety  of  many  of  the  Dolphins  found  in 
the  Southern  and  Equatorial  seas,  cannot  be  adequately  repre 
sented  by  pictures,  or  exhibited  in  words.  The  Dolphin,  "with 
its  many  dying  colors,"  of  which  poets  have  sung,  is,  however, 
not  the  true  animal,  but  a  scomberoid  fish,  Coryphaena  hippurus, 
the  Dorado,  of  the  Portuguese;  though,  as  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  re 
marks,  "to  this  fish,  which  changes  color  in  dying,  most  mari 
time  persons  generally  confine  the  name  of  Dolphin."  But, 
however  it  may  be  celebrated  in  story  and  in  song,  the  Dolphin 
appears  quite  wolfish  in  its  habits, — in  troops,  hunting  down  its 
prey, — in  its  rapid  course,  forcing  the  flying  fishes  to  take  refuge 
in  the  air;  but  continuing  the  chase  until  the  exhausted  victims 
are  taken.  Of  the  many  wonderful  stories  related  by  ancient 
naturalists  respecting  the  Dolphin,  we  have  room  for  only  the 
following.  Pliny  says  that,  "in  Barbary,  near  the  town  of 
Hippo,  a  Dolphin  used  to  frequent  the  shore,  and  receive  food 
from  any  hand  that  supplied  it, — that  it  would  mix  with  persons 
bathing,  allow  them  to  mount  its  back,  and  obey  their  direction, 
with  all  celerity  and  precision."  The  ancients  speak  of  the 


CETACEA*  219 

Dolphin  as  peculiarly  partial  to  children;  and  here  we  quote  a 
further  incident  from  Pliny,  which  has  pathos,  whatever  may  be 
thought  of  its  truth.  A  Dolphin,  which  he  says  had  penetrated 
the  Lake  of  Lucrinus,  in  Campania,  every  day  received  bread 
from  the  hand  of  a  child,  answering  to  his  call,  and  transporting 
him  on  its  back  to  school  on  the  other  side  of  the  lake.  This 
intimacy  continued  for  several  years,  when  the  boy  dying,  the 
affectionate  Dolphin,  overwhelmed  with  grief,  soon  sunk  under 
its  bereavement. 

Mnnodon.     (Gr.  [ibvog,  monos,  solitary  ;  oSovg,  odous,  a  tooth.) 

Monoceros,  the  specific  name  is  from  Gr.  {i6vog}  (monos,)  and 
xegug,  (keras,)horn. 

This  is  the  Narwhal.  (Nar,  signifies  in  Icelandish,  a  horn  ; 
whal  or  wale  is  synonymous  with  our  word,  whale,  and  derived 
from  the  same  Teutonic  root.)  It  is  also  called  the  Sea  Uni 
corn,  or  Unicorn  Whale.  This  Whale  has  no  teeth,  prop 
erly  so  called;  it  has,  however,  two  tusks,  one  on  each  side  the 
head.  Only  the  left  tusk  projects,  (from  the  upper  jaw  of  the 
male,)  the  other  remaining  within  the  head,  whence  the  name 
Monoceros,  or  Unicorn.  This  horn,  or  tusk,  is  eight  or  ten  feet 
long,  tapering,  with  a  rope-like  twist,  to  a  point,  and  harder  and 
whiter  than  ivory.  Formerly,  the  tusks  brought  a  high  price. 
Many  medicinal  virtues  were  attributed  to  them.  They  are  still 
of  value  as  an  article  of  trade.  The  kings  of  Denmark  are  said 
to  have  a  magnificent  throne  made  of  these  tusks,  which  is  pre 
served  with  great  care,  in  the  castle  of  Rosenburg.  The  length 
of  the  Narwhal  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet,  and,  including  the 
tusk,  between  thirty  and  forty.  It  is  thought  the  animal  uses 
the  tusk  to  pierce  the  ice  for  the  purpose  of  breathing,  and  also 
in  capturing  the  fishes  on  which  it  feeds.  It  usually  precedes 
the  Mysticetus,  both  using  the  same  kind  of  food.  Hence,  when 
Greenlanders  see  unicorns,  they  prepare  for  fishing  in  earnest. 
It  is  on  record  that  the  thick  oak  timbers  of  a  ship  have  been 
pierced  by  the  horn.  Sometimes  the  Narwhal  drives  it  into  the 
sides  of  the  huge  whale,  and  greedily  receives  the  oily  blubber 
which  oozes  from  tho  wounds  thus  inflicted. 

Dr.  Scoresby  describes  the  Narwhals  as  active  and  inoffen 
sive, — often  sporting  about  his  ship,  sometimes  in  bands  of  about 
twenty  together,  raising  up  their  long  tusks,  and  crossing  them 
with  each  other  as  if  fencing.  Our  own  lamented  Kane  says, 
"the  play  of  a  group  of  Narwhals  is  graceful,  striking  and 
beautiful."  The  blubber  yields  a  superior  oil.  This  and  the 
fljsh  also  are  highly  valued  by  the  Esquimaux  and  Greenlander. 
Their  tusks  afford  them  wtupuuo  of  defence,  and  even  the  intes 
tines  thry  use  for  lines. 


250  CETACEA. 

Beluga.     The  WHITE  WHALE. 

Of  this  genus  there  are  two  species,  viz.  :  the  Northern  Belu 
ga,  (B.  catodon.)  the  Australian  Beluga,  (B.  Kingii.)  The  shape 
of  the  Beluga  is  that  of  a  double  cone,  one  end  of  which  is  con- 
siderably  shorter  than  the  other,  and  extremely  well  adapted  to 
motion  in  the  water.  It  is  known  by  its  -white  color.  The 
length  varies  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet.  The  tail  is  powerful, 
bent  under  the  body  in  swimming,  and  impels  it  forward  with 
the  velocity  of  an  arrow.  The  eye  is  scarcely  larger  than  that 
of  a  man ;  the  iris  is  blue.  It  has  no  olfactory  nerve,  no  exter 
nal  ear,  and  the  mouth  is  small  when  compared  with  the  bulk  of 
the  animal.  Its  food  is  codfish,  haddocks,  and  other  fish.  The 
favorite  resorts  of  the  Northern  Beluga  are  the  higher  latitudes 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  Hudson's  Bay,  Davis'  Straits,  and  the 
northern  coasts  of  Asia  and  of  this  continent,  where  they  fre 
quent  large  rivers.  They  are  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Sr,  Law 
rence,  and  go  with  the  tide  as  far  as  Quebec;  and  there  are 
fisheries  for  them  as  well  as  for  porpoises  in  the  river  St.  Lawrence. 
They  yield  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil  which  is  said  to  be  of 
the  finest  quality.  Of  their  skins  a  sort  of  morocco  leather  is 
made,  which,  though  thin,  is  strong  enough  to  resist  a  musket 
ball.  They  are  not  shy,  but  often  follow  ships  and  tumble  about 
the  boats  in  herds  of  thirty  or  forty,  bespangling  the  surface  6with 
their  sparkling  whiteness.  The  whaler  seldom  disturbs  these 
beautiful  creatures;  they  being  very  active,  it  is  difficult  to  strike 
them  ;  the  harpoon  often  gives  way,  and  they  are  of  compara 
tively  little  value  when  killed.  They  are  said  to  visit  the  west 
coast  of  Greenland  about  the  end  of  November,  and  are  then  very 
useful  to  the  natives  as  their  provisions  fall  short.  In  taking  them, 
harpoons  and  strong  nets  are  employed.  The  internal  membranes 
are  used  for  windows  and  bad-curtains,  and  the  sinews  for 
thread.  The  flesh  resembles  beef,  but  is  to  some  extent  oily. 

Phoccena.     (Gr.  cpdxuiva,  phokaina,  a  porpoise.) 

The  characteristics  of  this  genus  are  as  follows:  "Mead 
rounded,  not  much  elevated  ;  mouth  terminal ;  snout,  short  and 
rounded  ;  a  dorsal  eminence,  (as  in  the  Globicephalus.)  usually 
of  a  small  size;  gregarious;  piscivorus."  (N.  H.  S.  N.  Y.) 

Phocana  cojnmunis.  The  COMMON  PORPOISE,  or  PORPESSE. 
(French,  Porcpoisson.)  (PI.  IV.  fig.  11.) 

Of  all  the  Cetacea,  this  and  the  allied  varieties  are  most  com 
mon,  being  found  in  almost  all  the  seas  of  Europe,  and  in  large 
numbers  on  the  coast  of  the  American  continent.  It  is  common 
in  our  rivers  and  bays.  It  was  formerly  "  so  abundant  on  the 
shores  of  Long  Island  as  to  have  induced  the  inhabitants  to  form 


CETACEA.  251 

establishments  for  its  capture."  The  Common  Porpoise,  like  the 
Common  Dolphin,  is  the  smallest  of  the  varieties.  Between  the 
two  there  is  a  general  resemblance  in  color,  shape  and  disposi 
tion.  The  scarf  skin  of  the  porpoise  is  very  soft  to  the  touch, 
and  easily  detached.  The  eye  has  the  iris  of  a  yellowish  hue, 
and  the  pupil  in  the  form  of  V  reversed.  The  opening  of  the 
ear  is  not  larger  than  the  prick  of  a  pin;  that  of  the  blow. hole 
is  on  the  top  of  the  head,  between  the  eyes.  The  dorsal  fin,  o'1 
eminence,  is  not  bony,  but  composed  entirely  of  fat,  and  incapa 
ble  of  separate  movement ;  and  the  tail  is  without  any  osseous 
part  within.  The  fat,  or  blubber  is  white,  from  one  to  two  inches 
thick,  and  when  heated  yields  an  oil  that  is  fine  and  much  val 
ued.  It  is  "cut  through  on  the  back  and  belly  and  is  peeled  off 
in  halves;  it  is  scraped  off  with  an  instrument  resembling  a 
currier's  knife,  and  the  skin  is  then  sent  to  the  tanner.  The 
leather  made  from  thisskin  is  said  to  be  the  strongest  known,  and 
is  used  more  particularly  for  the  upper  leather  of  boots  and  shoes." 
(N.  H.  S.  N.  Y.)  The  deep  bluish  color  of  the  Porpoise  fades 
away  on  the  sides,  till  it  acquires  a  silvery  whiteness.  It  has 
ninety-two  teeth,  cutting  and  somewhat  rounded  at  the  edge. 
The  brain  is  large  and  has  deep  convolutions  lying  over  the  cere 
bellum.  The  porpoise,  the  dolphin,  and  the  monkey  are  the  only 
animals  that  in  this  respect  resemble  man.  The  food  of  por 
poises  is  chiefly  fish,  and  they  occasionally  pursue  shoals  of  her 
ring  and  mackerel,  which  they  drive  into  the  bays  in  very  great 
apparent  terror.  They  are  great  enemies  of  salmon,  which, 
when  pursued  by  the  porpoise,  often  spring  several  yards  out  of 
the  water ;  but  from  the  quickness  of  their  foe,  are  unable  * 
escape.  The  flesh  of  the  porpoise  was  once  esteemed  a  volu 
tuous  kind  of  food,  and  is  said  to  have  been  found  on  the  table, 
of  the  old  English  nobility  as  late  as  the  time  of  Queen  Eliza 
beth.  Later  thaa  this  it  was  extensively  used  in  some  countries, 
especially  during  the  time  of  Lent. 

GRAMPUS.  (Phoccena  orca.)  The  term  Grampus  is  a  corrup 
tion  of  the  French,  Grand-poisson,  great  fish,  pronounced  by  the 
Normans,  Grapois,  whence  came  the  English  word  GRAMPUS. 
American  sailors  have  given  it  the  namesof  "Killer  and  Thrash 
er."  By  some,  (see  Cat.  of  British  Museum  in  Eng.  Cyc.,)  a  por 
tion  of  the  animals  once  included  under  the  genus  Grampus, 
has  been  formed  into  a  new  genus,  "Orca,"  which  includes  the  | 
KILLERS  proper,  and  has  four  species. 

The  body  is  thick  in  proportion  to  its  length,  and  of  oval  shape. 
The  snout  short  and  roundish  :  the  lower  jaw  somewhat  bent 
upwards,  broader,  but  not  so  long  as  the  upper.  The  teeth  are 


25'2  CETACEA. 

forty-four  in  number,  eleven  on  each  side  above  and  below,  va 
rying  in  number  with  age,  sometimes  are  as  many  as  sixty,  and 
interlocking  when  the  jaws  are  shut.  The  dorsal  elevation,  im 
properly  called  a  fin,  is  from  four  to  six  feet  high;  the  pectoral 
or  swimming  fins  are  large  and  oval,  and  it  has  a  strong  tail. 
The  color  is  glossy  black  above,  white  beneath  ;  occasionally 
there  is  a  large  white  patch  behind  the  eye,  resembling  an  eye 
lid.  The  length  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet;  the  circumference 
from  ten  to  twelve.  The  favorite  abode  of  the  Grampus  is  the 
coast  of  Greenland,  Spitzbergen,  and  Davis'  straits ;  it  is  also  found 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  It  was  formerly  numerous  on 
the  coast  of  New  York  State.  It  is  a  very  powerful  and  vora 
cious  animal,  devouring  great  numbers  of  fishes,  large  ones  es 
pecially,  such  as  the  cod,  haddock,  and  turbot,  and  even  seals 
and  porpoises  have  been  found  in  their  stomachs.  "  They  go  in 
company  by  dozens,  will  attack  a  young  whale,  and  bait  him 
like  so  many  bull-dogs."  The  oil  which  they  yield  is  of 
excellent  quality.  Fishermen  sometimes  call  them  Finners, 
or  Black-fish  Whales.  Stories  are  told  of  their  attacking 
whales,  joining  in  herds  for  that  purpose ;  but  these  perhaps 
need  confirmation.  Sir  Joseph  Banks  says  of  one  that  was 
captured  in  the  Thames,  (Eng.,)  "  It  pulled  the  attached  boat 
twice  from  Black  wall  to  Greenwich,  and  once  as  far  as  Dept- 
fbrd,  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  an  hour,  and  it  was  for  a  long 
time  unimpeded  by  the  lance  wounds  which  were  inflicted 
on  it  when  it  came  to  the  surface.  So  long  as  it  was  alive, 
no  boat  would  venture  to  approach  it ;  and  the  dying  efforts 
of  this  formidable  creature  were  terrible.  It  was  finally  killed 
opposite  the  Greenwich  Hospital." 

G.  Cuvieri,  or  Phocccna  grisea,  (of  Lesson,)  is  a  handsome 
species  inhabiting  the  North  Sea  ;  has  been  taken  on  the  West 
coast  of  France  ;  is  ten  or  eleven  feet  long  ;  has  only  eight  teeth, 
and  these  in  the  lower  jaw.  It  is  famous  for  uttering  loud  cries 
like  the  Deductor  (or  Howling)  whale,  and  associating  in  groups 
like  that  whale. 

Delphinapterus.  This  genus  includes  two  species,  D.  Peronii, 
Peron's  Dolphin,  and  D.  Borealis.  The  head  is  rather  convex 
in  front,  nose  depressed,  forming  a  slender  beak,  and  there  is  no 
dorsal  fin.  The  form  and  proportions  are  elegant.  The  snout, 
as  far  as  the  eye,  and  the  under  parts  of  the  body  and  the  tail 
are  of  silvery  whiteness;  a  bluish  black  covers  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  having  on  a  black  cloak. 
The  iris  is  of  an  emerald  green  color.  The  D.  Peronii  is  the 
Right- Whale  Porpoise  of  the  Whalers,  found  in  the  higher 


CETACEA. 


233 


southern  latitudes.     The  D.  Borealis  inhabits  the  North  Pacific. 
(See  Peale's  description  in  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition.) 

Globicephalus.  (Globe-headed.)  This  contains  five  species, 
viz.:  G.  Swineval,  Pilot- Whale,  (North  Sea;)  G.  intermedius, 
the  Black  Fish,  (N.  America  ;)  G.  a/finis,  Smaller  Pilot- Whale, 
(locality  unknown;)  G.  Sieboldii,  Naiso  Gota,  (coast  of  Japan;) 
G.  macrorhynchus,  South  Sea  Black  Fish.  They  are  character 
ized  by  the  absence  of  a  snout,  by  having  a  globular  head,  an 
eminence  resembling  a  fin  on  the  back,  and  a  single  spiracle,  sit 
uated  near  the  back  of  the  head.  The  length  varies  from  six 
teen  to  twenty-four  feet;  the  pectoral  fins  are  from  six  to  eight 
feet,  and  the  tail  five  feet  in  length.  The  second  species  resem 
bles  the  Grampus  in  size,  and  is  probably  often  confounded  with 
it.  The  teeth  aro  from  twenty  to  twenty-eight  in  number  in  each 
jaw,  and  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  they  "  shut  together  like  a  rat- 
trap."  It  is  called  the  Deductor.  With  blind  confidence,  these 
animals  follow  one  as  a  leader,  the  main  body  keeping  close  to  him, 
*' as  sheep  follow  the  wether."  Efforts  are  therefore  made  to  en 
trap  the  leaders,  and  then  many  others  are  taken.  They  are  in 
offensive,  and  so  timid  that  men  in  boats,  with  ineffective  weapons, 
and  with  shouts  and  noise  in  the  water,  drive  them  in  great  num 
bers  to  the  shore,  to  their  own  destruction.  When  any  one 
strikes  the  ground,  it  is  said  that  it  sets  up  a  howling  cry,  and 
immediately  others  crowd  to  the  spot  as  if  for  its  relief.  This 
circumstance  has  given  it  the  name  of  theca'ing  (calling)  whale. 
It  is  also  called  the  Black  Whale  Fish,  (species  G.  intermedius, 
or  melas,)  and  Bottle-head.  Of  all  the  Cetacea  it  is  the  most  so 
ciable,  vast  numbers  being  found  together,  whence  it  is  named 
the  Social  Whale.  Large  herds  of  these  whales  are  fre 
quently  stranded  and  perish  on  the  coast,  particularly  in  high 
northern  latitudes.  "At  Wellfleet,  near  Cape  Cod,  in  1822,  a 
herd  of  one  hundred,  varying  in  length  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet, 
were  stranded  and  captured.  In  1823,  one  was  taken  in  Salern 
harbor,  Mass. ;  in  1832,  one  at  Fairfield  Beach,  Conn. ;  in  1834, 
two  on  the  east  end  of  Long  Island."  (Nat.  His.  S.  N.  Y.) 

II.  CATODONTIDJE.  (Gr.  X«T«,  kata,  under;  odovg,  odous,  a  tooth  ;) 
or  PHYSETERIDJE,  (Gr.  tpvaijTfy,  Phuseter,  a  blow-pipe,  or 
bellows.)  TOOTHED  WHALES. 

This  family  of  the  Cetacea  are  distinguished  by  the  enormous 
size  of  the  head,  which  occupies  more  than  one-third  of  the  whole 
bulk  of  the  animal,  and  ends  in  a  broad  muzzle,  appearing  as 
though  it  had  been  abruptly  cut  off.  The  lower  jaw  is  narrow, 


254  CETACEA. 

• 

slender  and  pointed,  and  has  numerous  stout  conical  teeth,  while 
the  upper  jaw  contains  either  none  or  a  few  which  do  not  per- 
fjrate  the  gums.  Hence  the  name  Catodontida.  The  blow-holes 
have  but  one  orifice,  situated  at  the  top  of  the  muzzle.  The 
three  genera  constituting  the  family,  agree  in  their  essential  char 
acteristics;  we  therefore  omit  a  detailed  and 'separate  description 
and  confine  our  remarks  to  the  Calodon,  or  Pkyseter  macrocepha- 
his,  (,uax£0£,  long;  xeqpata;,  a  head,)  the  Northern  Sperm-Whale. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  Cachalot,,  a  term  derived  from  Coehon, 
a  tooth,  in  the  Basque  (Spanish)  language.  The  Sperm-Whale 
(Plate  VIII.  fig.  3,)  is  of  enormous  size,  being  between  seventy 
and  eighty  feet  in  length,  and  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  in  circum 
ference.  From  its  frequent  paroxysms  of  fury  it  is  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  monsters  of  the  deep.  It  is  found  in  all  latitudes, 
but  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Seas,  where  it  is  seen 
attended  by  its  young.  Sperm-Whales  usually  appear  in  parties 
of  from  two  to  five  hundred,  guarded  by  one  or  two  males  of  the 
largest  size.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  head  there  is  an  immense 
cavity,  divided  into  compartments  and  smaller  cells,  filled  with 
oil  which  is  fluid  when  the  animal  is  alive,  but  hardens  when  cooled 
or  after  the  animal  is  dead,  and  is  known  under  the  name  of  sperm 
aceti.  A  hole  is  made  in  the  head  as  soon  as  the  whale  is  killed 
and  the  spermaceti  is  baled  out  with  buckets.  When  the  first 
process  of  squeezing  and  draining  the  oil  is  over,  the  yellow, 
unctuous  and  impure  mass  of  cetine  is  put  into  bags  made  of 
hair  or  woolen,  and  further  pressed  between  plates  of  iron  in  a 
screw  press  until  it  becomes  hard  and  brittle ;  it  is  then  broken 
into  small  pieces  and  thrown  into  boiling  water,  where  it  melts 
and  the  impurities  are  separated  from  it.  After  being  cooled 
and  taken  from  the  first  water,  it  is  put  into  a  boiler  of  clean 
water  and  a  weak  solution  of  potash  is  gradually  added.  This 
is  thrice  repeated,  after  which  the  whole  is  poured  into  coolers, 
where  it  crystalizes,  and  on  being  cut,  exhibits  the  beautiful  flaky 
appearance  belonging  to  the  spermaceti  of  commerce.  An  ordi 
nary  sized  whale  will  yield  from  ten  to  twelve  barrels  of  crude 
spermaceti.  Ambergris,  which  is  used  as  a  perfume,  and  often 
found  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  is  a  fatty  concretion 
formed  by  disease  in  the  intestines.  Upon  the  ivory  teeth  of 
the  Sperm-Whales,  sailors  often  show  their  taste  in  carving  fig 
ures  of  various  kinds.  These  whales  produce  but  one  young  at 
a  time,  about  fourteen  feet  in  length,  and  having  a  skin  much 
thicker  than  that  of  the  old  ones.  The  milk  by  which  the  young 
are  nourished  resembles  that  of  quadrupeds.  The  throat  of  the 
Sperm-Whale  is  capacious  enough  to  give  passage  to  the  body 


CETACEA.  255 

of  a  man,  presenting  a  strong  contrast  to  the  contracted  gullet  of 
the  mysticctus,  or  Greenland  Whale.  The  mouth  is  lined  with 
a  pearly  white  membrane.  The  eyes  are  small  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  animal,  and  furnished  with  eye-lids  ;  the  skin  is 
usually  smooth,  but  in  old  whales  sometimes  wrinkled.  At  each 
breathing  time,  the  Cachalot  makes  from  sixty  to  seventy  expira 
tions,  remaining  at  the  surface  of  the  water  ten  or  eleven  min 
utes.  It  continues  below  the  surface  for  periods  of  from  an  hour  to 
an  hour  and  twenty  minutes,  consuming  about  one-seventh  of  its 
time  in  respiration.  The  Sperm-  Whale  feeds  upon  seal  and 
fishes,  which  it  pursues  with  great  pertinacity  ;  but  a  large  species 
of  cuttle  fish,  (Octopus,)  is  said  to  constitute  its  principal  food. 
Its  forty-eight  huge  teeth,  which  it  sometimes  employs  in  biting 
boats,  make  it  formidable  to  whalers.  Sometimes  it  swims  off 
to  a  distance,  and  then  rushes  at  the  boat  with  its  head,  thereby 
knocking  it  to  pieces.  One  of  these  whales  sunk  a  ship  by  three 
or  four  blows  from  its  head.  The  Sperm-  Whale  fishery  is  a 
principal  branch  of  the  industry  of  the  United  States,  hundreds 
of  ships  being  engaged  in  this  important  branch  of  the  fisheries. 

The  names  of  the  genera  as  given  in  the  Catalogue  of  the 
British  Museum,  are  Genus  I.  Catodon,  3  species;  C.  macroce- 
phalus,  Northern  Sperm-Whale  ;  C.  colueti,  Mexican  Sperm- 
Whale  ;  C.  polycyplius,  South  Sea  Sperm-Whale.  Genus  II. 
Kogia,  one  species  ;  K.  breviceps,  Short-Headed  Whale.  Genus 
III.  Physeter.  P.  lursio,  the  Black  Fish. 


III.    BALAENID^.      (Gr.    fialaivu,   lalaina,    a   whale.)      TRUE 
or  WHALE-BONE  WHALES. 

These  include  but  a  limited  number  of  species,  comprised  in 
four,  or  according  to  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray,  three  genera.  They  equal 
the  Sperm-Whale  in  size.  The  head  is  very  large,  but  does  not, 
like  theirs,  terminate  in  a  broad,  abrupt  muzzle.  They  have  two 
nostrils,  separate  and  longitudinal.  The  jaws  are  toothless  ;  the 
blow-holes  distinct,  situated  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  each  a 
foot  long.  The  absence  of  teeth  specially  distinguishes  these 
from  other  whales  ;  their  place  in  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  ex 
tremely  narrow,  is  supplied  by  baleen,  or  whalebone,  consisting  of 
pendent,  horny  plates,  or  lamina  (see  Chart,)  each  fringed  so  closely 
as  to  fill  up  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  form  a  strainer  retaining 
the  Clio  Borealis.  minute  crustaceans,  and  other  small  tenants  of 
the  sea.  These  are  carried  by  thousands  into  the  vast  spoon-shaped 
lower  jaw.  The  laminae  or  plates  are  three  or  four  hundred  in 


256  CETACEA. 

number  on  each  side,  the  longest  often  fifteen  feet  long;  the 
Baleen  of  the  Balaena  alone  is  designated  as  Whalebone,  or 
Whalefin,  as  it  is  called  in  commerce.  That  of  the  other  genera, 
(Bal&noptera  and  Megaptera.)  is  called  Finner-Fin,  or  Hump. 
back-Fin ;  the  tongue  is  very  large,  thick  and  fleshy,  fat,  soft 
and  spongy,  not  unfrequently  twenty  feet  long,  and  nine  or  ten 
wide.  The  blubber  obtained  from  these  whales  is  extremely 
abundant,  a  single  whale  often  yielding  forty  tuns,  or  three 
hundred  and  twenty  barrels  of  thirty-one  and  a  half  gallons 
each  ;  much  more  than  this  is  frequently  yielded.  The  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  Seas  are  the  principal,  but  not  the  exclusive  re 
sorts  of  the  True  Whales.  See  "Note"  at  the  end  of  the  "  Cetacea." 

Balaenamysticetus.  (Gr.  <utxm)c£,  mustax,  a  moustache  ;  xijro?, 
a  whale.) 

This  is  the  Common  Greenland  Whale,  sometimes  called  the 
Black  Whale  and  Right  Whale.  Though  not  the  largest  of  the 
tribe,  it  is,  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  most  valuable  for  its 
oil  and  other  products.  It  is  without  a  fin  on  the  back.  The 
two  pectoral  fins  are  about  two  feet  beyond  the  angle  of  the 
mouth,  about  nine  feet  long  and  five  broad.  It  is  thirty  feet  in 
height,  and  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  long  ;  in  weight,  from  sixty 
to  one  hundred  tons,  or  as  heavy  as  three  hundred  fat  oxen.  The 
enormously  large  and  fat  tongue  is  very  soft  and  delicate,  giving 
it  the  appearance  of  white  satin  ;  it  is  entirely  incapable  of  pro 
trusion,  being  fixed  from  the  root  to  the  tip.  The  front  extrem 
ity  of  both  jaws  is  surmounted  by  a  few  scattered  hairs,  to  which 
the  name  Mysticelus  has  reference.  The  back,  most  of  the  up 
per  jaw  and  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  together  with  the  fins,  are 
black;  the  other  parts  gray  and  white,  with  a  tinge  of  yellow. 
The  older  the  animals  the  more  they  contain  of  white  and  gray, 
and  some  are  all  over  piebald.  When  of  the  largest  size  they 
yield  a  ton  of  baleen.  The  blubber  resembles  the  substance  of 
salmon  ;  in  the  younger  whales  is  yellowish  white,  from  eight  to 
twenty  inches  thick,  and  when  fresh,  free  from  all  unpleasant 
smell.  A  Greenland  whale,  sixty  feet  in  length,  will  frequently 
yield  more  than  twenty  tuns  of  pure  oil. 

The  flesh  of  a  young  Mysticelus  is  of  a  red  color,  and  if 
cleared  of  fat,  broiled  and  seasoned  with  pepper  and  salt,  is  said  to 
have  a  relish  not  unlike  that  of  coarse  beef.  That  of  the  old 
whale  becomes  blackish  and  is  exceedingly  coarse.  The  tail  is 
very  fibrous  and  sinewy,  and  extensively  used  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  glue.  The  bones  are  quite  porous  and  contain  large 
quantities  of  fine  oil,  and  the  jaw  bones,  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  feet  in  length,  are  often  preserved,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 


CETACEA.  257 

• 

oil  which  drains  out  of  them.  The  external  surface,  even  of  the 
most  porous  bones,  is,  however,  compact  and  solid.  The  Green 
land  Whale  remains  at  the  surface  to  breathe  for  about  two  min 
utes,  «'  blows  "  eight  or  nine  times,  then  descends  for  five  or  ten, 
sometimes  when  feeding,  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  It  blows 
most  strongly  and  densely  when  alarmed,  or  when  coming  to  the 
surface  after  having  been  a  long  time  down.  When  harpooned, 
it  has  been  drawn  up  by  the  attached  line,  and  found  to  have 
broken  its  jaws,  and  sometimes  the  crown  bone,  by  the  blow 
which  in  its  descent  was  struck  against  the  bottom.  Having  no 
teeth,  the  Mysticetus  cannot  prey  on  its  own  kind,  or  on  the  larger 
fishes.  Its  throat  is  exceedingly  straight  and  narrow,  not  more 
than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width.  So  very  small  is  it  that  it 
could  not  dispose  of  a  morsel  which  might  be  swallowed  by  an 
ox  !  In  this  respect  it  differs  widely  from  some  others  of  the 
Cetacea.  Divine  beneficence  has,  however,  abundantly  provided 
for  its  sustenance.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  limits 
within  which  this  whale  is  found,  is  occupied  by  what  is  called 
green  -water.  This  forms  about  one-fourth  part  of  the  Greenland 
Sea,  between  74o  and  60o  N.  Lat.,  equal  to  about  20,000  square 
miles.  This  body  of  water  is  colored  by  immense  numbers 
of  animalcules,  for  the  most  part  invisible  except  with  the 
aid  of  the  microscope.  These  afford  sustenance  to  multitudes 
of  minute  crabs,  lobsters  and  sea  snails  by  which  the  Mysticetus 
is  nourished.  This  whale  seems  to  attain  its  full  growth  at  the 
age  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  years.  It  is  thought  to  attain  a 
great  age.  Our  limits  do  not  allow  us  to  enter  into  details  of  the 
perils  and  hardships  connected  with  the  chase  and  capture  of  the 
whale.  We  may  say  here,  however,  the  instinctive  attachment 
between  the  parent  and  its  offspring,  is  a  circumstance  of  which 
whalemen  often  avail  themselves  in  order  to  secure  their  prize. 
The  young  cub,  reckless  of  danger  and  easily  harpooned,  is 
often  struck  as  a  snare  to  the  mother.  Says  the  well  known 
Capt.  Scoresby,  "  at  such  a  time,  she  joins  her  young  one  at  the 
surface  of  the  water  whenever  it  has  occasion  to  rise  for  respi 
ration  ;  encourages  it  to  swim  off;  assists  its  flight  by  taking  it 
under  her  fin,  and  seldom  deserts  it  while  life  remains.  One 
of  my  harpooners  struck  a  sucker  with  the  hope  of  its  leading  to 
the  capture  of  the  mother.  Presently  she  arose  close  by  the 
1  fast  boat,'  and  seizing  the  young  one,  dragged  about  a  hundred 
fathoms  of  line  out  of  the  boat  with  remarkable  force  and  veloc 
ity.  Again  she  rose  to  the  surface^  darted  furiously  to  and  fro; 
frequently  stopped  short  or  suddenly  changed  her  direction,  and 
gave  every  possible  intimation  of  extreme  agony.  For  a  length 


259  CETACEA. 

of  time  she  continued  thus  to  act,  though  closely  pursued  by  the 
boats;  and  inspired  with  courage  and  resolution  by  her  concern 
for  her  offspring,  seemed  regardless  of  the  danger  which  sur 
rounded  her.  At  length  one  of  the  boats  approached  so  near 
that  a  harpoon  was  hove  at  her;  it  hit,  but  did  not  attach  itself. 
A  second  harpoon  was  struck  ;  this  also  failed  to  penetrate,  but 
a  third  was  more  effectual  and  held.  Still  she  did  not  attempt  to 
escape,  but  allowed  other  boats  to  approach,  so  that,  in  a  few  min 
utes,  three  more  harpoons  were  fastened,  and  in  the  course  of  an 
hour  afterwards,  she  was  killed." 

The  Right  Whale  was  formerly  found  in  great  numbers  along 
our  own  coast.  The  whale  fishery,  including  this  and  the 
Sperm- Whale,  is  prosecuted  largely  and  with  great  success  by 
individuals  and  companies  of  men,  subject  however  to  great  fluc 
tuations.  "The  first  vessel  constructed  expressly  for  this  fishery 
was  built  atNantucket  in  1690." 

Of  this  genus,  the  other  species  are  the  B.  marginata,  Western 
Australian  Whale,  Cape  Whale;  B.  Japanica,  Japan  Whale; 
B.  antarctica,  New  Zealand  Whale  ;  B.  gibbosa,  Scrag  Whale  ; 
and  the  B.  australis. 

Balaena  Australis  is  the  Cape  or  Southern  Whale,  inhabitingthe 
South  Seas  and  of  a  uniform  black  color,  measuring  from  thirty-five 
to  fifty  feet.  Its  baleen,  owing  to  the  great  curve  of  the  upper 
jaw,  appears  relatively  longer  than  in  the  Northern  Balaena, 
usually  reaching  to  about  nine  feet  in  a  whale  of  forty  feet.  The 
head  is  frequently  covered  with  barnacles,  layer  above  layer, 
which,  concealing  its  true  color,  give  it  a  whitish  appearance 
quite  unlike  that  of  its  northern  relative.  The  pectoral  fins  are 
longer  and  more  pointed,  while  the  lobes  of  the  tail  are  less 
marked  than  in  the  former  species. 

II.  GENUS.     MEGAPTERA.     (Large-finned.) 

This  genus  includes  the  Hump-Backed  Whales,  easily  known 
from  the  "Finners"  by  "being  shorter  and  more  robust,  in  hav 
ing  the  skull  nearly  one-fourth  the  entire  length,  the  head  wide 
between  the  eyes,  the  mouth  larger,  the  lip  warty,  and  the  nose 
large  and  rounded.  The  plaits  of  the  belly  and  throat  are  broad. 
The  skull  is  intermediate  between  that  of  the  Ralaena  and  the  Ba- 
laenoptera.  Four  species  are  enumerated  :  M.  longimana,  found 
in  the  North  Sea,  described  by  Dr.  Johnson  from  a  specimen  cast 
ashore  at  Newcastle,  Eng.,  ajid  called  Johnson's  Hump-Backed 
Whale ;  M.  Poeskop,  the  Poeskop,  or  Cape  Flump-Buck  ;  it  is 
the  Roqual  du  Cap,  of  Cuvier,  the  Hump-Backed  Whale  of  Ross' 


CETACEA.  259 

"Antarctic  Voyage,"  and  an  inhabitant  of  the  Seas  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope;  M.  Kuzira,\\\e  Kuzira,  inhabiting  the  Japanese 
Seas;  M.  Americana,  the  Bermuda  Hump-Back,  is  of  a  black 
color  with  a  white  belly,  and  has  its  head  covered  with  tubercles. 
It  is  found  at  Bermuda  from  March  to  the  end  of  May,  when  it 
departs.  The  baleen  of  this  whale  is  extensively  imported  from 
Bermuda. 

Balaenoptera  Rorqualus.     The  RORQUALS. 

These  include  several  species  closely  allied  to  those  of  the  ge 
nus  Balaena,  but  which  have  been  separated  from  it,  and  formed 
into  a  distinct  genus.  Among  them  are  the  largest  of  the  Whale 
tribe,  and  probably  the  largest  and  most  powerful  animals  found 
on  our  globe.  They  are  often  from  a  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  in  length  ;  the  head  is  about  one-fourth  part  of 
the  length.  These  whales  differ  from  the  Mysticelus,  in  having 
bodies  which  are  longer  and  in  their  form  more  slender  and  cy 
lindrical  ;  in  possessing  a  dorsal  fin  ;  in  having  blubber  which  is 
thinner,  being  generally  not  more  than  six  inches  thick,  and  yield 
ing  an  oil  of  inferior  quality  and  less  in  quantity;  in  theirgreater 
speed,  quicker  action  and  bolder  conduct;  in  their  more  violent 
blowing  ;  and  in  having  shorter  and  less  valuable  baleen.  Hence 
they  are  avoided  by  whalers  as  not  repaying  for  the  hazard  of 
their  capture.  The  upper  jaw  of  the  Mysticetus  is  relatively 
longer  and  more  curved  ;  consequently,  the  plates  of  baleen  are 
long  in  the  Mysticetus  and  short  in  the  Rorquals.  In  the  latter, 
the  longest  laminae  measure  only  three  or  four  feet;  the  smallest 
are  reduced  to  mere  bristles,  so  that  the  animal  has  not  fewer  than 
four  or  five  thousand  distinct  plates  of  whalebone.  The  poste 
rior  arch  of  the  palate  is  so  large  that  it  could  easily  admit  some 
modern  Jonah,  forming  a  great  vestibule  to  the  wind-pipe  and 
gullet.  This  last  is  somewhat  larger  than  a  man's  fist.  The 
Rorquals  feed  not  only  upon  the  small  medusae,  shrimps,  etc., 
which  form  the  food  of  the  Mysticetus,  but  upon  medusas  of  a 
larger  size,  and  such  fish  as  herring,  haddock,  salmon,  etc. 
This  could  not  be  unless  the  baleen  were  coarser  and  the  swallow 
larger  than  in  the  Mysticetus.  The  Rorquals  are  sure  to  be  in 
the  track  of  the  fish  just  referred  to,  and  they  devour  them  in 
quantities  almost  beyond  imagination.  M.  Desmoulins  states  that 
six  hundred  great  cod,  and  immense  quantities  of  pilchards  have 
been  found  in  the  stomach  of  one  of  these  whales.  Unlike  the 
Common  Greenland  Whale,  the  animals  of  this  genus  often  leave 
their  native  seas  and  stray  far  away  to  other  waters  and  shores. 

N.  B.     In   the   Catalogue   of  the  British  Museum,  the  genus 
Balaenoptera  has  but  one  species, — the  B.  rostrata,  Pike  Whale — 


£60  CETACEA. 

the  Rorqualus  rostratus,  of  DeKay.  It  is  of  a  black  color,  un 
derneath  of  a  reddish  white;  inhabiting  the  North  Sea,  and  has 
been  found  at  Volognes,  in  France,  in  the  Thames,  at  Dcptford, 
Eng.,  and  in  the  bay  of  New  York.  The  other  species,  eight  in 
number,  are  included  in  a  fourth  genus,  Physalus.  The  names  of 
the 'species,  as  given  in  the  catalogue  above  referred  to,  are  P.  an- 
tiquorum,  the  Razor  Back,  or  Great  Northern  Rorqual;  P.  Boops, 
of  which  a  specimen,  thirty-eight  feet  in  length,  is  in  the  British 
Museum.  This  is  probably  one  of  the  smaller  Rorquals,  and  was 
taken  in  1846.  P.  Sibbaldi,  another  Rorqual,  of  which  a  speci 
men  is  found  in  the  Museum  at  Hull,  Eng.,  forty  feet  long;  P. 
fasciatus,  the  Peruvian  Firmer,  found  on  the  coasts  of  Peru  ;  P. 
Iwasi,  the  Japan  Finner.  It  is  very  rare.  A  specimen,  taken 
nearly  a  century  ago,  was  twenty-five  feet  long  ; — P.  antarcticus, 
so  named  by  Dr.  I.  E.  Gray,  from  the  baleen  of  a  New  Zealand 
species;  P.  Brasiliensis,  the  Bahia  Finner,  named  from  baleen, 
brought  from  Bahia.  P.  australis,  the  Southern  Finner,  found 
in  the  seas  of  the  Falkland  Islands. 

The  genus  Balaenoptera,  is  divided  into  two  sections, — one 
distinguished  by  the  smoothness  of  the  skin,  of  the  throat  and 
under  parts,  of  which  there  is  one  species,  Balaenoptera  physalus, 
called  the  Finfish.  The  other  section  is  characterised  by  the  deep 
longitudinal  regular  folds  into  which  the  skin  of  the  throat  and 
under  parts  is  thrown,  and  which  are  supposed  to  be  capable  of 
great  dilatation.  Of  this  there  are  several  species.  The  name 
Rorqual,  which  they  bear,  is  of  Norwegian  origin,  meaning  "  whale 
with  folds."  The  Rorquals  have  sometimes  been  arranged  into 
greater  and  lesser  Rorquals,  (major  es  et  minores.)  Twenty -five 
feet  is  said  to  be  the  limit,  as  to  length,  of  the  smaller  division. 
Their  baleen  is  white  and  short;  the  folds  are  of  a  rosy  tint. 
They  frequent  the  rocky  bays  of  Greenland,  (especially  during 
summer,)  and  the  coasts  of  Iceland  and  Norway,  rarely  descend 
ing  into  lower  latitudes.  They  are  very  active  in  their  habits, 
so  that,  although  valued  in  northern  climates  for  the  extreme 
delicacy  of  their  flesh,  yet  the  natives  do  not  attempt  to  harpoon 
them,  but  wound  them  with  their  darts  and  spears,  and  after  a 
fortunate  hunt,  hope  to  discover  them  dead  and  stranded.  The 
smaller  Rorquals  yield  an  oil  peculiarly  delicate,  and  esteemed  by 
the  Icelanders  as  an  article  of  their  materia  medica.  The  Rorqual 
of  the  Southern  Seas,  B.  Australis,  resembles  the  Northern 
Rorqual.  Its  great  power  and  velocity  make  it  difficult  of  cap 
ture,  and  its  products  by  no  means  repay  the  risk  and  labor  of 
taking  it.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Black  Whale,  and  rnis  been 
found  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  shores  of  California. 


CETACEA.  261 

These  Southern  Whales  are  fond  of  placing  themselves  in  a  per 
pendicular  position,  for  the  purpose  of  surveying  more  easily  the 
expanse  of  waters ;  at  a  distance,  resembling  large  black  rocks 
in  the  midst  of  the  ocean.  Fossil  Rorquals  have  been  found  in 
Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 

IV.  HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA,  or  AQUATIC  PACHYDERMS. 

This  family  of  the  Cetacea  have  teeth  with  flattened  surfaces, 
and  adapted  to  the  herbivorous  nature  of  their  food  ;  the  skin  is 
thick,  and  more  or  less  horny;  the  stomach  divided  into  four 
cavities.  They  have  stiff  moustaches  on  their  lips,  and  pectoral 
mammae,— peculiarities  which,  when  their  bodies  are  partly 
raised  out  of  the  water,  give  them  a  somewhat  human  look,  and 
probably  are  connected  with  the  fanciful  stories  which  have  been 
often  told  about  "Mermaids."  They  are  frequently  called  "Sea 
Cows,  Sea.  Calves/'  etc.  The  favorite  haunts  of  these  animals, 
are  the  mouths  of  rivers  or  straits,  where  the  water  is  only  three 
or  four  fathoms  deep.  Here,  where  the  sea-weeds  grow  luxu 
riantly,  they  feed  in  troops,,  rising  frequently  to  the  surface,  in 
order  to  take  breath.  This  group  includes  three  genera,  and 
about  twice  as  many  species. 

Manatus  or  Lamantine.  The  MANATEE,  or  SEA  Cow.  (Plate 
VIII.  fig.  2.) 

The  animals  of  this  genus,  are  confined  to  three  or  four  spe 
cies,  having  oblong  bodies,  which  are  from  ten  to  fifteen,  and 
sometimes  twenty  feet  long;  long,  rounded  tails,  and  eight  grind 
ers  in  each  jaw.  They  are  gregarious,  and  strongly  attached  to 
each  other,  as  well  as  their  young,  which  the  female  defends, 
regardless  of  her  own  danger.  Their  flesh  resembles  fatted 
pork,  and  when  salted,  makes  excellent  sea-store.  They  are 
much  sought  after,  being  captured  with  a  harpoon  attached  to  a 
stout  cord.  The  skin  is  of  a  blackish  color,  very  tough  and 
hard,  full  of  inequalities,  and  sprinkled  with  a  few  bristly  hairs 
about  an  inch  in  length.  The  Manatus  Americanus  is  found  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  Oronoco,  and  other  rivers  of  South 
America,  and  one  species  is  still  hunted  among  the  lagoons  and 
keys  of  Florida.  Its  exhibits  rudimentary  nails  upon  its  flippers, 
and  by  their  aid,  sometimes  drags  its  unwieldy  body  on  shore  to 
bask  in  the  sun,  or  seek  for  herbage  growing  on  apd  near  the 
banks. 

Halicore  Diigong. 

Tin's  genus  is  similar  to  the  preceding  one ;  has  one  species, 
(Dugong,)  and  is  found  in  the  waters  of  the  East  Indies,  and 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  VIII. 

Fig.  1st.  Common  Seal,  or  Sea-Dog,  Phoca  vitulina.  It  has  five  or  six  rows 
of  white  whiskers,  short  fore  feet,  with  webbed  toes,  serving  as  oars 
for  swimming,  but  upon  land  only  available  for  creeping  or  shuffling 
along  as  it  comes  out  to  bask  in  the  sun.  The  hind  feet  have  short 
flattened  claws,  of  which  the  three  middle  ones  are  smallest,  giving  the 
feet  a  forked  appearance. 

Fig.  2d.  Manatee,  Sea  Cow,  Siren,  or  Mermaid  of  the  ancients,  Manatus 
Amcricanus.  The  nostrils  are  in  the  skin,  near  the  end  of  the  muzzle. 
It  has  flippers  or  pectoral  fins,  or  fin-like  forearms,  having  their  five  fin 
gers  enveloped  in  a  membrane  or  skin,  with  nails,  or  rudiments  of  nails, 
which  terminate  four  of  the  fingers. 

Fig.  3d.  Sperm-Whale,  Physeter,  or  Cachalot  macrocephalus.  The  head 
forms  one-third  of  its  bulk  ;  the  nostril,  spiracle,  or  spout-hole,  is  a  slit 
a  foot  long  and  shaped  like  the  letter  /.  The  case  above  the  brain  con 
tains  the  sperm  oil.  In  a  large  whale  the  cavity  will  contain  a  tun,  or 
more  than  ten  barrels.  The  portion  just  above  the  mouth,  called  the 
Junk,  is  formed  of  elastic,  strong  fibres,  permeated  with  fine  sperm  oil 
and  spermaceti.  The  eyes  are  small,  and  the  two  are  said  to  be  unequal  in 
size.  The  ear-openings  are  behind  the  eyes,  and  only  large  enough  to 
admit  a  small  quill.  On  the  neck  is  the  Bunch,  (Bunch  of  the  neck,) 
and  on  the  back  the  Hump.  Although  this  animal  is  of  enormous  size, 
the  Small,  near  the  Flukes  or  Tail  is  not  thicker  than  a  man's  body.. 

Fig.  4th.  The  True  Dolphin  of  the  ancients,  Delpkinus  delphis,  has  a  spira 
cle  or  blow-hole  on  the  summit  of  the  head,  above  the  eyes,  which  are 
small  and  low  down,  near  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  beak  is  of  the 
Bame  length  as  the  head,  with  from  forty  to  forty-eight  teeth  on  each 
side,  above  and  below,  interlocking  with  each  other.  The  swimming  paws 
are  placed  low  and  half  way  between  the  end  of  the  beak  and  the  dor 
sal  eminence. 


PJJ.VHL 


S ea.I ,  Ylio o a  vital ma, 


Manatee,  MajirLhis,  Aiaericanus 


Evperni Whale  Fhyseter  macroceplialns 


Dolphin, I) ejpjiinus  Delpliis 


CETACEA.  205 

those  of  the  Northern  line  of  Australia.  The  most  conspic 
uous  difference  between  this  and  the  Manatus  is,  that  it  has 
no  traces  of  nails.  The  tail  is  truncated,  or  two-  lobed,  and 
there  are  five  grinders  in  each  jaw ;  the  body  is  round  and 
tapering.  To  aid  it  in  browsing  upon  fuel  and  submarine 
vegetables,  the  front  part  of  the  jaw  is  bent  downwards,  so  as  to 
bring  the  mouth  in  nearly  a  vertical  position.  A  great  peculiar, 
ity  of  the  animal  is,  that  the  ventricles  of  the  heart  are  detached 
from  each  other,  being  connected  at  their  base  only.  The  body 
is  seven  or  eight  feet  long ;  the  flesh  tender  and  not  unlike  beef. 

Halicore  Tabernaculi,  the  Dugong  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  consid 
ered  a  distinct  species  by  Rupel,  who  gave  it  the  specific  name, 
supposing,  that  with  its  skin,  the  Jews  were  required  to  veil  the 
tabernacle. 

Stellerus.  This  third  genus  is  found  in  the  Polar  regions,  and 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Behring's  Straits,  where,  in  great 
numbers,  the  animal  frequents  the  shallow  parts  of  the  shore,  and 
the  estuaries  of  rivers.  The  skin  is  remarkably  thick  and  hard. 
The  head  and  mouth  are  small;  the  lips  appear  to  be  double, 
i.  e.,  inner  and  outer.  The  space  between  them  is  filled  with 
strong  bristles,  (one  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  as  thick  as 
pigeons'  quills,) — which  are,  to  this  animal,  what  the  whale-bone 
is  to  the  largest  Cetacea.  It  has  no  teeth  ;  but  in  place  of  them, 
has  two  horny  substances  adhering,  the  one  to  the  palate,  the 
other  to  the  lower  jaw.  The  length  of  the  body  is  twenty- 
eight  feet;  the  weight  of  a  large  one,  eight  thousand  pounds. 
The  skin  is  used  by  the  natives  for  covering  their  boats.  They 
esteem  the  blubber  of  the  animal  as  good  as  "  May  butter."  The 
flesh  of  an  old  Stellerus,  when  well  boiled,  resembles  beef;  that 
of  the  young  one  is  like  veal. 

Zeuglodon.  This  is  an  American  fossil,  whose  name  was 
suggested  by  the  back  molar  teeth,  which  resemble  two  teeth 
yoked  together, — as  the  generic  name  signifies.  Remains  of  this 
extinct  animal  have  been  found  in  Maryland,  Alabama  and  Ar 
kansas,  (U.  S.)  Professor  Owen  supposes  it  to  be  allied  to  the 
Dugong  and  Manatee. 

NOTE. 

According  to  Lieut.  Maury,  (see  Phys.  Geog.  of  the  Sea,)  "  the  tropical 
regions  of  the  ocean  are  to  the  Right  or  True  Whale,  as  a  sea  of  tire, 
through  which  he  cannot  pass,  and  into  which  he  never  enters ;  "  but 
"whales,  with  harpoons  in  them  bearing  the  stamp  of  ships  known  to 
cruise  on  the  Baffin's  Bay  side  of  the  American  Continent,  have  repeatedly 
been  taken  near  the  Behring's  Strait  side ; — and  as,  in  one  or  two  instances 
a  very  short  time  had  elapsed  between  the  date  of  the  capture  in  the  Pacific 


28G  CETACEA. 

and  the  date  when  the  fish  must  have  been  struck  on  the  Atlantic  side,  it 
was  therefore  agreed  that  there  is  a  north-west  passage  by  which  wha'les 
passed  from  one  side  to  the  other,  since  the  stricken  animal  could  not  have 
had  the  harpoon  in  him  long  enough  to  admit  of  a  passage  around  either 
Cape  Horn,  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope."  He  adds,  "It  is  found  also  that 
the  Right  Whale,  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  is  a  different  animal  from 
that  of  the  Southern." 

QUESTIONS  UPON  MARINE  MAMMALS. 

What  is  said  of  the  size,  organization  and  movements  of  Marine  Mammals  ? 
What  have  they  been  called?    How  do  the  paddles  appear  when  dissected? 
What  is  their  chief  use  ?    Why  must  the  Whale  resort  to  the  surface?    How 
great  a  pressure  does  it  sometimes  encounter?     How  is  it  guarded  from 
injury  which  might  thence  arise?     Describe  the  uses  of  the  blubber.     Give 
particulars  respecting  the  eyes  of  the  Cetacea.     What  author  has  referred  to 
them  as  showing  Divine  contrivance?     What  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
things  in  the  economy  of  the  Whale  ?    How  are  they  able  to  remain  so  long 
under  water?     In  what  manner  do  they  breathe?     Why  are  these  called 
blow-holes?     What  is  said  of  their  sportings?     How  do  the  Whales  usually 
take  their  food?     What  is  said  of  their  hearing?     Have  they  the  sense  o*f 
smell?     What  is  said  of  their  stomach  and  other  organs?     What  more  is 
said  of  them  ?     Into  what  families  may  the  Cetacea  be   divided  ?     Give  a 
general  view  of  the  Dolphin  tribe?     How  many  species  does  thi?  family 
include?    What  is  said  of  the  number  of  the  teeth  in  the  Common  Dolphin? 
What  of  their  form  and  use?    How  long  is  it?    What  gives  interes-t  to  this 
animal?    How  was  it  regarded  by  the  ancients?    What  is  said  of  the  colors 
of  the  Dolphin?    Does  its  color  change  while  dying?    What  are  its  habits? 
How  are  these  illustrated  by  Ancient  naturalists?     What  is  the  meaning  of 
the  term  Monodon  ?     What  of  Narwhal  ?     What  other  names  are  given  to 
it  ?     Has  it  teeth  ?     What  is  said  of  its  tusks  ?     What  virtues  have  been 
attributed  to  them?     What  use  does  the  animal  make  of  them?     What 
other  species  of  Whales  docs  this  precede  ?    Docs  Dr.  Scoresby  describe  the 
Narwhal?     What  is  said  of  them  by  Dr.  Kane?     Name  the  sp.   of  the 
Beluga,  or  White  Whale  ?     Give  some  account  of  this  W.     What  are  their 
favorite  resorts  ?     Why  are  they  not  more  often  pursued  by  whalers  ?     At 
what  season  are  they  very  useful  to  the  Greenlander  ?     Give  the  character 
istics  of  the  Porpoise.     What  is  said  respecting  the  wide  diffusion  of  the 
Common  P.  ?     What  of  its  resemblance  to  the  Dolphin  ?     What  is  said  of 
the  leather  made  from  its  skin  ?     What  is  said  of  the  brain  and  teeth  of  the 
P.?     What  of  the  word  Grampus?     Upon  what  do  they  feed?     How  was 
its  flesh  formerly  regarded?     What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  G-ratnpus? 
What  is  it  called  by  American  sailors  ?     Describe  it.     Where  is  its  favorite 
abode?     What  is  said  of  its  voracity?     What  incident  is  related  by  Sir 
Joseph  Banks?    Name  the  sp.  found  on  the  coast  of  France.    For  what  is  it 
famous?     Give  the  sp.  included  in  the  gen.  Dclphinapterus,  and  describe 
it?     What  do  whalers  call  it?     Where  is  it  found?     How  many  sp.  do  the 
gen.   Globicephalus  include?     How  are  they  characterized?     How  do  the 
teeth  shut  into  one  another  ?     What  is  this  W.  called  ?     By  what  method 
are  they  taken  ?    What  additional  names  are  given  to  this  W.  ?    How  are  the 
second  fam.  of  Cetacea  distinguished?     Why  is  the  name  CATODONTIDAE 
given  to  it?    What  names  are  applied  to  the  Sperm  W.?    Describe  it.    What 
peculiar  substance  does  it  yield  ?     Describe  the  process  for  obtaining  the 
pure  Spermaceti  of  commerce.     What  is  Ambergris  ?     What  is  said  of  the 


CETACEA.  267 

throat  of  the  Sperm  Whale?  What  other  peculiarities  of  structure  are 
mentioned  ?  On  what  does  it  feed  How  does  it  sometimes  use  its  huge 
teeth  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Sperm  W.  Fishery  ?  What  is  said  of  the  size 
of  the  True  W.  ?  How  are  they  specially  distinguished  from  other  W.  ? 
What  supplies  the  place  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  ?  Describe  the  Baleen 
and  its  uses.  How  much  blubber  is  yielded  by  one  of  these  W.  ?  What 
are  their  principal  resorts  ?  Which  of  the  W.  is  most  valuable  in  a  com 
mercial  point  of  view?  Give  the  derivation  of  its  specific  name.  What 
renders  it  appropriate  ?  What  is  said  respecting  the  quantity  of  baleen  and 
oil  yielded  by  a  Greenland  W.?  Of  what  use  are  the  bones?  What  is  said 
of  their  blowing?  In  what  respects  do  they  differ  from  other  W. ?  How 
extensive  is  the  area  of  the  green  water  ?  What  occasions  its  peculiar  color  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  age  Of  these  W.  ?  How  are  their  instinctive  attachments 
illustrated  ?  When  was  the  first  American  whale-ship  built  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  Humped-backed  W.  ?  How  many  »sp.  are  enumerated  ?  To  what 
are  the  Rorquals  allied?  What  is  said  of  their  size  and  strength?  How  do 
they  differ  from 'the  Mysticetus?  Why  are  they  avoided  by  sailors?  What 
is  said  of  the  arch  of  the  palate  ?  On  what  d'oes  the  animal  feed  ?  Illus 
trate  its  voracity.  Name  the  two  sections  of  the  genus  Balaenoptera  ? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Rorqual  ?  How  large  are  they  ?  What 
waters  do  they  frequent  ?  What  is  said  of  the  oil  which  they  yield  ?  Are 
they  easily  captured?  In  what  position  are  the  Southern  Rorquals  found? 

Give  the  peculiarities  of  the  Herbivorous  Cetacea.  What  are  they  fre 
quently  called?  Where  are  their  favorite  resorts?  How  many  sp.  does  this 
group  include  ?  Describe  the  Manatee,  or  Sea  Cow.  Where  is  the  M.  Amer 
icana  found  ?  Where  is  the  Dugong  found  ?  What  is  the  chief  difference 
betwen  this  and  the  Manatus?  In  what  respect  is  it  very  peculiar?  Where 
is  the  Stellerus  found?  Describe  it.  Mention  the  name  and  localities  of  the 
American  fossil  sp.  What  species  of  Whale  is  figured  on  the  Chart?  Trace 
and  describe  it.  What  other  Cetaceans  are  named  upon  the  Chart?  Refer 
to  the  figures  and,  species  of  this  order,  tracing  each,  giving  their  charac 
teristics  and  habits,  size,  &c.,  &c. 


ORNITHOLOGY. 

SECOND    BRANCH   OF   ZOOIOGY. 


SECTION  I. 

• 

ORNITHOLOGY.  (Gr.  6gvig,  ornis,  a  bird  ;  Myog,  logos,  a  dis 
course.)  BIRDS,  (Aves,) — 2d  Division  of  the  WARM  BLOODED 
ANIMALS. 

The  numerous  class  of  vertebrated  animals  which  this  term 
includes,  are  prominently  distinguished  from  the  Mammalia  by 
their  general  form  and  feathery  covering,  and  by  producing  their 
young  from  eggs.  They  fall  below  quadrupeds  in  the  scale  of 
nature,*  but  they  far  surpass  fishes  and  insects  in  point  of  saga- 
city,  and  in  the  structure  of  their  bodies.  Though  called  bipeds, 
they  nearly  approach  to  quadrupeds,  as  may  be  seen  by  looking 
at  a  plucked  pigeon,  and  observing  how,  in  respect  to  limbs,  it 
resembles  a  skinned  rabbit,  except  that  the  forelegs  have  no  feet 
or  toes  at  their  tips. 

Birds  are  formed  for  flight;  they  have  been,  not  unaptly, 
styled,  "the  Insects  of  the  vertebrated  series."  The  organiza 
tion  of  the  greater  part  is  wisely  adapted  both  for  suspension  in 
the  air,  and  for  motion  through  it.  Their  activity  in  so  subtle  a 
medium,  required  various  conditions  and  adaptations  of  structure 
which  an  attentive  examination  clearly  presents,  as  combined  in 
their  organization  by  the  all-wise  Creator. 

The  shape  of  the  body  is  sharp  before,  to  pierce  and  make 
way  for  itself  through  the  air  ;  it  rises  by  gentle  swelling,  and 
falls  off  by  an  expansive  tail,  that  helps  to  keep  it  buoyant,  while 
the  foreparts  are  cleaving  the  air  by  their  sharpness.  Hence, 
they  may  be  compared  to  a  bark  making  its  way  through  the 
water  ; — the  trunk  of  the  body  answering  to  the  hold  ;  the  head 
to  the  prow ;  the  tail  to  the  rudder ;  and  the  wings  to  the  oars. 


*  The  following  scale  is  given,  showing  the  size  of  the  brain  as  com 
pared  with  that  of  the  body: — Eagle,  l-260th  of  the  body;  Sparrow, 
l-25th;  Chaffinch,  l-27th  ;  Redbreast,  l-32d;  Blackbird,  l-68th;  Canary- 
bird,  l-14th;  Cock,  l-25th ;  Duck,  1-257 th;  Goose,  l-360th. 


ORNITHOLOGY.  2f>9 

The  rapidity  and  variety  of  motion  of  which  Birds  show  them 
selves  capable,  may  well  excite  admiration.  The  Swallow  arid  the 
Eagle  can  dart  through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour; 
the  Falcon  at  the  rate  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  the  same  time  ; 
the  Passenger  Pigeon  outstrips  the  wind,  which,  when  most  vio 
lent,  traverses  only  sixty  miles  an  hour;  the  Curlew  traverses 
three  elements  with  ease, — running  rapidly  upon  the  ground  ; 
perfectly  at  home  on  the  ocean  wave,  and  borne  in  the  air  as  it 
flies  swiftly  frorn  one  continent  to  another. 

For  this  fleetness  of  motion,  the  skeleton  of  a  bird  is  strikingly 
adapted.  (Plate  XII.  fig.  2.)  It  unites  lightness  with  firmness; 
the  great  bones  of  the  limbs,  and  many  of  those  of  the  body,  are 
hollow  reservoirs  of  air,  communicating  with  the  lungs.  Sacs, 
or  bladder-like  receptacles,  which  can  be  filled  with  air,  are  dis 
tributed  about  the  body;  some  of  them  internally;  others  be 
tween  the  muscles  and  the  skin,  down  the  throat  and  chest,  or  along 
the  tendons  of  the  shoulder ;  and  these  communicate  with  each 
other  and  with  the  lungs.  The  last  named  organs  adhere  closely 
to  the  ribs,  occupying  (Plate  XII.  fig.  2,  E.)  the  hollows  between 
them  and  on  each  side  of  the  spine ;  the  lungs  are  very  large, 
but  can  be  very  little  expanded  or  Contracted.  To  compensate 
for  this  incapacity,  which  might  impede  their  breathing,  the  ends 
of  the  branches  of  the  wind  pipe  open  into  them  ;  but  these  again 
communicate  with  the  membranous  sacs,  or  buoyant  air  cells, 
that  run  along  the  whole  length  of  the  body, — so  that  a  probe 
thrust  into  the  lungs  of  a  fowl,  easily  finds  a  passage  into  the  in 
ternal  parts  of  the  frame  ;  and  air  blown  into  the  wind-pipe,  will 
be  seen  to  distend  the  bird's  body  like  air  blown  into  a  bladder. 
By  the  great  development  of  the  breathing  apparatus,  the  blood 
is  more  rapidly  and  effectually  oxygenized,  and  muscular  energy 
accumulated  for  the  action  of  flight ;  while,  by  the  animal  heat 
which  is  thus  given  out,  the  air  contained  in  -the  complex  respir 
atory  apparatus  is  rarified  ;  and  thus  the  body  is  increased  in  bulk, 
but  rendered  specifically  lighter. 

The  wings  of  a  bird  correspond  to  the  arms  and  hands  of  man  ; 
but  the  hand  in  the  bird  consists  of  only  two  fingers,  (Plate  XII. 
fig.  2d,  N.,)  and  a  thumb,  all  of  which  are  rudimentary.  From 
the  bones  of  the  bird's  hand  (M)  arise  the  primaries,  or  great 
quill-feathers  of  the  wings, — ten  in  number,  and  by  their  form, 
stiffness,  and  relative  strength,  indicating  the  character  and  the 
power  of  the  flight.  The  secondaries  spring  from  the  principal 
bone  of  the  forearm,  (K.  L. ;)  the  number  of  these  varies  in  dif 
ferent  species ;  they  are  generally  stouter,  longer,  and  more  flex 
ible  than  the  primaries,  and  differ  less  in  form  from  the  general 


270  ORNITHOLOGY. 

covering  of  the  body.  The  bone  of  the  upper  arm  (hmnerus,  I.) 
gives  rise  to  another  series  of  feathers,  called  tertiartcs,  which, 
in  such  birds  as  the  Plovers,  Curlew,  etc.,  are  greatly  lengthened  ; 
but  in  their  structure  are  yet  weaker  than  the  secondaries. 
Fastened  to  the  little  bone  which  represents  the  thumb,  are  two  or 
three  short  and  stiff  feathers,  called  the  wingletj  (or  bastard- wing  ;) 
they  lie  upon  the  base  of  the  first  primaries,  at  the  edge  of  the 
wing.  Corresponding  with  the  series  of  feathers,  there  are  both 
on  the  outer  and  inner  surface  of  the  wing,  several  rows  of 
smaller  ones,  called  coverts,  from  their  office  of  protecting  the 
basal  part  of  the  quills;  the  feathers  covering  the  shoulder-blade, 
or  scapula,  are  called  scapulars. 

If  we  examine  each  feather  separately,  we  find  it  composed  of 
two  parts  ;  (1)  a  light  but  firm  shaft,  hollowed  below  for  strength 
and  lightness,  into  a  horny  lube,  containing  the  blood-ves 
sels  by  which  it  is  sustained ;  (2)  the  vane,  or  beard  of  the 
feather,  composed  of  a  double  series  of  layers,  or  thin  parallel 
plates  on  each  side  of  the  shaft,  and  set  at  an  angle  to  it.  Towards 
the  shaft  of  the  feather,  these  layers  are  broad,  and  of  a  semi-cir 
cular  form,  to  serve  for  strength,  and  for  the  closer  grafting  them 
one  against  the  other,  when  in  action.  Towards  the  outer  part 
of  the  vane,  the  layers  grow  slender  and  taper,  to  be  more  light. 
On  their  wider  side,  they  are  thin  and  smooth  ;  but  their  upper 
outer  edgs  is  parted  into  two  hairy  edges,  each  side  having  a  dif 
ferent  set  of  hairs,  broad  at  the  bottom,  and  slender  and  bearded 
above.  By  this  means,  the  hooked  beards  of  one  layer  always 
lie  next  the  straight  beards  of  the  next,  and  lock  and  hold  each 
other.  No  resistance  is  of&raft  to  the  flight  of  birds  by  this  ar 
rangement;  while  beneath  theglflkere  is  a  layer  of  soft  down, 
which  preserves  them  from  coldflp  the  effects  of  which,  but  for 
this  provision,  they  would  have  beerVtmuch  exposed. 

The  wings  are  usually  placed  at  that  part  of  the  body  which 
serves  to  poise  the  whole  and  to  support  it.  The  feathers  of  the 
wing  overlap  each  other,  and  present  a  continuous  surface  of 
great  breadth,  by  repeated  strokes  of  which  upon  the  air,  the  bird 
performs  its  flight.  (Plate  X.  fig.  2.) 

"Each  feather  is  concave,  whether  we  regard  it  transversely 
or  longitudinally ;  its  stem,  or  middle,  is  remarkably  strong, 
though  very  light,  and  the  beards  which  present  their  edges  in 
the  direction  of  the  stroke,  are  linked  to  each  other  by  a  series  of 
minute  hooks."  These  arrangements  add  to  the  power  of  the 
wings  in  their  downward  strokes  upon  the  air. 

Every  part  of  a  bird,  except  the  beak  and  the  lower,  or  poste 
rior  extremities,  is,  in  general,  clothed  with  feathers.  Tne  fret 


ORNITHOLOGY.  271 

are  protected  by  a  naked,  scaly  skin  which,  in  some  cases,  ex 
tends  above  the  tarsus,  and  partly  up  the  leg.  The  "soles  of  the 
toes  are  covered  with  a  granulated  and  callous  modification  of 
this  skin.  (Plates  IX.  and  X.) 

In  Birds,  particularly  those  of  extended  and  powerful  flight, 
the  greatest  part  of  the  muscular  force  centers  in  the  wings. 
The  muscles  which  produce  the  downward  stroke  of  the  wing, 
are  enormous ;  for  their  attachment,  the  breast-bone  is  greatly 
enlarged,  and  its  surface  is  also  increased  by  having  its  middle 
portion  raised  into  a  perpendicular  ridge,  the  two  faces  of  which, 
from  their  direction,  afford  an  advantageous  point  of  resistance, 
or  purchase.  A  bird  can  move  its  wings  with  a  degree  of 
strength  which,  when  compared  with  the  animal's  size,  is  almost 
incredible.  The  flap  of  a  Swan's  wing  has  power  sufficient  to 
break  a  man's  leg ;  and  a  similar  blow  from  an  eagle  has  been 
known  to  produce  instant  death. 

The  powerful  muscular  action  involved  in  flight,  would  nat 
urally  tend  to  draw  the  shoulders  together;  b  it  this  tendency  is 
resisted  by  the  insertion  between  the  two  bones  (coracoids)  to 
which  the  shoulder  bones  (H)  are  joined, — of  a  singular  arched 
bone,  called  the  wish-bone  or  merrythought.  (G.)  In  the  domes 
tic  fowl,  the  bone  is  feeble ;  but  in  birds  of  powerful  flight,  as 
the  Hawks,  the  Swallows,  and  the  Humming-Birds,  it  is  very 
strong  and  elastic.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  bird  never  rises 
upon  the  wing,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Ostrich  and  Emu,  this  bone 
is  reduced  to  a  mere  rudiment.  The  bones  of  the  lower,  or  pos 
terior  extremities  also  differ  materially  in  structure  from  those 
ofquadrupeds.  These  consist  of  (1)  a  thigh-bone,  (or  femur,)  R. ; 
leg. bones,  (tibia  and  fibula,)  S.  ;  (these  leg-bones  are  really  two, 
but  the  fibula  is  very  small,  and  becomes  anchylosed  to  the 
tibia  j  i.  e.,  immovably  fixed  by  a  continuation  of  bony  secre 
tion  ;)  (2)  the  metatarsal,  or  shank-bones,  U.  U.,  at  the  lower  end  of 
which  there  are  as  many  processes  as  there  are  toes,  each  pro 
cess  being  furnished  with  a  pulley  for  moving  its  corresponding 
toe  ;  (3)  the  toes,  of  which  the  usual  number  is  four, — a  number 
never  exceeded  ;  while  a  few  birds  have  only  three  ;  and  the 
Ostrich  only  two.  The  three  toes  are  directed  forwards,  and 
one,  answering  to  the  great  toe,  backwards.  This,  at  least,  is  the 
general  rule.  The  back,  or  great  toe,  is  wanting  in  some  birds. 
In  the  Swallows  it  is  directed  forwards  ;  but  in  the  Climbing 
Birds,  as  the  Parrots  and  Woodpeckers,  the  outer  toe  and  back 
toe  are  both  directed  backwards;  while  the  Swifts  have  all  the 
four  toes  directed  forwards. 

As  the  upper  limbs,  or  anterior  extremities,  are  exclusively  for 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  IX. 

BEAKS    AND    HEADS    OF    BIRDS. 

1.  Owl's  head,  showing  the  egrets  or  tufts  of  feathers  on  each  side,  close 

to  the  ears. 

2.  Head  of  an  Eagle,  showing  the  strong  curved  beak  of  a  raptorial  bird. 

Order  Haveners,  (birds  of  prey.) 

3.  Falcon's  beak,  showing  the  notches  and  teeth  near  the  tip  of  each  man 

dible,  for  holding  its  prey. 

4.  Recurved  beak  of  the  Avoset,  Stilt  Plover,  &c. 

5.  Merganser's  bill,  with  serrated  margins  and  abruptly  hooked  tip. 

6.  Loag,  slender,  curved  bill  of  the  Curlew,   formed  for  penetrating  the 
mud  on  the  sea-shore,  xi  search  of  insects,  slugs  and  small  testaceans. 

7.  Bill  of  the  Humming  Bird,  formed  for  saarching  out  insects  in  flowers 

and  sipping  the  honey  dew.     Order  Tenuirostres,  (slender  bills.) 

8.  Beak  of  the  Crossbill,  the  crossed  points  of  which  it  inserts  to  open  the 

cones  of  pines  and  fir  trees,  upon  the  seeds  of  which  it  feeds. 

9.  Beak  of  Parrots,  Mackaws,  Lories,    &c.,   having   the  upper   mandible 
greatly  curved  over  the  lower,  which  is  considerably  shorter. 

10.  Beak  of  the  Petrel,  so  furrowed  as  to  appear  of  distinct  pieces. 

11.  Puffin's  beak,  transversely  furrowed  on  both  sides,  appears  as  though  a 
sheath  had  been  slipped  over  both  mandibles. 

12.  Duck's  bill,  broad,  long  and  soft,  with  plaits  on  each  side  for  straining 
insects,  worms,  &c.,  out  of  the  mud. 

13.  Beak  of  the  Hornbill,  of  a  light  honeycomb  structure ;  the  horn  or  hel 
met  is  hollow,  and  by  some  supposed  to  act  as  a  sounding  board. 

14.  Beak  of.  the  Whip-poor- Will,   deeply  cleft;    the  mouth  fringed  with 
strong,  stiff  hairs,  (vibrissse.)     Order  Fissirostres,  (split  bills.) 

TAILS    OF    BIRDS. 

15.  Fan  shaped  or  rounded  tail. 

1G.  A  forked  tail,  Indicating  a  swift  flyer,  as  in  fly-catchers,  (Muscicapidae.) 
17  and  18.  Lyre  shaped  tails,  as  in  the  Chatterers,  (AmpelidEe.) 

19.  Doubly  forked  tail,  as  in  Psalurus  bifurcatus,   a  species  of  night-jar 
found  in  Brazil ;  very  rare. 

FEET    OF    BIRDS. 

20.  Foot  of  the  Golden  Eagle,  showing  its  feathered  tarsi,  and  the  power 

ful  talons  of  a  rapacious  bird. 

21.  Foot  of  a  scratching  bird,  showing  the  three  front  toes  united  by  a  mem 
brane  up  to  the  first  joint,  the  hind  toe  articulated  upon  the  tarsus,  and 
the  horny  spur  in  the  male  bird.     Order  Rasores,  (scratchers.) 

22.  Foot  of  the  Ptarmagin,  covered  with  hairlike  feathers  as  far  as  the  claws. 

23.  Woodpecker's  foot,  with  toes  in  pairs,  (yoke-footed,  or  Zygodactylus.) 
Order  Scansores,  (climbers.) 

24.  Webbed  foot  of  a  swimming  bird.     Order  Natatores,  (swimmers.) 

25.  Foot  of  a  Phalarope,  with  lobate  membranes  or  festoons  on  the  toea 
sufficiently  broad  to  assist  them  in  swimming. 

26.  Grebes'  foot,  not  webbed  as  in  most  water  birds,  but  each  toe  flattened 

so  as  to  serve  as  a  separate  paddle. 

27.  Foot  of  the  Sacred  Ibis,  a  wading,  shore,  or  stilt  bird.     Order  Gralla- 

tores,  (waders.) 

28.  Claw  of  Heron,  showing  the  comb-like  divisions  of  its  inner  edge. 


TT..1X. 


ORNITHOLOGY.  275 

flight,  and  the  bird  depends  principally  on  its  bill  for  gathering 
its  food,  it  became  necessary,  as  the  bones  of  the  back  have 
scarcely  any  motion,  that  the  neck  should  be  as  it  is,  long  and 
flexible.  Hence,  while  in  the  mammals,  the  vertebras  of  the 
neck  are  seven, — there  being  no  more  even  in  the  Camelopard, — 
the  deficiency  of  motion  in  the  back  is  made  up  in  birds  by  an 
increase  in  the  vertebrse  of  the  neck,  (B.)  proportioned  to  their 
wants  Thus  the  Raven  has  twelve  neck  bones,  the  Domestic 
Cock  thirteen,  the  Ostrich  eighteen,  the  Stork  nineteen,  and  the 
Swan  twenty-three,  which  is  the  largest  number  yet  ascertained, 
while  the  smallest  is  ten.  These  are  so  joined  together,  that  the 
head  can  be  turned  completely  around,  (the  position  which  the 
bird  takes  when  at  rest,)  or  moved  in  any  direction,  so  that  the 
bird  can  touch  every  point  of  its  body  with  its  bill. 

The  trunk  is  sustained  on  the  thighs  by  very  powerful  mus 
cles  ;  another  set  of  which  passes  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
thighs  to  the  toes,  turning  over  the  knee  and  heel,  in  such  a 
way  that  the  flexion  or  bending  of  these  joints  shall  shorten  them. 
Hence,  the  simple  weight  of  the  body  flexes  the  toes,  so  that  birds 
are  enabled  to  sleep  perched  on  one  foot.  But  the  pectoral  mus 
cles,  as  a  general  rule,  show  the  greatest  development.  The 
breas*  bone,  or  sternum,  is  made  to  project  forwards  with  an  ele 
vated  ridge  or  keel.  To  this,  the  powerful  muscles  which 
depress  the  wings,  are  attached,  The  depth  of  the  keel  is  a  partial 
criterion  as  to  the  power  of  flight ;  in  the  Harrier  it  is  deep;  in 
the  Ostrich,  where  the  wings  are  not  sufficiently  developed  to 
raise  the  bird  from  the  ground,  it  is  quite  flut. 

The  jaws  of  the  bird  are  not  furnished  with  teeth,  but  the 
place  of  these  organs  is  supplied  by  a  casing  of  horn,  termina 
ting;  in  a  point  at  the  tip,  and  brought  to  an  edge  on  the  side  of 
the  jaw.  This  horny  casing  is  known  as  the  beak  or  bill ;  the 
name  mandibles  is  given  to  the  upper  and  lower  divisions.  In 
Birds  of  Prey,  \see  Plate  of  Birds'  Beaks  and  Heads,)  the  beak 
is  like  a  carving  or  dissecting  knife  ;  in  the  Woodpeckers  it  is  an 
effective  chisel ;  in  the  Snipe  and  Woodcock,  it  is  a  long  and 
slender  probe,  furnished  at  the  tip  with  copious  nerves  of  sensa 
tion  for  feeling  in  the  deep  earth  of  bogs  and  marshes ;  in  the 
Parrots,  it  is  a  climbing  hook,  or  a  fruit  knife;  in  the  Swallows 
and  Goat  Suckers,  it  is  a  fly-trap;  in  the  Swans,  Geese  and 
Ducks,  it  is  a  flattened  strainer,  with  nerves  on  the  inside  for  the 
detection  of  the  food  remaining  after  that  particular  operation 
which  almost  every  one  must  have  observed  a  duck  perform  in 
muddy  water  ;  in  the  Storks  and  Herons,  it  is  like  a  fish-spear ; 
in  the  Cross-Bills,  or  Seed-eating  Birds,  it  forms  a  pair  of  Seed- 

12 


276  ORNITHOLOGY. 

crackers  for  extricating  the  kernel  from  the  husk  which  cov 
ers  it.* 

Varying  as  the  beak  does  in  different  kinds  of  birds,  it  in  no 
instance  performs  a  proper  masticating  function  ;  though  it  may 
divide  flesh,  crack  a  nut,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  tongue, 
shell  it;  and  though  it  may  separate  the  grain  from  the  husk,  as 
is  constantly  seen  in  the  Goldfinch  and  Canary.  A  nearer  ap 
proach  to  mastication,  is  the  bruising  down  of  hard  seeds  by 
means  of  a  knob  in  the  middle  of  the  palate,  as  is  seen  in  the 
Buntings. 

The  stomach  in  Birds,  consists  of  three  parts,  (not  always, 
however,  distinctly  developed,)  viz.,  the  crop  or  craw,  the  mem 
branous  stomach,  and  the  gizzard.  From  the  want  of  masti 
cating  power  in  the  bird,  it,  of  course,  swallows  its  food  entire. 
When  the  food  is  flesh,  the  process  of  digestion  is  sufficiently 
simple,  and  so  rapid  as  to  need  no  preparation.  To  prepare  for 
the  digestion  of  hard  grains  and  seeds,  which  are  the  food  of  so 
large  a  number  of  species,  a  sort  of  internal  grinding  mill  is  fur 
nished  by  the  gizzard. 

This  organ,  which  is  seen  to  most  advantage  in  grain-eating 
birds,  is  made  up  almost  entirely  of  two  semi-globular  masses 
of  dense  muscle,  whose  flaf  faces,  covered  with  a  thick  leathery 
skin,  work  over  each  other  like  a  pair  of  millstones,  and  by  the 
aid  of  small  angular  stones,  sand,  etc.,  swallowed  for  the  pur 
pose,  very  quickly  grind  down  the  hardest  substances.  In  the 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  (London,)  is  a  large  glass 
bottle  entirely  filled  with  pebbles,  &c.,  taken  from  the  stomach 
of  an  ostrich.  The  experiment  has  been  made,  without  injury, 
of  conveying  bullets  beset  with  needles,  and  even  lancets  into 
the  stomachs  of  granivorous  birds,  with  the  effect  of  the  total 
destruction  of  those  sharp  instruments  in  a  short  period. 

The  organs  of  the  voice  in  birds  bear  a  striking  resem 
blance  to  certain  musical  wind  instruments.  The  larynx  is 
made  up  of  two  parts  ;  the  second  part,  or  lower  larynx,  contains 
a  second  rima  glottidis,  (cleft  or  opening  of  the  throat,)  furnished 
with  tense  membranes  which  perform,  in  many  birds,  the  same 
office  that  a  reed  does  in  a  clarionet,  or  hautboy,  while  the  first 
tor  upper  rima,  (cleft  or  opening,)  of  the  throat,  like  the  ventage 
or  hole  of  the  instrument,  gives  utterance  to  the  note.  None  of 
the  endowments  of  this  interesting  class  more  minister  to  the 
pleasure  and  delight  of  man  than  their  powers  of  song. 

The  development  of  the  senses  of  birds  varies  in  the  different 

*  See  Penny  Cyclopedia ;  Art.  Birds. 


ORNITHOLOGY.  277 

tribes,  according  to  the  mode  in  which  they  are  adapted  to  take 
their  prey.  Of  the  five  senses,  sight,  smell  and  hearing  are 
most  acute  in  birds.  The  crystalline  humor  of  the  eye  is 
flat  in  birds;  the  vitreous  humor  is  very  small.  The  color  of 
the  iris  varies  in  different  species,  and  in  many  cases  is  very 
brilliant.  Birds  have  three  eyelids,  two  of  which,  the  upper 
and  lower,  are  closed  in  most  of  the  race  by  the  elevation  of  the 
lower  one,  as  may  be  seen  in  our  domestic  poultry.  But  the 
third  eyelid,  or  nictitating  membrane,  forms  the  most  curious 
apparatus.  When  at  rest  it  lies  in  the  corner  of  the  eye  ;  but 
by  the  combined  action  of  two  muscles  which  are  attached  to  the 
back  of  the  sclerotic  cjat,  (the  white,)  of  the  eye,  it  can  be 
drawn  out  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  front  of  the  eye-ball,  like  a 
curtain,  and  its  own  elasticity  restores  it  to  its  resting  place. 
This,  it  is  said,  enables  the  eagle  to  look  at  the  sun. 

The  rapacious  birds  seem  most  remarkable  for  their  length  of 
sight ;  others,  as  the  swallow  tribe,  which  fly  with  extraordinary 
swiftness,  have  an  almost  inconceivable  quickness  of  sight. 

The  sense  of  hearing  in  birds  appears  to  be  in  general  tolera 
bly  acute,  especially  in  the  nocturnal  birds  of  prey,  which  have 
what  other  birds  are  without,  an  external  cartilaginous  ear. 

The  sense  of  smell  does  not  seem  to  be  very  highly  devel 
oped  in  the  birds  as  a  class,  but  is  strong  in  the  vultures. 

Few  of  them  have  a  tongue  which  serves  as  an  organ  of  taste> 
but  some  of  the  swimmers  and  the  parrots  generally  have  one 
that  is  soft,  thick  and  covered  with  papillae,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  these  taste  food  of  a  soft  or  fluid  nature,  and  select 
that  which  they  like  best ;  for  the  most  part,  however,  the  tongue 
is  an  organ  for  taking  food  rather  than  of  taste.  The  sense  of 
touch  is  in  birds  generally  very  obtuse. 

The  dress  or  plumage  of  birds  is  admirable  for  its  fitness  to 
the  ends  for  which  it  was  designed  ;  for  its  softness,  smooth 
ness,  compactness,  and  various  hues.  The  most  brilliant  col 
ors  are  lavished  upon  the  "winged  denizens  of  the  air."  This 
is  particularly  true  of  birds  of  the  torrid  zones.  Those  of  the 
temperate  zones  are  not  so  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  their 
plumage;  but  the  smaller  kinds  make  up  for  this  defect  by  the 
melody  of  their  voices.  While  the  birds  of  the  warmer  regions 
are  very  bright  and  gorgeous  in  their  colors,  they  have  scream 
ing  voices,  or  are  totally  silent.  The  frigid  zones,  where  the 
seas  abound  in  fish,  are  stocked  with  birds  of  the  aquatic  kind  far 
more  than  any  other  regions.  These  usually  have  a  warmer 
coat  of  feathers,  or  they  have  large  quantities  of  fat  lying  under 
neath  the  skin,  which  serves  to  defend  them  from  the  rigors  of 
the  climate. 


278  ORNITHOLOGY. 

Birds  are  oviparous;  in  other  words,  are  produced  from  eggs 
consisting  of  a  living  point  attached  to  a  globular  sac  of  nutri 
ment  called  the  yelk,  surrounded  by  a  layer  of  albumen,  the 
glair  or  white  part,  and  enclosed  in  two  series  of  membrane  and 
a  hard  calcareous  shell.  The  egg  is  developed  into  a  living,  ac 
tive  chick,  by  the  warmth  which  the  parent  supplies  while  sitting 
upon  the  nest  wherein  the  eggs  are  deposited  ;  or  it  may  be 
hatched  in  a  breeding  machine,  by  means  of  artificial  heat  of 
about  96o  Fahrenheit.  The  instinct  of  birds  is  wonderfully  ex 
hibited  in  constructing  and  locating  their  nests  as  places  of  com 
fort  and  concealment,  and  in  the  exquisite  workmanship  displayed 
in  some  of  them. 

The  process  of  incubation  lasts  a  few  weeks,  when  the  young 
is  ready  for  exclusion.  By  means  of  a  horny  pointed  scale  at 
tached  temporarily  to  the  tip  of  its  beak,  it  succeeds  in  breaking 
the  egg-shell  and  forcing  its  way  to  freedom.  "At  the  end  of 
the  second  day,  the  first  moving  of  the  heart  is  perceptible,  and 
on  the  fifth,  the  whole  frame  of  the  little  creature  can  be  dis 
tinctly  seen  in  motion.  The  feathers  make  their  appearance  in 
a  fortnight.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  day,  the 
chicken  begins  to  breathe,  and  on  the  nineteenth  it  is  able  to 
peep."  The  gallinaceous  and  swimming  birds  can  run  about 
and  pick  up  their  own  food  as  soon  as  they  escape  from  the  egg ; 
but  more  commonly  the  young  are,  for  several  days,  unable  to 
quit  the  nest,  and  as  is  well  known,  are  anxiously  fed  and  cared 
for  by  the  parent  birds. 

Few  things  have  attracted  more  attention  than  the  migration 
of  birds.  The  immediate  cause  of  this  is  doubtless  to  be  traced 
to  temperature  and  to  food,  particularly  that  which  is  adapted  to  the 
sustenance  of  the  young ;  and  the  instinct  of  the  bird  accord 
ingly  leads  it  from  one  climate  to  another. 

The  change  of  plumage,  termed  moulting,  takes  place  in  all 
birds  at  least  once  a  year,  and  sometimes  oftener.  Apart  from 
the  ailment  connected  with  this  change,  birds  are  subject  to  very 
few  diseases.  In  all  countries  they  are  said  to  be  more  long 
lived  than  the  quadrupeds  of  the  same  climate. 

Fowls  sometimes  live  20  years.  Linnets  and  other  little  birds  shut 

Pigeons,  longer.  up  in  cages  often  live  15  years. 

Canaries,  25  years.  Robins,  17     do. 

Parrots,  30     do.  Eagles,  over  100     do. 

Pelicans,  80     do.  Cockatoos,         reach  120     do. 

Geese,  80  or  90     do.  Swans,     from  300  to  360     do. 

The  fossil  remains  of  birds,  though  not  numerous,  are  entitled 


ORNITHOLOGY.  279 

to  attention.  Considerable  interest  was  awakened  by  the  discov 
ery,  by  Prof.  Hitchcock,  of  Amherst  College,  of  many  large 
bird  tracks  in  the  new  red  argillaceous  sand-stones  of  the  valley 
of  the  Connecticut  river.  Remains  of.  colossal  birds  of  the  Os 
trich  type  have  also  been  obtained  from  Australia,  which  possess 
peculiar  value  from  their  relation  to  such  birds  as  the  DODO, 
known  to  have  existed  at  a  former  period,  but  now  no  longer  to 
be  found. 

The  classification  of  birds  into  orders  is  founded  upon  charac 
ters  derived  from  the  beak  and  feet.  The  subordinate  divisions 
take  their  rise  chiefly  from  the  form  of  the  beak,  and  run  into 
each  other  by  almost  imperceptible  gradations.  The  number  of 
species  has  been  estimated  at  six  thousand.  These  have  been 
arranged  into  two  grand  divisions,  viz. :  LAND  and  WATER,  or 
TERRESTRIAL  and  AQUATIC  BIRDS,  the  former  being  divided  into 
five,  the  latter  into  two  orders,  making  the  whole  number  seven, 

'  RAPTORES,  (Raveners,) 
INSESSORES,  (Perchers.) 
SCANSORES,  (Climbers,)  >  LAND  BIRDS. 


ORDERS.  < 


RASORES,  (Scratchers.) 


CURSORES,  (Runners,) 

GRALLATORES,  (Stilts  or  Waders,)  )  TTr  ,-> 

.  NATATORES,  (Swimmers,)  \  WATEK  BlKDS' 

What  is  the  second  branch  of  Zoology  called  ?  Give  the  derivation  of 
the  word.  To  what  division  of  animals  do  birds  belong?  How  are  they 
distinguished  from  the  Mammalia  or  first  division  of  warm  blooded  animals  ? 
Are  they  Bipeds  or  Quadrupeds  ?  What  have  they  been  styled  ?  What 
does  their  formation  for  flight  involve  ?  Explain  or  show  how  their  struc 
ture  is  adapted  to  it.  What  is  said  of  the  rapidity  and  variety  of  their 
motions  ?  Explain  the  skeleton  of  the  bird  as  given  on  Plate  XII.  Name 
the  different  kinds  of  feathers  and  their  situation,  as  illustrated  in  Plate 
X.  Name  the  parts  of  which  each  feather  is  composed.  In  what  does 
the  greatest  part  of  the  birds'  muscular  force  center?  Illustrate  its 
power.  Show  the  use  of  the  wish-bone  or  merrythought.  Give  some 
account  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremities  as  illustrated  in  Plate  XII. 
State  the  variations  as  to  the  number  and  direction  of  the  toes  in  different 
birds.  Show  the  benefit  accruing  from  the  numerous  joints  or  vertebras  in 
a  bird's  neck.  State  the  number  found  in  different  birds.  Give  some  ac 
count  of  the  muscles  of  a  bird  and  their  action.  Strictly  or  properly  speak 
ing,  have  birds  any  teeth  ?  What  supplies  their  place  ?  What  are  its  up 
per  and  lower  divisions  called  ?  Describe  the  different  kinds  of  beaks. 
Do  birds  really  masticate  their  food  ?  What  approach  to  mastication  is 
seen  in  the  Bunting?  Of  how  many  parts  does  the  stomach  consist?  What 
are  their  uses  ?  What  facts  show  the  power  of  the  gizzard  ?  What  do  the 
birds'  organs  of  voice  resemble  ?  Illustrate  this.  What  senses  are  most 
acute  in  birds  ?  What  is  said  of  the  eye  and  its  appendages  ?  What  birds 
are  most  remarkable  for  their  length  of  sight?  What  for  quickness? 
What  is  said  of  their  senses?  What  of  their  plumage?  How  are  their 


2SO  RAPTORES. 


young  produced?  What  is  said  of  their  nests?  Describe  the  different 
stages  of  the  incubated  egg.  What  is  said  of  the  migration  of  birds? 
What  does  the  term  moulting  mean?  How  often  does  it  occur?  Are  birds 
long  lived?  What  facts  show  it?  What  is  said  of  their  fossil  remains? 
Upon  what  is  the  classification  of  birds  based?  What  is  the  estimated  num 
ber  of  species?  What  are  the  Grand  Divisions  of  birds?  In  how  many 
orders  are  they  respectively  included  ?  Name  them. 

SECTION  II. 

LAND-BIRDS.     (FIRST  DIVISION.)     FIVE  ORDERS. 

1.  ORDER.— RAPTORES.      (Lat.  rapio,  to  seize.)     BIRDS  OF 

PREY,  or  RAVENERS. 

This  order  is  sometimes  named  ACCIPITRES,  (Lat. Hawks,)  and 
divided  into  two  sub-orders:  1.  Accipiires  diurni,  (Lat.  Hawks 
of  the  Day,)  2.  Accipitres  nocturni,  (Hawks  of  the  Night.) 

The  BIRDS  OF  PREY  are  among  the  largest  and  the  most  mus 
cular  and  powerful  of  all  the  feathered  tribes.  They  are  easily 
known  by  their  strong  hooked  beak,  and  large  acute  talons  or 
claws.  (Plate  IX.  fig.  20.)  By  the  claws  the  first  blow  is  given 
to  the  prey,  which,  when  grasped  by  the  feet,  is  torn  open  by  the 
bill.  For  aid  in  this  operation,  the  typical  Raptores,  (the  Fal 
cons  proper,)  have  a  strong  and  sharp  tooth-like  projection  from 
one  or  both  of  the  mandibles;  (Plate  IX.  fig.  3;)  but  in  those  of 
this  order  that  feed  upon  carrion  or  small  animals,  this  projection 
is  nearly  or  entirely  deficient.  The  base  of  the  beak  is  covered 
with  a  naked  skin  called  the  cere,  in  which  the  nostrils  are 
pierced  ;  the  stomach  consists  of  a  membranous  sac,  without  a 
muscular  gizzard. 

The  flight  of  these  birds  is  lofty,  vigorous  and  long-sustained. 
Their  increase  is  slow,  and  they  are  comparatively  few  in  num 
ber.  They  annually  produce  not  more  than  two  or  three  eggs, 
generally  pure  white.  The  females  of  the  order,  contrary  to  the 
general  rule  in  birds,  are  one-third  larger  than  the  males.  The 
Birds  of  Prey  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  include 
three  distinctly  marked  families,  viz.  :  1.  Falconida,  the  Falcons ; 

2.  Vulturinida,  the  Vultures ;  3.  Strigida,  the  Owls. 

FIRST  FAMILY. — THE  FALCONS. 
Falconida,  (Lat  falco,   a   falcon.) 

This  family  is  arranged  by  Swainson  into  five  sub-families, 
viz.;  (1)  AquiUnce,  Eagles;  (2)  Milvina,  Kites;  (3)  Buteonince, 
Buzzards;  (4)  Falconina,  Falcons;  (5)  Accipitrina,  Hawks. 


RAPTORES.  281 

The  Falcons,  as  a  family,  exhibit,  in  their  structure  and  habits, 
the  highest  development  of  the  destructive  faculty.  In  these  the 
head  is  wholly  covered  with  feathers,  except  the  cere  at  the  base 
of  the  beak  ;  and  the  leading  genera  have,  in  the  beak,  the  sharp 
projecting  tooth  referred  to  above.  (See  Plate  IX.  fig.  3.)  The 
eyebrows  usually  overhang  the  eye,  giving  a  stern  expression 
to  the  countenance.  The  points  of  the  strong  and  highly  curved 
talons  are  kept  from  injury  by  a  mechanism  for  raising  them 
from  the  surface  on  which  the  bird  rests ;  a  process  analogous 
to  the  sheathing  of  the  claws  in  the  Cat  Family  of  the  Mam 
malia. 

The  falcons  are  widely  diffused ;  some  species  have  been  re 
claimed  and  trained  for  the  pursuit  of  game. 

NOTE. — It  would  be  interesting  and  might  be  instructive  to  give  minutely 
the  characteristics  and  habits  of  all  the  genera  and  species  included  in  this 
and  in  the  other  orders  and  families  of  the  Birds ;  but  from  the  restricted 
limits  of  the  present  volume,  and  the  great  number  of  species,  (6000,)  in 
the  feathered  tribe,  our  notices,  when  given,  will  necessarily  be  brief,  while 
very  many  species  must  be  passed  by  altogether. 

1st  SUB-FAMILY.     Aquilina.     (Lat.  aquila,  an  eagle.) 

The  first  place  is  given  to  the  EAGLE,  (in  treating  of  the  Fal 
con  tribe,)  riot  because  it  presents  most  distinctly  the  family  traits, 
but  on  account  of  its  great  size  and  strength,  the  grandeur  of  its 
aspect,  and  the  dignity  of  its  movements.  This  bird  was  honored 
by  being  in  the  Holy  of  Holies  of  the  ancient  Jewish  temple, 
and  every  tyro  in  classical  study  knows  that  the  old  Romans  re 
garded  it  as  the  "  Bird  of  Jove." 

Eagles  are  birds  of  high  and  powerful,  but  not  of  rapid  flight. 
Usually  they  prefer  to  strike  their  prey  upon  the  ground.  They 
breed  in  solitude  on  the  inaccessible  crags  of  lofty  mountains. 
In  these  birds,  the  notch  or  tooth  of  the  upper  mandible  is  almost 
obliterated  ;  the  claws  are  remarkably  strong  and  curved  ;  the 
under  surface  is  grooved  ;  the  hind  and  outer  claws  are  the 
longest.  (See  Plate  IX.  figs  2.  of  Beaks,  and  20  of  Feet.) 

The  GOLDEN  EAGLE,  Aquilachrysaetus,(Gr.chfusaetus,  golden 
eagle,)  is  a  truly  magnificent  bird,  about  three  feet  in  length, 
having  plumage  of  a  deep  and  rich  umber  brown,  glossed  on  the 
back  and  wings  with  purple  reflections;  the  feathers  of  the  head 
and  neck  are  of  an  orange-brown  hue,  and  when  under  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  have  an  almost  golden  appearance  ;  the  tail  is  striped 
with  gray  and  obscure  brown,  but  in  the  young  bird  is,  in  the 
under  part,  white.  (This  variation  in  the  plumage  of  the  young 
bird  has  led  some  to  describe  it  as  a  distinct  species,  by  the  name 
of  the  Ring-tailed  Eagle.) 


282  RAPTORES. 

The  longevity  of  the  Golden  Eagle  is  almost  proverbial.  One 
that  died  in  Vienna,  (Austria,)  is  said  to  have  lived  in  confine 
ment  one  hundred  and  four  years.  This  species  is  found 
throughout  the  middle  and  north  of  Europe,  and  in  North  Amer 
ica. 

'  The  BALD  or  WHITE-HEADED  EAGLE, Haliactos,  (Gr.hals,  the 
sea;  aetos,  an  eagle;)  hucocephalus,  (Gr.  white-headed,)  is, 
when  full  grown,  three  feet  long,  and  more  than  seven  feet  across 
at  the  expanse  of  wings.  The  general  color  of  the  upper  parts 
is  a  deep,  dark  brown;  the  head,  chief  part  of  the  neck,  and  the 
lower  parts  are  white.  The  wing  is  admirably  adapted  for  the 
support  of  so  large  a  bird,  measuring  two  feet  in  breadth  on  the 
greater  quills,  and  sixteen  inches  on  the  smaller. 

The  Bald  Eagle  is  an  occasional  visitant  to  the  Northern  Hem 
isphere  of  the  old  world  ;  on  this  continent  it  is  common,  breed 
ing,  according  to  Audubon,  as  far  south  as  Virginia,  though  its 
nests  are  most  frequent  in  the  fur  countries. 

The  ardor  and  energy  of  this  bird  might  awaken  deep  interest 
were  they  not  associated  with  so  much  of  robbery  and  wanton 
exercise  of  power ;  for  it  habitually  spoils  the  Osprey  or  Fish- 
Hawk,  (Plate  X.  fig.  3,  a,)  of  his  watery  prey,  and  will  even,  in 
"hard  times,"  steal  from  the  vultures  the  carrion  on  which  they 
are  feeding.  The  falls  of  Niagara  are  one  of  its  favorite  haunts 
on  account  of  the  fish  caught  there,  and  the  attraction  presented 
by  the  numerous  remains  of  squirrels,  deer  and  other  animals 
which  perish  in  attempting  to  cross  the  river  above  the  cataract. 
The  nest  of  the  Bald  Eagle  is  usually  placed  on  a  very  tall  tree 
that  is  destitute  of  branches  to  a  considerable  height ;  it  is  never 
seen  on  rocks.  Dr.  Franklin  thus  speaks  of  this  eagle,  the  em 
blem  of  our  national  union  : 

"  For  my  part,  I  wish  the  Bald  Eagle  had  not  been  chosen  as 
the  representative  of  our  country.  He  is  a  bird  of  a  bad  moral 
character;  he  does  not  get  his  living  honestly.  You  may  have 
seen  him  perched  upon  some  dead  tree,  where,  too  lazy  to  fish 
for  himself,  he  watches  for  the  labors  of  the  fishing- hawk  ;  and 
when  that  diligent  bird  has  at  length  taken  a  fish,  and  is  bearing 
it  to  its  nest  for  the  support  of  his  mate  and  youn£  ones,  the 
Bald  Eagle  pursues  him,  and  takes  it  from  him.  With  all  this 
injustice  he  is  never  in  good  case,  but  like  those  among  men  who 
live  by  sharping  and  robbing,  he  is  generally  poor,  and  very  oft 
en  lousy.  Besides,  he  is  a  rank  coward  ;  the  little  King-bird, 
not  bigger  than  a  sparrow,  attacks  him  boldly  and  drives  him 
out  of  the  district.  He  is  therefore  by  no  means  a  proper  emblem 
for  the  brave  and  honest  Cincinnati  of  America,  who  have  driven 


RAPTORES.  233 

out  all  the  King-Birds  from  our  country,  though  exactly  fitted 
for  that  order  of  knights  which  the  French  call  Chevaliers 
d'  Industrie." 

WASHINGTON  SEA-EAGLE,  H.  Wasliingtonii,  is  a  new  species 
first  observed  by  Audubon  in  1814,  who  named  this  "  magnificent 
bird,"  the  largest  of  the  eagles,  after  Washington,  the  "father  of 
his  country." 

The  HARPY  EAGLE,  Harpuia,  (Gr.  harpuia,  from  harpazo,  to 
seize,)  destructor,  (Lat.  destroyer,)  is  one  of  the  "  Short- Winged  " 
Eagles  found  in  New  Mexico,  New  Granada,  and  Guiana.  In 
size  and  powers  of  body  it  equals  the  Golden  Eagle.  (See  Chart.) 
The  beak  above  is  convex  ;  the  upper  mandible  is  slightly  notched, 
somewhat  like  the  True  Falcons ;  the  tarsi  are  lengthened,  very 
strong  and  feathered  at  the  base.  When  full  grown,  this  bird's 
head  has  a  thick  downy  plumage,  of  a  light  slaty-gray  color. 
On  the  back  part  of  the  head,  there  is  a  crest  of  dull  black 
feathers,  which  ordinarily  is  slightly  raised  above  the  level  of 
the  feathers  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  but  on  any  sudden  excite 
ment  is  elevated  at  right  angles  to  them  ;  the  back  and  wings 
are  black  ;  the  under  surface  is  pure  white ;  the  tail  has  four 
transverse  black  bands,  alternated  with  whitish,  or  ash-colored 
spaces.  (See  fig.  on  Chart.)  In  the  nakedness  of  its  legs,  it 
approaches  the  Sea-Eagles. 

The  Harpy  is  a  solitary  bird,  frequenting  the  thickest  forests, 
where  it  feeds  upon  the  sloths;  it  also  preys  upon  fawns  and 
young  quadrupeds.  One  of  these  birds,  taken  near  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Amazon,  while  on  its  passage  to  England,  is  said  to 
have  destroyed  and  eaten  a  King  of  the  Vultures.  After  its  ar 
rival,  a  cat  was  put  into  its  cage,  and  the  eagle,  with  one  blow 
of  its  immense  foot,  broke  its  back. 

The  BRAZILIAN  CARACARA  EAGLE,  Polylorus  or  Aquila  Bra- 
ziliensis,  differs  from  the  Harpy  Eagle  in  having  more  slender 
and  lengthened  tarsi,  and  in  the  comparative  weakness  of  its 
toes.  It  is  of  the  size  of  the  common  Kite,  and  has  a  tail  nine 
inches  long.  It  is  all  over  covered  with  dusky  and  blackish 
feathers;  hence  is  called  by  some  morphnus,  (Gr.  morphnos,  ob 
scure,  or  dark.)  For  its  food  it  seems  content  with  any  animal 
substance  ;  it  is  by  no  means  shy,  but  is  seldom  attacked,  as  it 
rarely  molests  domestic  poultry. 

The  FISH  HAWK,  or  BALD  BUZZARD,  Pandion,  (Gr.  proper 
name,)  halietus,  has  very  long  and  curved  talons,  the  outermost 
•versatile,  or  capable  of  being  revolved.  These  are  well  adapted 
for  holding  this  bird's  slippery  fishy  food.  As  already  said, 
it  has,  in  the  Bald  Eagle,  a  persecutor  that  often  snatches  from  it 
;*~  hard-earned  prey.  (Plate  X,  fig.  3,  b.)  The  nlum~~" 


234  RAPTORES. 

Fish-Hawk  is  much  like  that  of  water  fowl,  white  below,  with  a 
few  brown  streaks  or  speckles  on  the  throat.  This  bird  is  spread 
over  Europe  and  part  of  Asia  ;  it  is  found  in  North  America  from 
Labrador  to  Florida. 

The  HARRIER,  CIRCUS,  (Gr.  kirkos,  a  circle.)  has  the  sides  of 
the  head  furnished  with  a  circle  of  feathers  much  like  the  disk 
of  the  Owl's  head. 

The  COMMON  HARRIER,  C.  cyaneus,  (Gr.  kuaneos,  dark  blue,) 
ranges  from  Labrador  to  Texas,  and  sometimes  is  seen  in  the 
Western  prairies  in  flocks  of  thirty  or  even  forty  in  number. 
The  notes  of  this  bird,  while  on  the  wing,  "sound  like  the  sylla 
bles,  pee,  PEE,  PEE,  the  first  slightly  pronounced,  the  last  louder, 
much  prolonged,  and  ending  plaintively."  The  Common  Harrier 
feeds  on  insects,  small  lizards,  frogs,  &c.,  but  occasionally  will 
attack  partridges  and  plovers. 

SECOND  SUB-FAMILY.     KITES. 
MilvinfB.  (Lat.  milvus,  a  kite.) 

The  length  of  the  wings  and  the  forked  tail  are  the  characters 
which  most  separate  the  Kites  from  the  rest  of  the  Birds  of  Prey. 

The  COMMON  KITE,  or  GLEDE,  M.  ictinus,  (Gr.  iktinos,  a  kite,) 
or  M.  regalis,  (Lat.  royal.)  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 
According;  to  Charles  Lucien  Buonaparte,  it  is  very  common  near 
Rome,  (Italy,)  especially  about  herds  of  cattle.  Formerly,  more 
numerous  than  now,  it  was  a  great  scourge  to  the  poultry  yard. 
In  falconry,  the  Glede  was  very  docile,  being  used  both  as  pur 
suer  and  pursued. 

THE  SWALLOW-TAILED  HAWK,  or  FORK-TAIL,  Nauclerus,  (Gr. 
naukleros,  a  ship  master,)  furcatus,  (Lat.  forked,)  differs  from  the 
true  kite,  (milvus,)  in  having  a  more  largely  forked  tail.  The 
Fork-tail,  in  steering  its  course  through  the  air,  reminds  one  of  the 
helmsman  who  is  guiding  some  noble  bark  amidst  the  waves.  Its 
flight  is  graceful  and  long  protracted.  It  has  been  seen  as  far  north 
as  Pennsylvania;  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana  it  is  abundant.  The 
Swallow-tailed  Hawks  always  feed  upon  the  wing.  In  calm  and 
warm  weather  they  are  seen  soaring  very  high,  and  pursuing  the 
large  insects  called  "  Musquito  Hawks."  The  upper  plumage  is 
black  with  reflections  of  purple  ;  the  head  and  under  parts  white. 

The  genus  El  anus  has  several  species,  among  which  are  E. 
melanopterus,  (Gr.  black-winged.)  the  BLACK-WINGKD  SWALLOW- 
HAWK,  of  Africa;  E.  dispar,  (Lat.  dissimilar.)  the  BLACK-SHOUL 
DERED  HAWK,  a  beautiful  bird  found  from  Texas  to  South  Caro 
lina. 


RAPTORES.  285 

The  genus  Ictinia,  (Gr.  iktin,  a  kite.)  is  characterized  by  its 
strong  and  short  bill,  the  upper  mandible  of  which  is  "somewhat 
angularly  festooned,"  and  the  lower  distinctly  notched. 

The  MISSISSIPPI  KITE,  /.  plumleus,  (Lat.  leaden  or  dull,)  is 
by  some  naturalists  ranked  among  the  Buzzards.  Twenty  or 
more  of  these  birds  are  sometimes  seen  together,  sweeping  around 
some  tree,  and  catching  the  locusts  which  are  numerous  early  in 
the  season.  The  back  and  wings  of  this  bird  are  of  a  slate  blue  ; 
the  head  and  under  parts  whitish,  spotted  with  brown.  This 
Kite  is  said  to  fly  to  a  great  height,  where  it  remains  for  a  while 
poised  ;  it  cleaves  the  air  rapidly,  in  order  to  seize  the  insects 
which  are  its  prey,  added  to  reptiles  and  birds. 

THIRD  SUB-FAMILY.     The  BUZZARDS. 
Buteonina.  (Lat.  buteo,  a  buzzard.)     Buteo,  sub-genus  of  Falco. 

The  Buzzards  are,  as  a  group,  distinguished  by  their  short 
beaks,  expanded  wings,  and  squared  tails.  They  are  com 
mon  in  most  of  the  wooded  districts  of  Europe,  and  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Asia,  and  have  been  met  with  in  the  fur  countries  of 
North  America.  They  are  indolent,  sluggish  birds,  often  remain 
ing  perched  on  the  same  bough  the  greatest  part  of  the  day  ;  and 
generally  feed  upon  small  quadrupeds,  reptiles,  and  various  spe 
cies  of  insects.  The  skins  of  the  Buzzards  are  covered  with 
fine  down.  In  Cairo,  (Egypt,)  and  in  some  other  places  in  the 
East,  the  skins,  after  the  feathers  are  removed,  are  tanned  with 
the  down  upon  them  ;  as  thus  prepared,  they  are  used  by  wealthy 
Turks  and  Persians  for  lining  their  silk  robes. 

The  COMMON  BUZZARD,  B.  vulgaris,  has  a  general  plumage 
of  chocolate  brown ;  the  primary  feathers  are  black  with  the  in 
ner  webs  white,  barred  with  brownish  black ;  the  tail  has  ten 
dusky  bars  on  a  reddish  brown  ground  ;  the  under  parts  are  yel 
lowish  white.  This  bird  builds  its  nest  on  high  trees,  though  it 
has  been  known  to  construct  it  upon  rocks.  It  often  seizes  upon 
the  nest  of  a  crow,  which  it  enlarges  and  lines  with  wool  and 
other  soft  materials.  The  female  lays  from  three  to  five  eggs  of 
a  whitish  cast,  spotted  with  pale  brown,  and  almost  without  any 
of  the  tinge  of  red  which  is  peculiar  to  diurnal  birds  of  prey. 
The  length  of  the  Common  Buzzard  is  about  twenty-nine  inches; 
the  expanse  of  the  wings  about  fifty  inches. 

The  RED-TAILED  BUZZARD,  B.  Borealis,  (Lat.  northern,)  pe 
culiar  to  the  American  Continent,  is  found  throughout  the  United 
States.  This  is  a  very  wary  bird,  and  hard  to  be  approached  by 
any  one  bearing  a  gun.  In  common  with  some  other  Falcons,  it 


288  KAPTORES. 

is  much  annoyed  by  parasitic  fly-ticks.  Unlike  the  eagles,  pairs 
of  these  birds,  after  rearing  their  young,  "become  as  shy  to  each 
other  as  if  they  had  never  met,  and  will  "  chase  and  rob  each  other 
of  their  prey  on  all  occasions."  Farmers,  to  whom  this  bird  is 
known  as  the  Hen-hawk,  usually  regard  it  with  anything  but  com 
placency. 

Other  species  of  the  genus  Buteo  found  in  the  United  States, 
are  the  RED-SHOULDERED  BUZZARD,  B.  Hneatus,  (Lat.  marked 
with  lines,)  of  the  Western  and  Southern  sections  of  the  Union  ; 
the  Rough-legged  Buzzard,  B.  lagopus,  (Gr.  ha  re- footed,')  found 
east  of  the  Alleghanies,  also  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  noted 
as  a  great  destroyer  of  meadow  mice. 

The  HONEY  BUZZARD,  Perm's,  (Norman,  perner,  to  take,)  api- 
vorous,  (Lat.  bee-eating.)  is  distinguished  by  having  a  feathered 
band  about  the  eyes.  This  bird  is  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia.  Its  food  does  not  consist  of  honey,  as  its 
specific  name  seems  to  indicate,  but  of  bee.s,  wasps,  and  their  lar- 
V8B.  It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  leaving  Europe  in  the  beginning  of 
winter.  Its  length  is  about  two  feet ;  expanse  of  the  wings 
fifty-two  inches. 

FOURTH  SUB-FAMILY.     The  FALCONS,  Proper. 

Fakonina.     (Lat.  falco,  a  falcon.) 

(Falco  is  the  typical  genus  of  the  Falconidce,  and  includes  the 
greater  portion  of  this  sub-family.) 

The  PEREGRINE  or  SULTAN  FALCON,  F.  peregrinus,  (Lat.  wan 
dering,)  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  members  of  the  Falcon 
family.  It  ranges  over  Europe,  the  north  of  Asia,  America  and 
New  Holland.  When  full  grown  it  is  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
length.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  Falcon's  strongly 
notched  beak.  The  beak  is  of  a  blue  color,  approaching  to  black 
at  the  point;  the  back  and  upper  surface  of  the  bird  is  of  a 
bluish  slate  color  ;  the  breast  reddish  white,  with  dark  brown 
transverse  bars.  On  account  of  the  large  size  of  this  bird's  feet, 
it  is  called  the  Great- fooled  Hawk  ;  from -its  successful  chase  of 
ducks,  it  is  sometimes  named  the  Duck-Hawk.  The  flight  of  the 
Peregrine  Falcon  is  amazingly  rapid.  It  does  not  merely  dash 
at  its  prey  and  grasp  it  with  his  claws,  but  strikes  its  victim  with 
its  breast,  and  actually  stuns  it  with  the  violence  of  the  blow  be 
fore  seizing  it  with  its  claws. 

Peculiar  interest  attaches  to  the  "Sultan"  bird  from  its  connec 
tion  with  falconry,  an  art  of  great  antiquity  and  extensively  prac 
ticed  by  English  nobles  from  the  period  of  the  Heptarchy  to  the 


RAPTORES.  287 

days  of  Charles  II.  Indeed,  a  person  of  rank  in  England  would 
at  one  period  of  her  history  scarcely  be  seen  out  of  doors  unless 
he  had  upon  his  hand  a  hawking  bird.  This  in  old  illuminations 
and  ancient  seals  is  the  criterion  of  nobility.  At  the  present  day 
hawking  is  still  practised  in  some  Oriental  countries. 

So  bold  is  the  Falcon,  it  was  generally  employed  to  take  the 
formidable  Heron.  When  used  anciently  for  hawking,  the  fal 
cons  were  taken  into  the  field  with  hoods  over  their  eyes,  and 
with  little  bells  on  their  legs;  the  sportsman  carried  a  lure  to 
which  the  bird  had  been  trained  to  fly  by  being  fed  regularly 
upon  or  near  it  with  fresh  killed  meat.  When  the  falcon  closed 
with  its  prey,  they  both  came  to  the  ground  together,  and  it  was 
the  sportsman's  business  to  reach  the  place  of  conflict  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  assist  the  falcon  in  vanquishing  its  prey. 

This  bird  constructs  its  nest  on  ledges  of  rocks,  laying  four 
eggs  of  a  reddish  brown  color. 

The  GYRFALCON,  or  JERFALCON,  F.  gyrfalcon.  The  name  Jer- 
falcon  is  a  corruption  of  Hierofalcon,  Sacred  Falcon.  This  bird 
is  by  some  regarded  as  the  boldest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  tribe, 
approaching  in  size  nearly  to  the  Osprey.  It  is  a  native  of  Ice 
land.  In  the  days  of  falconry,  the  Jerfalcon  was  highly  esteemed, 
and  used  for  the  larger  game,  such  as  cranes  and  herons.  Its 
plumage  is  white  with  dusky  lines. 

The  MERLIN  or  STONE  FALCON,  P.  asalon,  (Gr.  aisaldn,)  is 
the  smallest  of  the  European  species,  being  not  much  larger  than 
a  black-bird  ;  in  olden  times  it  was  considered  as  the  "  lady 
bird,"  and  used  for  taking  partridges,  which  it  would  kill  by  a 
single  stroke  of  the  neck.  It  is  not  uncommon  both  in  Europe 
and  America,  and  is  a  migratory  bird. 

The  KESTRAL,  or  WINDHOVER,  F.  tinnunculus,  (Lat.  akestral,) 
inhabits  Asia  and  Africa,  as  well  as  Europe.  Its  length  is  from 
fourteen  to  fifteen  inches.  Farmers  often  mistake  it  for  the  Spar 
row-Hawk,  and  take  every  opportunity  to  destroy  it ;  but  as  its 
natural  food  is  field-mice,  they  ought  to  look  upon  it  as  a  bene 
factor,  and  protect,  instead  of  remorselessly  killing  it.  Its  nest 
is  usually  built  in  some  deserted  one  of  a  crow  or  magpie. 

FIFTH  SUB -FAMILY.     HAWKS. 
Accipitrince.  (Lat.  accipiter,  a  hawk.) 

The  Hawks  have  short  beaks,  hooked  from  the  base ;  and 
short  wings,  reaching  no  farther  than  two-thirds  of  the  extent 
of  the  tail.  The  upper  mandible  has  &  festoon,  or  prominence 
in  place  of  the  notches  of  the  true  Falcons. 


£83  RAPTORES. 

Of  the  genera,  we  name  Astur,  (proper  name,)  characterized 
by  its  short  beak,  its  somewhat  oval  nostrils,  and  the  scutellated 
acrotarsia,  or  highest  parts  of  the  tarsi. 

The  GOSHAWK,  (or  Goosehawk.)  A.  palumlarius,  (Lat.  from 
Palumbes,  a  wood-pigeon,)  receives  its  name  palurnl)arius,  from 
its  preying  upon  pigeons.  These,  together  with  pheasants,  par 
tridges  and  grouse,  constitute  its  food.  Hares  and  rabbits,  also, 
it  sometimes  devours.  A  full  grown  female  is  about  twenty-four 
inches  in  length  ;  the  male  bird  is  one-fourth,  and  sometimes 
one-third  less.  The  upper  surface  of  the  wings  and  tail  feathers 
is  black;  the  throat  and  under  parts  nearly  white,  with  spots  and 
bars  of  black.  The  Goshawk  flies  low,  pursuing  its  prey  in  a 
line  after  it,  or  in  a  manner  which  falconers  call  "raking."  It 
abounds  in  the  forests  of  Continental  Europe,  and  is  found  in  the 
temperate  regions  of  Asia  and  America.  It  has  been  seen  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Philadelphia,  (Penn.) 

The  Goshawk  was  also  one  of  the  falconry-birds  ;  the  female 
generally  "  flown  "  at  the  large-winged  bird  ;  the  male  at  par 
tridges. 

Birds  of  the  genus  decipher  have  smooth  and  elongated  tarsi. 

The  SPARROW-HAWK,  A.  fringillarius,  (Lai.  fringilfa,  a  chaf 
finch,)  is  the  type-bird  cf  this  Sub-family.  It  is  widely  spread 
throughout  Europe  ;  found  also  in  Japan  and  Southern  Africa. 
The  adult  male  is  about  twelve  inches,  the  female  fifteen  inches 
long.  The  individuals  of  this  species  show  considerable  diver 
sity  of  color. 

The  Sparrow-Hawk  is  a  great  enemy  of  quadrupeds  and  small 
birds,  and  is  often  very  destructive  to  poultry.  When  taken 
young,  it  is  easily  tamed,  and  then  will  "  associate  with  quite  in 
congruous  companions."  "A  gentleman  had  a  Sparrow-Hawk 
which  used  to  live  in  his  dove-cote  among  his  pigeons ;  would  ac 
company  them  in  their  flights,  and  be  uneasy  if  separated  from 
its  strange  friends." 

It  builds  its  nests  upon  high  trees,  laying  four  or  five  eggs  of 
bluish  white,  marked  with  dark  brown. 

The  CHANTING- HAWK,  Melierax,  (Gr.  meti,  honey  ;  hierax,  a 
hawk,)  is  the  only  known  bird  of  prey  whose  voice  has  any 
sweetness,  or  is  at  all  pleasant  to  the  ear.  It  is  a  native  of  Af 
rica.  This  Hawk  chants  every  morning  and  evening  ;  sometimes 
it  continues  its  notes  the  whole  night  long.  In  size  it  equals  a 
Goshawk. 


RAPTORES.  289 

SECOND  FAMILY.     THE  VULTURES. 
Vulturidae.     (Lat.  vultur,  a  vulture.) 

This  Family  of  the  Raptorial  Birds,  feed  on  the  flesh  of  ani 
mals  already  dead.  Decomposition  is  not,  however,  a  necessary 
condition  of  their  food,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  may  fre 
quently  be  seen  regaling  themselves  on -the  flesh  of  an  animal 
within  half  an  hour  after  it  has  been  killed.  Their  geographical 
distribution  is  confined  to  warm  climates,  where  they  act  as 
scavengers  to  purify  the  earth  from  the  putrid  substances  with 
which  it  otherwise  would  be  encumbered.  They  are  generally 
protected  by  the  natives  of  the  countries  which  they  inhabit,  on 
account  of  their  utility  in  disposing  of  decayed  animal  remains. 

It  has  been  a  disputed  point,  whether  Vultures  are  directed  to 
their  fetid  food  by  the  sight,  or  the  smell.  Audubon  was  in 
favor  of  the  former,  as  the  directing  power ;  and  their  lofty 
flight  and  telescopic  eye,  are  extremely  well  adapted  to  assist 
these  birds  in  detecting  any  dying  or  dead  animal ;  but  many 
facts  mignt  be  adduced,  tending  to  show  that  these  birds  are 
guided  to  their  food  by  the  action  of  both  sight  and  smell. 

The  Vulture  tribe  are,  on  the  whole,  considerably  larger  than 
the  Falcon  birds,  but  they  are  much  less  courageous.  The 
beak  is  lengthened,  curved  downward  at  the  point,  and  not  in 
the  least  notched ;  the  talons  are  comparatively  weak,  by  no 
means  corresponding  with  the  stature  of  these  birds,  and  used  by 
them  far  less  than  the  beak.  In  order  that  the  parts  of  the  bird 
which  come  in  contact  with  its  offensive  food  might  not  become 
soiled  or  matted,  as  feathers,  of  course,  would  be  by  such  con 
tact,  the  head,  and  sometimes  the  neck,  in  a  greater  or  less  de 
gree,  are  naked,  or  else  covered  only  with  a  thin  down ;  the  legs, 
also,  at  the  lowest  part,  are  covered  with  scales,  and  not  with 
feathers,  as  in  the  Eagle.  The  wings  are  strong  and  large,  and 
the  general  plumage  uncommonly  thick  and  coarse. 

THE  GRIFFON  VULTURE,  Vultur  fulvus,  (Lat.  tawny,)  is 
found  throughout  a  large  extent  of  the  Eastern  Continent.  This 
Vulture  has  its  head  and  neck  covered  with  close  set,  short  and 
white  downy  feathers.  The  general  color  is  yellow  brown;  the 
length  more  than  four  feet. 

CATHARTES.  (Gr.  Kathartes,  a  purifier.)  The  Vultures  of 
this  genus  have  a  stout  beak,  but  not  the  fleshy  crest  which  these 
birds  sometimes  exhibit ;  and  the  head  and  neck  are  plumeless. 

THE  TURKEY  VULTURE,  or  TURKEY  BUZZARD,  C.  Aura,  (Gr. 
aura,  air,)  is  a  species  that  inhabits  a  vast  range  of  territory  in 


290  RAPTORES. 

the  warmer  parts  of  this  continent.  In  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States  of  the  American  Union,  it  is  partially  migratory,  the 
greater  part  returning  to  the  South  on  the  approach  of  cold 
weather.  When  full  grown,  it  is  not  far  from  three  feet  long  ; 
and  the  wings  expand  six  and  one-third  feet.  The  Turkey  Buz- 
zards  live  upon  all  sorts  of  foodj  "they  suck  the  eggs  and 
devour  the  young  of  many  species  of  birds,  and  even  eat  birds 
of  their  own  species  when  they  find  them  dead.  They  are 
daily  seen  in  the  streets  of  the  Southern  cities,  along  with  their 
relatives,  and  often  roost  with  them  on  the  same  trees."  (And.) 
In  Jamaica,  this  bird  is  protected  by  a  fine  of  five  pounds  ster 
ling  inflicted  upon  any  one  who  destroys  it  within  a  prescribed 
distance  from  the  principal  towns. 

THE  BLACK  VULTURE,  or  CARRION  CROW,  C.  atratus,  (Lat. 
clothed  in  black.) — is  smaller  than  the  preceding; — less  elegant 
in  form,  and  less  graceful  in  flight.  It  is  a  constant  resident  of 
all  the  Southern  States,  and  is  seen,  during  the  whole  day,  in  the 
principal  Southern  cities,  flying  or  walking  about  the  streets. 
Those  of  Charleston  resort  at  night  to  a  swampy  wood  across  the 
Ashley  river.  Audubon,  and  "his  friend  John  Bachman,  vis 
ited  this  roosting  place  together."  They  estimated  the  number 
of  these  vultures  which  they  saw,  at  several  thousands,  spread 
over  an  extent  of  two  acres. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  VULTURE,  C.  Californianus,  is  found  in  the 
valleys  and  plains  of  the  Western  Slope  of  this  Continent,  and  in 
size  bears  the  same  proportion  to  the  other  species  as  a  Golden 
Eagle  to  a  Goshawk.  The  length  of  this  Vulture  is  fifty-five 
inches.  It  builds  its  nest  upon  the  loftiest  trees;  the  eggs  are 
two,  nearly  spherical,  and  Jet  black. 

THE  EGYPTIAN  VULTURE,  Neophron  percnopterus,  (Gr.  perknos, 
black;  pteron,  wing;)  sometimes  called  Pharaoh's  Chicken,  or 
Hen,  has  a  pure  white  plumage,  except  the  great  quill-feathers, 
which  are  black  ;  the  length  is  a  little  more  than  two  feet. 

Sarcoramphus.  (Gr.  sarx,  flesh;  rhamphos,  beak.)  The 
Vultures  of  this  genus,  have  a  fleshy  tuft  growing  on  their  beaks, 
somewhat  like  the  wattles,  or  fleshy  excrescences  of  the  Turkey; 
they  have  also  the  Turkey's  naked  neck  and  long  and  oval 
nostrils. 

THE  CONDOR,  S.  gryphus,  (Gr.  grups,  a  griffon,) — is  a  bird 
respecting  whose  magnitude  exaggerated  statements  have  been 
often  made.  It  may,  indeed,  be  ranked  among  the  largest  birds 
which  have  the  power  of  flight ;  but  the  greatest  authentic  meas 
urement  makes  its  length  not  more  than  five  feet,  and  its  expanse 
of  wings  not  more  than  fourteen. 


RAPTORES.  291 

The  beak  of  the  Condor  is  four  inches  long,  and  straight  at  the 
base,  but  the  upper  mandible  becomes  arched  to  a  point,  and 
terminates  in  a  strong,  well  covered  hook, — so  strong  as  to  be 
able  to  pierce  the  body  of  a  bullock.  Around  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck  in  the  male  and  female  birds,  there  is  a  broad  white 
ruffof  downy  feathers,  which  forms  the  line  of  separation  between 
the  naked  skin  above,  and  the  true  feathers  covering  the  body 
below  it ;  on  the  head  is  a  species  of  comb.  (See  figure  of  Con 
dor  on  the  Chart.) 

The  Condor  is  found  in  the  Andes  from  one  end  of  South 
America  to  the  other;  but  is  most  numerous  in  Peru  and  Chili, 
and  is  frequently  met  with  at  an  elevation  of  from  10,000  to 
15.000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Here,  amidst  perpetual 
snow,  Condors  may  be  seen  in  groups  of  three  or  four,  but  never  in 
larger  companies,  like  the  true  Vultures.  The  Condor  descends 
to  the  plains  only  when  driven  by  the  demands  of  appetite ;  but 
soon  leaves  them  again  for  a  lighter  atmosphere.  "  The  pecul 
iarities  of  structure,"  says  Dr.  Roget,  "have  probably  a  relation 
to  the  capability  we  see  them  possess,  of  bearing  with  impunity, 
very  quick  and  violent  changes  of  atmospheric  pressure.  The 
Condor  of  the  Andes  is  often  seen  to  descend  rapidly,  from  a 
height  of  above  twenty  thousand  feet,  to  the  edge  of  the  sea, 
where  the  air  is  more  than  twice  the  density  of  that  which  the 
bird  has  been  breathing,  thus  encountering,  in  its  descent,  varia 
tions  of  barometrical  pressure  extending  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
nine  inches." 

The  general  color  of  the  Condor  is  brownish ;  the  feathers  on 
the  back,  however,  are  sometimes  perfectly  black.  This  bird 
does  not  build  any  nest,  but,  after  the  manner  of  many  sea-birds, 
lays  two  white  eggs,  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  a  Turkey, 
on  the  bare  lofty  rock.  It  is  very  strong,  and  highly  tenacious 
of  life.  Two  Condors  will  attack  and  kill  the  Llama,  or  even 
the  Puma;  by  their  repeated  buffeting  and  pecking,  wearying  it 
so  completely  that  it  finally  yields  to  their  power.  So  destruc 
tive  is  the  Condor,  that  various  methods  are  employed  by  the 
natives  in  S.  A.  to  capture  it.  Sometimes  a  person  clothed  in 
the  skin  of  a  newly  killed  animal,  goes  out,  and  entices  the 
Condor  to  attack  him ;  while  companions,  who  have  secreted 
themselves,  rush  out  from  their  hiding  places,  and  seize  it. 

THE  KING  VULTURE,  S.  papa,  is  much  smaller  than  the  Con 
dor,  but  of  a  brighter  plumage,  and  among  the  handsomest  of  the 
Vultures.  When  pressed  with  hunger,  he  will,  in  the  absence 
of  his  favorite  carrion,  feed  upon  snakes  and  lizards.  He  is  said 
to  be  called  the  KING  Vulture,  because  he  keeps  some  smaller 


292  RAPTORES. 

Vultures  under  subjection,  and  "does  not  suffer  them  to  approach 
a  dead  body  until  he  has  completely  satisfied  his  own  appetite, 
which  is  certainly  none  of  the  smallest."  This  Vulture  is  a 
native  of  South  America ;  near  the  central  portions  of  which  it 
is  abundant,  and  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  Florida,  U.  S. 

Gypaetus.  (Gr.  gups,  a  vulture;  aetos,  an  eagle.)  The 
birds  of  this  genus,  are  included  by  Gmelin,  under  the  genus 
Falco.  On  the  Chart,  these  are  accordingly  arranged  with  the 
Falconida,  but  they  perhaps  approach  most  nearly  to  the  Vul 
tures  in  habits  and  conformation,  and  we  have  thought  best  to 
place  them  with  the  Vulture  Family,  as  is  done  by  Prince  Buona 
parte  and  Mr.  Gray.  They  have  the  weaker  talons  of  the 
True  or  Griffon  Vultures;  the  head  and  neck,  however,  are 
feathered,  like  the  Eagles,  and  they  reject  putrid  matter  unless 
hard  pressed  by  hunger. 

THE  LAMMERGEYER,  (German,  LamVs  Eagle,}  or  BEARDED 
VULTURE,  G.  barbatus,  (Lat.  bearded,)  is  a  celebrated  bird, — not, 
however,  strictly  a  true  Vulture,  as  its  head  and  neck  are  feath 
ered,  and  it  rejects  putrid  flesh,  except  when  pressed  with  hunger. 

The  term  bearded  is  applied  to  this  bird  on  account  of  the  long 
tuft  of  hairs  with  which  each  nostril  is  clothed.  It  destroys 
hares,  and  young  or  sickly  sheep  and  goats ;  when  emboldened 
by  hunger,  it  does  not  fear  even  to  attack  man  himself.  The 
young  Chamois,  the  Mountain  Hare,  and  various  kinds  of  birds 
fall  victims  to  its  appetite.  The  head  and  neck  of  this  Vulture, 
are  a  dirty  white  ;  the  lower  parts  of  the  neck,  breast,  and  belly, 
orange  red;  the  back,  and  wing-coverts,  deep  gray  brown.  The 
Bearded  Vulture,  the  largest  bird  of  Europe,  is  a  little  more  than 
four  and  a  half  feet  in  length;  the  expansion  of  its  wings  is  from 
nine  to  ten  feet.  This  Vulture  inhabits  the  highest  mountains  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  also  found  in  the  lofty  mountains  of 
Central  Africa. 

THE  SECRETARY- VULTURE,  or  SERPENT-EATER,  Gypogeranus. 
(Gr.  gups,  a  vulture  ;  geranos,  a  bird,)  has,  in  regard  to  its  true 
position,  been  a  puzzle  to  naturalists.  This  very  remarkable 
bird  has  long  legs  like  a  wading  bird,  but,  in  other  respects, 
seems  to  rank  between  the  Vulture  and  the  Eagle.  It  feeds 
exclusively  upon  reptiles  and  serpents.  A  pendent  crest  appears 
on  the  back  of  the  head,  reminding  the  beholder  of  the  pen  stuck 
behind  the  ear  by  writing  clerks, — hence,  the  name  "  Secretary." 
It  chiefly  inhabits  the  arid  plains  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Attempts  have  been  ma,de  to  introduce 
this  bird  into  the  Antilles  with  a  view  to  diminish  the  Yellow 
Serpent,  Trigonocephalus,  (triangular-head,)  which  is  six  or  seven 
feet  long,  poisonous,  and  in  those  islands,  very  abundant. 


RAPTORES.  293 

THIRD  FAMILY.     OWLS. 
Strigida.     (Gr.  or^/l,  strix,  a  screech-owl.) 

The  family  of  Strigidce  comprise  the  Hawks  of  the  night, 
(Accipitres  nocturni.)  They  have  the  head  very  large,  with  great, 
dilated  and  projecting  eyes,  looking  forwards,  and  capable  of 
taking  in  every  ray  of  light.  The  power  of  vision  is  increased 
by  the  manner  in  which  the  eye  is  fixed  in  a  bony  socket,  just  like  J 
the  watch-makers  glass.  The  pupil  is  so  long  that  the  bird  is  daz 
zled  in  full  day,  and  hence  in  part  arises  the  stupid  appearance 
which  Owls  exhibit  in  the  sun-light.  Each  eye  is  encircled  by 
a  concave  disk,  or  circular  fringe,  formed  of  singularly  diverg 
ing  feathers,  and  assisting  these  birds  to  concentrate  their  whole 
faculty  of  sight  upon  the  object  directly  before  them,  just  as  we 
use  a  tube  in  looking  at  a  painting,  or  some  object  which  we  wish 
to  see  more  distinctly.  In  those  Owls  which  are  partly  diurnal 
in  their  habits,  this  circular  fringe  is  scarcely  discernible.  When 
the  feathers  which  form  the  hinder  part  of  the  disk  are  separated, 
the  great  ear  is  seen,  enclosed  between  two  valves  of  thin  skin, 
from  whose  edges  these  feathers  grow,  and  which  are  capable  of 
being  widely  opened,  at  the  bird's  will,  so  as  to  catch  every 
sound  that  may  give  notice  of  its  prey  amidst  the  silence  and 
darkness.  The  plumage  is  loose  and  downy, — a  character 
which  reaches  even  to  the  wing-quills;  hence  the  flight  of 
the  Owl  is  almost,  or  entirely  noiseless.  The  downy  feathers 
present  various  tints  of  dull  yellow,  and  brown  and  white  ; 
often  they  are  spotted  minutely,  and  very  delicately  penciled. 
The  Owls  have  the  strong  hooked  beaks  and  acute  claws  of 
the  raptorial  birds. 

In  some  species  of  this  family,  there  is  a  series  of  feathers 
more  or  less  lengthened,  on  each  side  of  the  top  of  the  head,  and 
which  can  be  erected  at  pleasure ;  when  raised,  they  have  some 
little  resemblance  to  horns,  or  to  the  erect  ears  of  a  cat.  These 
are  called  HORNED,  or  EARED  OWLS.  (PL  IX.  fig.  1.) 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  Owl  family  is  very  wide, 
species  being  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America  and  Aus 
tralia.  They  feed  on  birds  and  quadrupeds,  and  some  species 
on  fish.  The  large-horned  Owls,  of  Europe  and  America,  at 
tack  hares,  partridges,  grouse,  and  even  the  turkey  ;  but  mice, 
shrews,  small  birds,  snakes  and  crabs,  suffice  for  the  inferior 
strength  of  the  smaller  Owls. 

THE  OWL  FAMILY  may  be  arranged  into  three  divisions:  (1.) 
the  BARN  OWLS  ;  (2.)  the  TUFTLESS  OWLS  ;  and  (3.)  the  HORNED 


294  RAPRODES. 

OWLS.     The  species  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  our  notices 
of  them  must  be  few  and  general. 

(1.)  BARN  OWLS. 

Strix.  (Gr.  from  strizo.  to  screech.)  This  genus  includes  the 
Barn,  or  typical  group  of  Owls,  having  great  ears,  covered  with 
a  large  operculum,  or  ear-flap.  The  beak  is  lengthened,  and 
covered  only  towards  the  point ;  the  tarsi  are  rather  long  and 
feathered,  and  the  toes  clothed  with  hair.  The  Barn  Owls  are 
eminently  nocturnal ;  they  are  without  egrets,  or  tufts  of  feathers 
upon  the  head;  their  colors  are  generally  white  and  pale  buff, 
marked  and  speckled  with  bluish  gray ;  their  voices  loud  and 
discordant. 

The  Barn,  or  Screech  Owl,  S.  Jlammea,  (Lat.  flaming,)  is 
common  in  the  temperate  and  warmer  regions  of  Europe.  It 
hides  during  the  day  "in  deep  recesses,  among  ivy-clad  ruins,  in 
antique  church  towers,  in  the  hollows  of  old  trees,  in  barn-lofts, 
and  in  similar  places  of  seclusion."  At  night  it  sallies  forth  for 
prey,  which  consists  of  mice,  rats,  moles,  and  shrews.  The 
length  of  this  Owl  is  about  thirteen  inches. 

THE  AMERICAN  BARN  OWL,  -S.  -A?nericana,  is  closely  allied  to 
the  European  Barn  Owl  ;  the  color  is  of  a  darker  brown,  with 
the  ruff  red,  and  the  length  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  inches. 
It  is  much  more  abundant  in  the  Southern  section  of  the  Union 
than  in  the  other  parts,  and  is  also  found  quite  plentifully  in 
Cuba. 

(2.)  TUFTLESS  OWLS. 

These  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  family,  (excepting  the  Barn 
Owl.)  in  the  extraordinary  extension  of  the  fringes  of  feathers 
about  the  eye  ;  and  also  differ  among  each  other  in  their  adapta 
tion  to  diurnal  or  nocturnal  habits.  Like  the  Barn  Owls,  they 
are  widely  diffused  over  the  globe. 

Surnium.  (Gr.  owl,  or  inauspicious  bird.)  THE  HOOTING 
OWLS.  The  Owls  of  this  genus  hoot,  and  are  of  very  large  size. 
The  legs  are  rather  short,  with  the  toes  feathered.  The  plumage 
is  very  soft  and  downy ;  ^the  facial  disks  are  complete ;  the 
wings,  very  large  and  much  rounded. 

THE  GREAT  CINEREOUS  OWL,  -S.  cinereum,  (Lat.  ash-colored.) 
is  very  large,  the  female  being  about  two  and  a  half  feet  long. 
They  range  from  the  North-East  coast  of  the  United  States  to 
the  Columbia  river.  The  comparatively  small  size  of  their  eyes 
seems  to  indicate  that  they  hunt  by  day,  as  Audubon  suggests  ; 


RAPTORES.  295 

the  unusually  small  feet  and  claws  also  indicate  that  they  do 
not  prey  on  large  animals.  They  are  not  found  in  any  great 
numbers. 

Surnia.  (Gr.  owls.)  This  is  a  genus  of  Owls  having  small 
heads,  feathered  claws,  and  wedged  tails.  Unlike  the  Barn  Owl, 
they  seek  their  food  during  the  day.  Among  the  species  is  the 

BURROWING  OWL,  S.  cunicularia.  (Lat.  from  cuniculus,  a 
rabbit,)  found  on  the  plains  near  Columbia  river,  and  through 
out  the  whole  extent  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  resides  in  the 
forsaken  burrows  of  the  Badgers  and  Marmots,  (see  Prairie  Dogs 
in  our  account  of  the  Rodentia ;)  it  does  not,  however,  appear  to 
live  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  those  animals.  The  burrow 
selected  by  this  bird,  is  usually  found  at  the  foot  of  the  worm- wood 
bush,  (artemisia  absinthium,}  upon  the  summit  of  which,  this  Owl 
often  perches.  The  plumage,  as  Mr.  Townsend  states,  swarms 
with  fleas,  probably  left  in  their  burrows  by  the  Marmots  and 
Badger.  "I  know,"  says  Mr.  T.,  "of  no  other  bird  infested  by 
that  kind  of  vermin."  The  eggs  of  this  Owl  are  about  as  large 
as  those  of  the  common  House-Pigeon.  The  length  of  the  male 
is  ten  inches,  of  the  female,  eleven  inches. 

THE  GREAT  SNOWY  OWL,  S.  nyctea,(Gr.  from  nttx,)  is  nearly 
as  large  as  the  Eagle  Owl,  and  on  account  of  its  snowy  white- 
ness,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  tribe.  It  is  found  in  the 
high  mountain  latitudes  of  both  continents. 

(3.)  HORNED  OWLS. 

These  are  so  called,  from  having  the  head  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  tufts  of  feathers  longer  than  the  rest,  which  are  placed 
above  the  ears.  The  tufts  are  termed  egrets,  and  in  many  spe 
cies,  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will.  Of  this  division,  is  the 
genus  Bubo,  (Lat.  Horned  Owl,)  in  which  the  ear-opening  is 
small. 

THE  GREAT  HORNED  OWL,  EAGLE  OWL,  B.  maximus,  (Lat. 
greatest,)  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  nocturnal  birds,  being  not 
much  inferior  in  size  to  the  Golden  Eagle.  It  is  very  destruc 
tive  to  grouse,  hares,  and  even  fawns.  Formerly,  this  bird  was 
sometimes  used  by  falconers  to  entrap  the  Kite.  It  inhabits  the 
great  forests  of  Europe  ;  but  is  seldom  seen  in  England.  Pliny 
refers  to  it  as  an  ill-omened  bird,  on  account  of  whose  visits 
ancient  Rome  twice  underwent  lustration. 

THE  VIRGINIA  HORNED  OWL,  B.  Virginianus,  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  being  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  fur  countries  where  the  timber  is  of  large  size. 
Audubon  represents  it  to  be  quite  equal  to  the  Eagle  Owl  in 


296  RAPTORES. 

size.  "It  sails,"  says  Wilson,  "with  apparent  ease,  in  large  cir 
cles,  and  rises  and  descends  without  the  least  difficulty,  by 
merely  inclining  the  wings  or  its  tail  as  it  passes  through  the 
air."  Even  when  "not  more  than  fifty  yards  distant,  it  utters 
its  mournful  /too,  Aoo,  hoo-e,  in  so  peculiar  an  under  tone,  that 
to  those  not  acquainted  with  the  bird,  it  might  seem  they  were 
produced  by  an  Owl  more  than  a  mile  distant."  This  Owl  is 
very  powerful  and  daring,  attacking  half-grown  Turkeys  with 
success,  and  making  large  havoc  among  other  fowls. 

THE  LITTLE  SCREECH  OWL,  B.  Asio,  sometimes  called  the 
MOTTLED  OWL,  and  when  young,  the  RED  OWL  of  Wilson, — is 
only  about  ten  inches  long ;  and  usually  found  about  farm 
houses,  orchards,  and  gardens.  Audubon  "carried  one  of  the 
young  birds  in  his  coat-pocket  from  Philadelphia  to  New  York, 
traveling  alternately  by  water  and  by  land.  It  remained  gener 
ally  quiet,  fed  from  the  hand,  and  never  attempted  to  escape." 
The  Little  Screech  Owl  is  found  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  in 
Virginia  and  Maryland. 

Otus.  (Gr.  ous,  an  ear.)  In  this  genus,  the  conch  of  the  ear 
is  of  enormous  size. 

THE  EARED  OWL  is  common  to  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Continents ;  in  Pennsylvania,  it  is  much  more  numerous  than 
the  White  or  Barn  Owl.  (Wilson.)  Of  this  genus,  there  are  two 
species, — the  O.  vulgaris,  the  Long-Eared  Owl,  and  O.  brachyo- 
tus,  (Gr.  brachus,  short,)  the  Short-Eared  Owl.  In  the  latter, 
the  head  tufts  are  inconspicuous.  The  size  excepted,  these 
Owls  resemble  the  Great  Horned  Owl. 

What  is  the  first  order  of  LAND  BIRDS  ?  What  other  name  is  sometimes 
given  to  it?  Into  what  sub-orders  is  it  divided?  Give  the  general  charac 
ters  of  the  Birds  of  Prey.  What  is  the  comparative  size  of  the  females  of 
this  order  ?  How  many  families  do  they  include  ?  Into  what  SUB-FAMI 
LIES  does  Swainson  divide  the  FALCONS  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Falcons  as  a 
family  ?  Why  in  treating  of  the  Falcon  Tribe  is  the  first  place  given  to  the 
Eagle?  Have  Eagles  a  distinct  notch  or  tooth  in  the  upper  mandible? 
What  is  said  of  the  Golden  Eagle  ?  Why  is  it  called  Golden  ?  Is  the  fcing- 
tailed  Eagle  a  distinct  species  ?  What  fact  is  given  showing  the  longevity 
of  the  Golden  E.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  size,  plumage,  &c.  of  the  Bald  or 
White-Headed  E.  ?  What  is  one  of  its  favorite  haunts  ?  What  does  Dr. 
Franklin  say  of  it  ?  When  was  the  Washington  Sea  E.  first  observed  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Harpy  Eagle  ?  What  of  the  Caracara  Eagle  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  Fish-Hawk  or  Bald-Buzzard  ?  What  of  the  Harrier  ? 


What  characters  separate  the  Kites  or  Second  Family  from  the  other 
Birds  of  Prey  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Common  Kite  or  Glede  ?  What  of 
the  Swallow  or  Forked-tailed  Hawk  ?  What  of  the  genus  Elanus  and  its 


RAPTORES.  297 

species  ?     What  of  the  genus  Ictinea  1     What  species  is  mentioned,  and 
what  is  said  of  it  ? 

Give  some  account  of  the  Third  Sub-Family.  What  is  said  of  the  Com 
mon  Buzzard  ?  What  of  the  Ked-tailed  B.  ?  What  other  species  of  the 
genus  Buteo  is  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Honey  Buzzard  ? 

What  is  the  Fourth  Sub-Family?  Which  is  the  typical  genus  of  the 
FALCONID^E  ?  What  is  said  of  the  plumage  and  flight  of  the  Peregrine 
Falcon  ?  What  gives  peculiar  interest  to  this  bird  ?  What  is  meant  by 
Falconry  ?  State  some  particulars  respecting  it  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Jer- 
Falcon  ?  What  of  the  Merlin  and  Kestrel? 

What  is  the  Fifth  Sub-Family?  Mention  their  characters.  Give  an 
account  of  the  Gos-hawk  ?  Which  is  the  type  bird  of  this  Sub-Family  ? 
What  is  said  of  it  ?  Where  is  the  Chanting  Hawk  found  ?  Why  is  it  so 
named  ? 


Which  is  the  SECOND  FAMILY  of  the  Birds  of  Prey?  On  what  do  they 
feed  ?  To  what  climates  are  they  confined  ?  How  are  they  treated  by  the 
inhabitants?  What  has  been  a  disputed  point?  How  do  they  compare 
with  the  Falcons  ?  What  characteristics  are  given  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Griffon  Vulture ?  What  of  the  Turkey  V.  or  Buzzard?  What  of  the 
Black  V.  or  Carrion  Crow?  What  of  the  Egyptian  V.  ?  To  what  genua 
does  the  Condor  belong  ?  Give  particulars  respecting  it.  What  is  said  of 
the  King  V.  ?  To  what  genus  does  the  Lammergeyer  or  Bearded  V.  be 
long  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  of  the  Secretary  Vulture  or  Serpent 
Eater  ? 


Which  is  the  THIRD  and  last  FAMILY  of  the  Birds  of  Prey  ?  Give  the 
characteristics  and  habits  of  the  Owl  Family.  What  is  their  Geographical 
distribution?  Into  what  divisions  are  they  arranged?  What  species  of 
the  Barn  Owls  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  them  ?  How  do  the  Tuft- 
less  0.  differ  from  the  Barn  0.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Gr^at  Cinerous  0.  ? 
What  of  the  Burrowing  Owl  ?  What  of  the  Great  Snowy  0.  ?  Why  are 
the  Horned  Owls  so  called?  What  is  said  of  the  Great  Horned  0.?  What 
of  the  Virginia  0.  ?  What  of  the  Little  Screech  0.  ?  What  Eared  Owls  are 
mentioned  of  the  genus  Otus  ?  Trace  thus  every  bird  of  this  Family  men 
tioned  on  the  Chart.  The  HARPY.EAGLE  is  of  the  species  destructor,  genus 
Harpyia,  sub-family  AQUILINE,  family  FALCONID^E,  order  RAPTORES,  sub 
class,  LAND  Birds,  class  BIRDS,  division  of  WARM-BLOODED  ANIMALS,  sub- 
kingdom,  VERTEBRATES.  Give  the  derivation  of  these  several  terms. 


293  INSESSORES. 


SECTION  II. 

ORDER   II.— INSESSORES,    OR    PASSERES.       PERCHING 

BIRDS. 

These  birds  are  of  smaller  size  than  those  of  the  other  orders. 
Naturalists  regard  them  as  exhibiting,  in  the  highest  degree,  those 
properties  by  which,  as  a  class,  birds  are  distinguished. 

So  many  are  the  variations  of  form  and  structure  which  are 
found  in  this  group,  (about  equaling  in  number  that  of  all  the 
other  orders  taken  together,)  that  but  few  positive  characters  can 
be  assigned,  which  are  common  alike  to  the  whole  group  and  to  a 
particular  division.  Its  distinctions  are  mostly  negative  ;  for  the 
group  includes  neither  swimmers,  waders,  nor  climbers,  neither 
rapacious  nor  gallinaceous  birds  ;  and  yet,  by  comparing  the  va 
rious  tribes  which  it  includes,  a  general  resemblance  of  struc 
ture  becomes  apparent. 

These  birds  have  the  power  of  grasping  the  branches  and  twigs  of 
trees  with  their  feet,  and  are  accustomed  to  rest  upon  them  ;  hence 
they  are  called  Perchers  ;  (Plate  X.  fig.  4.)  the  hind  toe  is  al 
ways  present  and  placed  on  the  same  level  or  plane  as  those  in  front ; 
and  the  claws  are  incapable  of  being  raised  as  in  the  Birds  of 
Prey.  The  larger  portion  of  the  species  usually  dwell  in  woods 
and  thickets.  All  have  the  faculty  of  flight  in  full  perfection, 
and  in  the  Swifts  and  Humming  Birds  it  may  be  regarded  as  at 
its  highest  development.  The  beak  in  the  Perchers  differs 
greatly  in  form,  but  its  common  shape  is  that  of  a  cone,  more  or 
less  lengthened.  In  some  of  the  genera  a  notch  appears  near 
the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible,  indicating  some  affinity  for  the 
habits  of  the  Falcon  tribe  ;  but.  this  gradually  disappears  in  the 
others. 

The  food  of  these  birds  is  various  in  its  kinds ;  but  by  far  the 
larger  part  feed  either  upon  insects  or  the  seeds  of  vegeta 
bles,  which  they  almost  always  procure  by  the  beak  alone. 

This  order  has  peculiar  interest  as  including  the  sweet  song 
sters  whose  soothing  influence  is  so  widely  felt  and  acknowledged. 

The  larynx,  or  organ  of  voice,  is  in  these  birds  always  of 
complex  structure,  so  that  there  are  few  of  them  that  do  not,  du 
ring  the  pairing  season,  either  sing  or  utter  some  peculiar  note  or 
chatter  analogous  to  song. 

The  instinct  of  birds  in  building  their  nests,  is  in  those  of  this 
order  most  strikingly  displayed.  Admirable  indeed  are  the  com 
pact  felted  nests  of  the  Hummin<r-bird.  of  the  Goldfinch  r»f  v«i 


ZDX 


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LAND  BIRDS.  InseSS 


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•^•jp-^jjir^ 
AQUATIC  BIRDS.^   .Matatores 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  X. 

Pig.  1.  The  DUNLIN  or  PURRE,  (Tringa  variabilis,)  showing  the  principal 
parts  of  the  plumage,  particularly  those  most  conducive  to  flight;  a, 
the  front ;  b,  the  throat ;  c,  the  occiput ;  d,  the  cheek ;  e,  auri 
cle,  or  auditory  conch;  f,  breast;  g,  back;  h,  scapularies;  i,  i. 
lesser  coverts;  k,  k.  winglet  or  spurious  wing;  1,  1.  greater  coverts; 
m,  m.  the  primaries  or  greater  quill  feathers  of  wing,  which  are  suc 
ceeded  by  n,  n.  the  secondaries,  and  these  by  o,  o.  the  tertials; 
p,  the  upper  tail  coverts;  q,  the  under  tail  coverts;  r,  the  tail 
feathers,  (rectrices.) 

Fig.  2.  The  wing  of  common  Buzzard,  (Buteo  vulaaris,)  stripped  of  all  its 
feathers  excepting  those  which  give  it  power  and  expansibility,  and 
which  are  those  arising  from  the  hand  and  ulna,  termed  quill  feathers. 
They  form  two  sets;  the  first  set,  (m,)  consists  of  those  arising  from 
the  hand,  (metacarpus  and  phalanges,)  constituting  the  most  important 
of  the  series,  being  mainly  instrumental,  by  their  length  and  shape, 
their  stiffness  or  flexibility,  in  determining  the  character  or  the  power 
of  flight.  They  are  termed  the  pinions  or  primary  quill-feathers,  and 
are  ten  in  number,  but  they  differ  in  form,  as  in  relative  length.  The 
second  set  arises  exclusively  from  the  ulna,  and  are  termed  the  second 
aries  or  secondary  quill-feathers,  (n.)  They  are  usually  shorter,  broader, 
and  less  rigid  than  the  former.  Their  number  varies.  From  the  small 
bone  which  represents  the  thumb,  arise  certain  stiff  feathers,  lying 
close  upon  the  quills  of  the  primaries,  and  constituting  the  spurious 
wing  or  winglet,  (k.)  Besides  these,  there  is  a  group  of  feathers  termed 
tertiaries,  arising  from  the  humeral  joint  of  the  fore-arm,  and  which  in 
many  birds,  as  the  curlews,  plovers,  lapwings,  &c.,  are  very  long,  form 
ing  a  sort  of  pointed  appendage,  very  apparent  during  flight;  in  most 
birds,  however,  they  are  very  short,  or  not  to  be  discriminated  from 
the  rest  of  the  greater  covei'ts,  of  which,  in  fact,  they  are  a  continua 
tion;  hence  they  cannot  be  strictly  reckoned  among  the  quill-feathers. 
The  same  observation  applies  to  the  feathers  (o,)  attached  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  humerus  and  termed  scapularies ;  these  lie  along  the  sides 
of  the  back,  and  in  many  birds  are  of  great  length. 

LAND  BIRDS. 
ORDER  1st.     BIRDS  OF  PREY,  RAPTORES  OR  ACCIPITRES. 

Fig.  3.  a,  White-headed,  Sea,  or  Bald  Eagle,  seizing  the  fish  just  obtained 
by  b,  the  Fish-hawk  or  common  Osprey. 

ORDER  2nd.     PERCHING  BIRDS,  INSESSORES  OR  PASSERS. 
Fig.  4.  a,  Long-eared  Podargus;  b,  Ruby-throated  Humming-bird;  c,  Blue- 
jay  ;  d,  Green  Tody  ;  e,  Black-cap  Titmouse  ;  f,  Wagtail. 

ORDER  3rd.     CLIMBERS,  SCANSORES. 
Fig.  5.  a,  Cockatoo;  b,  Green  Woodpeckers. 


ORDER  4th.     SCRATCHERS,  RASORES. 
Fig.  6.  a,  Ruffed  Grouse ;  b,  California  Partridge  or  Quail. 


ORDER  5th.     RUNNERS  OR  TRATELERS,  CURSORES. 
Fig.  7.  Cassowary  or  Asiatic  Ostrich. 

WATEJ^BIRDS. 

ORDER  6th.    WADERS,  STILTS,  OR  SHORE  BIRDS,  GRALLATORES. 
Fig.  8.  a,  Crowned  Crane ;  b,  Virginia  Rail ;  c,  Little  Sand-piper. 

ORDER  Yth.     SWIMMERS,  NATATORES  OR  PALMIPEDES. 
Fig.  9.  a,  Northern  Pivor;  b,  Putngouinn  Penguin. 


302  INSESSORES. 

low-bird,  and  of  the  Bottle-tit  or  Penduline  Tit-mouse,  and  the 
woven,  purse-like  nests  of  the  Oriole  and  the  Starlings.  (Plate 
XL) 

The  Perchers  always  live  in  pairs ;  in  general,  the  female  is 
smaller  and  less  brilliant  in  her  plumage  than  the  male.  The 
young  leave  the  egg  in  a  blind  and  naked  state,  and  for  a  while 
are  entirely  dependent  upon  parental  care  for  their  subsistence. 

For  convenience,  this  large  order  has  been  arranged  into  four 
tribes  or  sub-divisions,  founded  on  the  varying  form  of  the  beak, 
viz.:  (1)  Fissirostres,  (Split-bills;)  (2)  Dentirostres,  (Toothed - 
bills;)  (3)  Conirostres,  (Cone-shaped  bills;)  and  (4)  Tenuiros- 
tres,  (Slender-bills.) 

FIRST  DIVISION  OF  THE  PERCHERS.     SPLIT-BILLED  BIRDS 
Fissirostres,  (Lat.  jissura,  a  slit ;  rostrum  a  beak.) 

This  division  of  the  INSESSORES  is  a  comparatively  small  one, 
but  is  readily  distinguished  from  all  the  others  by  the  beak. 
This  is  short  but  broad,  and  more  or  less  flattened  horizontally, 
often  hooked  at  the  tip,  and  very  deeply  cleft,  so  that  the  open 
ing  of  the  mouth,  (or  gape,)  is  extremely  wide.  (Plate  IX.  fig. 
14.)  Most  of  the  species  feed  upon  insects,  which  they  take 
when  on  the  wing,  receiving  them  in  full  flight  into  their  open 
mouths.  One  genus,  Alcedo,  the  King-Fisher,  subsists  on  fishes. 
The  Fissirostres,  like  the  birds  of  prey,  may  be  divided  into  di 
urnal  and  nocturnal.  Their  principal  home  is  in  tropical  coun 
tries.  Some  species  are  found  in  the  temperate  zone,  but  rather 
as  migratory  visitors  than  as  permanent  residents,  and,  on  the  ap 
proach  of  winter,  they  depart  to  more  congenial  climes.  Many 
of  the  species  are  celebrated  for  the  brilliant  hues  which  adorn 
their  plumage. 

The  Split-bills  are  divided  into  six  families,  viz.  :  (1)  Capri- 
mulgida,  (Night-jars  ;)  (2)  HirundinidcR,  (Swallows ;)  (3)  Mer- 
opicUz,  (Bee-eaters;)  (4)  Trogonidce,  (Trogons ;)  (5)  Todidce, 
(Todies  ;)  (6)  Alcedinidce,  (King- fishers.) 

FIRST  FAMILY.     The  NIGHT-JARS. 
Caprimulgida,  (Lat.   Caprimulgus,  Goat-Sucker.) 

These  birds  have  the  beak  exceedingly  small,  but  the  gape 
enormous  ;  (Plate  IX.  fig.  14 ;)  .its  sides  are,  for  the  most  part 
fringed  with  long  stiff  bristles  called  vibrissce  ;  and  the  interior 
of  the  mouth  is  moistened  with  a  glutinous  secretion,  both  which 
aid  them  to  secure  their  insect  prey.  The  wings  are  long  and 


INSESSORES.  £03 

formed  for  powerful  flight ;  the  feet  very  small  and  feathered  to 
the  toes,  which  are  connected  at  the  base  by  a  membrane.  The 
claw  of  the  middle  toe,  in  most  of  the  genera,  is  extended  on 
one  side,  the  edge  being  cut  into  regularly  formed  teeth,  like  those 
of  a  comb,  and  used,  as  is  thought,  for  cleaning  their  plumage. 

The  Night-jars  are  nocturnal  or  crepuscular  in  their  habits, 
chasing  their  insect  food  by  night,  or  at  dusk,  when  the  beetles  and 
large  moths  are  on  the  wing,  for  the  capture  of  which  the  formation 
of  the  mouth  is  admirably  fitted. 

In  their  nocturnal  movements,  their  feathered  feet,  their  large 
ears  and  eyes,  and  in  other  additional  respects,  an  analogy  is  dis 
coverable  between  these  birds  and  the  Owls,  and  one  which  is 
recognized  in  the  common  names,  Fern  Owl,  Churn  Owl,  &c., 
applied  to  some  of  the  species.  Indeed,  the  Night-jars  are  evi 
dently  to  be  regarded  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  Perchers 
and  Birds  of  Prey. 

The  species  of  these  birds  are  widely  spread.  Their  colors 
are  usually  various  shades  of  black,  brown,  gray  and  white, 
beautifully  intermingled  with  minute  waves,  lines  and  spots. 

Instead  of  being  noxious  and  mischievous,  they  are  the  most 
harmless  and  useful  of  birds,  destroying  the  scavenger  beetles 
and  moths,  those  great  enemies  of  vegetation. 

The  term  GOAT  SUCKERS,  also  applied  to  these  birds  as  far 
back  as  the  days  of  Aristotle,  is  derived  from  a  silly  notion  that 
they  suck  goats,  an  idea  about  as  credible  as  the  one  some 
times  entertained  that  hedgehogs  suck  cows,  or  cats  the  breath 
of  children.  The  voices  of  the  Night-jars,  like  those  of  the 
Owls,  are  often  harsh  and  strange  ;  and  sometimes  they  show  a 
peculiar  vibratory  or  quivering  character.  Some  of  these  noc 
turnal  birds,  (Podargus,  Gr.  pous,  a  foot;  argos,  inactive,)  have 
a  beak  nearly  as  strong  as  an  Owl's;  others  of  them,  (Psalurus, 
Gr.  psalis,  scissors;  oura,  tail,)  have  forked  tails  of  excessive 
length  ;  and  one  species,  (C.  diurnis,  Lat.  diurnal.)  is  "seen  in 
cloudy  days  in  troops  of  fifteen  or  twenty,  skimming  over  the 
surface  of  ponds  precisely  in  the  manner  of  swallows." 

The  COMMON  GOAT-SUCKER  of  Europe,  C.  Europaus,  (see 
fig.  on  Chart.) 

This  is  a  beautiful  Night-jar,  in  its  migrations  reaching  Eng 
land  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  departing  near  the  end  of 
September.  Its  length  is  about  ten  inches.  It  builds  no  nest, 
but  lays  two  mottled  eggs  on  the  ground.  Frequently  this  bird 
sits  on  a  branch  or  a  fence-rail,  and  with  the  head  as  low  as  the 
feet,  utters,  with  swollen,  quivering  throat,  its  singular  jarring 


304  INSESSORES. 

note,  for  a  long  space  at  a  time,  and  without  seeming  to  draw 
breath. 

The  CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW,  C.  Carolinensis,  is  an  interesting 
American  Night-jar,  but  rarely  found  beyond  Mississippi  or  the 
Carolinas  on  the  sea-board.  It  is  the  southern  species  of  the 
United  States.  In  sound  and  articulation,  it  seems  to  express 
the  words  of  its  name,  putting  the  chief  emphasis  upon  the  last 
word.  Its  head  and  back  are  of  a  dark  brown  color,  mottled 
with  red,  and  streaked  side  wise  with  black  ;  the  lower  parts  are 
of  a  dull  reddish  yellow.  The  length  of  the  male  is  twelve  and 
three-fourths  inches  ;  of  the  female  thirteen  and  one-fourth 
inches.  The  notes  of  this  bird  are  seldom  heard  in  cloudy 
weather,  and  never  when  it  rains.  It  forms  no  nest ;  its  eggs 
are  oval,  of  a  dull  olive  speckled  with  brown,  and  are  placed  in 
a  little  space  carelessly  scratched  amongst  the  dead  leaves.  If 
the  eggs  are  touched,  both  parents  remove  them  to  some  other 
place  of  deposit  in  the  woods,  where  they  cann  jt  easily  be  again 
discovered. 

The  WHIP-POOR-WILL,  C.  vocrferus,  (Lat.  vox,  voice ;  fero^io 
bear  or  give  forth,)  is  seen  at  the  approach  of  spring  in  most 
parts  of  the  Western  and  Southern  States,  and  in  small  tracts, 
thinly  covered  with  timber,  in  the  Middle  States  also.  Like  its 
near  relative,  the  Chuck-will's-widow,  it  is  not  often  seen  during 
the  day,  except  when  discovered  casually  in  a  state  of  repose  ; 
and  it  is  much  distressed  by  being  forced  to  face  a  brilliant  light. 
In  the  dusk  of  the  evening,  however,  this  bird  becomes  active 
and  diligent  in  securing  its  insect  prey.  Its  flight  is  light  and 
noiseless,  the  motion  of  its  wings  only  causing  a  gentle  undula 
tion  in  the  air,  scarcely  noticed  by  a  person  a  few  feet  distant. 
An  imagined  resemblance  of  its  notes  to  the  syllables  whip-poor- 
will,  has  given  this  bird  that  common  name.  Its  song  is  pro 
longed  for  several  hours  after  sunset.  The  male  bird  is  nine 
and  one-half  inches  long.  (See  Chart.) 

Stealornis,  (Gr.  stear,  fat;  orm's,  a  bird.) 

The  birds  which  this  term  includes  were  ranked  by  Cuvier  in 
the  genus  Podargus,  but  on  account  of  their  peculiar  food  and 
habits,  were  erected  by  Humboldt  into  a  separate  genus. 

The  GuACHARO-BiRD,  S.  Caripensis,  (belonging  to  Caripe,) 
takes  its  name  from  the  mountain  of  Guacharo,  near  the  valley 
of  Caripe,  South  America.  It  has  a  wedge-shaped  tail,  is  about 
the  size  of  a  common  fowl,  and  covered  with  plumage  of  a 
brownish  gray  color,  mixed  with  small  furrowed  lines  and  black 
dots.  The  Guacharo  mountain  is  noted  for  its  large  cave,  pierced 
in  the  vertical  profile  of  the  rock,  eighty  feet  broad  and  seventy- 


INSESSORES.  305 

two  feet  high,  which  was  entered  by  Humboldt  and  his  com 
panions.  After  penetrating  not  far  from  four  hundred  and  fifty 
feet,  they  heard  from  afar  the  hoarse  cries  of  the  Guacharo 
Birds.  These  birds  quit  the  cavern  only  at  nightfall,  especially 
when  there  is  moonlight.  Elumboldt  remarks  that  they  are  the 
only  friagivorous  birds  of  the  night  yet  known.  They  feed  on 
very  hard  fruits,  and  reject  the  insect  food  of  which  other  Goat- 
Suckers  are  fond.  Once  a  year,  near  midsummer,  this  cave  is 
entered  by  the  Indians.  Armed  with  poles,  they  ransack  the 
greater  part  of  the  nests,  while  the  old  birds  hover  over  the  heads 
of  the  robbers,  as  if  to  defend  their  brood,  uttering,  at  the  same 
time,  horrible  cries.  The  young  which  fall  down  are  killed 
upon  the  spot.  The  inner  parts  of  these  birds  are  laden  with 
fat ;  darkness  and  repose,  as  Humboldt  suggests,  favoring  its  for 
mation,  as  in  the  case  of  geese  and  oxen.  The  fat  of  these  birds, 
when  melted,  is  called  the  butter  or  oil  of  the  Guacharo ;  it  is 
half  liquid,  transparent  and  inodorous,  and  so  pure  that  it  will 
keep  a  year  or  more  without  becoming  rancid.  The  crops  and 
gizzards  of  the  young  birds,  when  opened  in  the  cavern,  are 
found  to  contain  all  sorts  of  hard  and  dry  fruits,  which  are  con 
veyed  to  them  by  their  parents.  These  are  preserved,  and,  un 
der  the  name  of  Guacharo-seed,  are  considered  a  remedy  against 
intermittent  fevers.  The  cave  of  the  Guacharo  is  situated  in 
South  Lat.  10o  10'. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     The  SWALLOWS  or  MARTINS. 
Hirundinidce,  (Lat.  Hirundo,  a  swallow.) 

The  family  of  Swallows  resemble  the  Night-jars  in  the  small- 
ness  of  the  beak,  and  the  great  width  of  the  gape,  as  they  do  also 
in  the  weakness  and  greatly  reduced  size  of  the  feet.  They, 
however,  differ  from  the  Night-jars  in  being  active  during  the 
day,  and  hence  are  included  in  the  sub-tribe,  Fissirostres  diurni, 
or  Diurnal  Split-billed  Birds.  The  Swallows  are  also  of  far 
more  powerful  wing  than  the  Night-jars,  nor  have  their  feathers 
the  lax  softness,  or  the  mottled  style  of  coloration  common  to 
birds  of  the  night ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  plumage  is  close, 
smooth,  and  often  burnished  with  a  metallic  gloss;  while  the  pre 
vailing  shades  are  black,  (more  or  less  changing  into  blue  or 
green.)  above,  and  white,  often  varying  with  dull  red,  beneath. 

The  smallness  of  their  feet  is  in  correspondence  with  their  al 
most  perpetual  flight ;  they  even  drink  on  the  wing  ;  and  their 
feet,  being  small  and  weak,  are  little  used,  yet  as  these  birds 
often  cling  to  rocks  and  walls  when  they  do  rest,  their  toes  are 


306  INSESSORES. 

furnished  with  sharp  crooked  claws,  and  the  hind  toe  can  either 
wholly,  as  in  the  Swifts,  or  partially,  as  in  the  common  Chimney 
Swallow,  be  brought  to  point  forward. 

The  Swallows  are  widely  scattered  over  the  globe,  but  still  are 
eminently  fond  of  warm  latitudes ;  they  roam,  indeed,  over  the 
temperate  zones,  and  even  advance  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic 
circle,  but  only  in  the  summer  season  ;  when  cold  weather  ap 
proaches,  they  hasten  to  equatorial  climes.  Everywhere  they 
are  known  as  birds  of  great  speed,  for  which  they  are  fitted  by 
the  firm  and  close  plumage  of  their  bodies,  their  long,  stiff,  and 
pointed  wing-feathers,  and  their  long  and  forked  tails. 

Cypselus,  (Gr.  kupselos,  a  martin.)  SWIFTS  or  MARTINS. 
The  birds  of  this  genus  have  the  toes  thickly  feathered,  and 
all  the  four  toes  directed  forwards.  The  species  C.  apous,  (Gr. 
without  feet,)  is  the  SWIFT,  or  BLACK  MARTIN.  This  specific 
name  is  given  to  this  bird  on  account  of  the  exceeding  smallness 
of  its  feet.  It  is  spread  over  Europe  in  the  summer  season,  and 
is_popularly  known  as  "Jack  Screamer."  This  is  one  of  the 
swiftest  of  the  Swallow  family,  appearing  to  spend  the  whole 
day  on  the  wing,  and  occasionally  soaring  almost  out  of  sight, 
but  screaming  so  shrilly  that  the  sound  is  plainly  heard.  The 
Black  Martins  destroy  a  very  great  number  of  insects,  retaining 
them  in  a  kind  of  pouch  under  the  tongue  for  the  use  of  their 
young,  and  constantly  renewing  the  supply. 

Chaetura,  (Gr.  chaile,  bristle;  oura,  tail.)     SPINE-TAILS. 
The  Spine-tails  have  the  tarsus  bare  and  longer  than  the  mid 
dle  toe ;  the  tail  short  and  even  ;  the  shafts  prolonged  into  sharp 
points. 

C.  pelasgia,  (Gr.  pelazo,\.o  come  near,)  is  the  AMERICAN  SWIFT, 
or  CHIMNEY  SWALLOW,  a  bird  which  seems  to  show  its  appreci 
ation  of  the  progress  of  civilization  by  leaving  its  old  abodes  in 
the  hollows  of  trees,  and  taking  possession  of  chimneys  free  from 
smoke  in  the  summer  season.  This  bird  builds  its  nest  in  a 
semi-circular  form.  The  nest  is  glued  together  with  the  saliva 
or  unctuous  matter  secreted  in  glands  provided  for  that  purpose, 
and  with  the  same  saliva  it  is.  fastened  to  trees  or  to  a  chimney 
wall.  When  the  nest  is  in  a  chimney,  it  is  usually  placed  on 
the  east  side,  from  five  to  eight  feet  from  the  entrance  ;  when  in 
the  hollow  of  a  tree,  it  is  placed  high  or  low,  according  to  con- 
venience.  Audubon  counted  more  than  a  thousand  that  "  entered 
one  chimney  before  dark,"  and  he  estimated  that  nine  thousand 
roosted  in  a  single  tree  which  he  watched  near  Louisville,  Ken- 
tucky.  This  Swallow  rears  two  broods  in  a  season.  It  does  not 


INSESSORES.  807 

migrate  farther  east  than  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  State  of  New 
York  it  appears  about  the  last  of  April. 

The  ESCULENT  SWALLOW,  H.  esculenta,  is  the  maker  ofihe 
edible  bird-nests,  (see  Chart.)  esteemed  such  a  delicacy  among 
the  Chinese,  and  a  considerable  article  of  their  commerce. 
These  nests  are  made  of  a  species  of  sea- weed,  (fucus.)  The 
bird  macerates  and  bruises  it  before  forming  the  material  in  lay 
ers  so  as  to  construct  the  whitish  gelatinous  cup-shaped  nests. 
The  finest  are  those  obtained  before  the  nest  has  been  contami 
nated  by  the  young.  These  are  pure  white,  scarce  and  valuable. 
The  inferior  ones  are  dark,  discolored,  or  mixed  with  feathers. 
These  are  generally  converted  into  glue.  The  only  preparation 
for  sale  which  these  bird-nests  undergo,  is  that  of  simple  drying, 
without  exposure  to  the  sun,  after  which  they  are  packed  in 
small  boxes.  They  are  assorted  into  three  kinds  for  the  Chinese 
market,  according  to  their  relative  values,  and  distinguished  into 
first  or  best,  second  and  third  qualities. 

These  nests  are  found  in  Java,  and  they  are  particularly 
abundant  in  Sumatra.  They  are  regarded  as  an  article  of  ex 
pensive  luxury,  and  sold  at  most  extraordinary  prices  ;  they  are 
consequently  consumed  by  persons  of  rank  alone.  The  sensual 
Chinese  use  them  under  an  impression  t*hat  they  are  powerfully 
stimulating  and  tonic ;  but  probably  their  most  valuable  quality 
is  their  perfect  harmlessness. 

The  BARN  SWALLOW,  H.  rustica,  (Lat.  of  the  country,) 
ranges  in  the  spring  from  New  Orleans  to  Newfoundland.  The 
same  name  is  given  to  the  Chimney  Swallow  of  England,  which 
in  its  song  this  bird  entirely  resembles.  The  nest  of  this  bird  is 
something  like  a  section  of  an  inverted  cone,  and  is  attached  to 
the  side  of  a  beam  or  rafter  in  a  barn  or  shed.  The  Barn  Swal 
low  surpasses  in  speed  every  other  species,  except  the  Humming 
Bird.  The  tail  is  deeply  forked,  the  side  feathers  of  which  much 
exceed  the  wings  in  length. 

The  PURPLE  MARTIN,  H.  purpurea,  (Lat.  of  a  purple  color,) 
is  seen  early  in  April,  and  for  its  reception  in  our  cities  habita 
tions  are  sometimes  furnished ;  occasionally  its  nests  are  seen  in 
the  corners  of  houses.  Its  flight  is  easy  and  graceful,  but  not 
so  swift  as  that  of  the  Barn  Swallow.  Audubon  was  of  the  opin 
ion  that  this  Swallow  goes  farther  south  than  any  other  of  our 
migratory  birds. 

Other  interesting  species  are  H.  riparia,  (Lat.  ripa,  a  bank.) 
the  BANK  SWALLOW,  or  Sand  Martin,  which  perforates  sand  banks 
and  makes  its  nest  in  the  holes  ;  (Plate  XI.  fig.  10;)  H.  thalas- 
sina,  (Gr.  tlialassa,  the  sea,)  the  VIOLET  GREEN  SWALLOW  ;  H. 


308  INSESSORES. 

fuha,  (Lat.  tawny,)  the  REPUBLICAN,  or  CLIFF  SWALLOW.  This 
latter  species  was  described  by  Gov.  De  Witt  Clinton,  in  1824. 
Its  winter  retreat,  is  in  Mexico.  In  summer,  it  is  found  in  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  United  States,  takingthe  course  of  the  valleys 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio.  Its  nest  is  composed  of  mud  or 
clay,  with  a  narrow  tubular  neck,  and  resembles  a  coarse  retort. 
(See  Plate  XI.  fig.  11.) 

THIRD  FAMILY      BEE-EATERS. 
MeropidoB,  (Gr.  [tegoy,  merops.) 

We  place  the  Bee-eaters  next  the  Swallows,  following  in  that 
arrangement  the  classification  of  Swainson,  though  sometimes,  on 
account  of  the  lengthened  form  of  the  beak  in  this  family,  they 
have  been  placed  immediately  before  the  tenuirostral,  or  thin- 
billed  birds. 

[n  addition  to  the  long,  slender  and  tapering  beak,  the  Bee- 
eaters  are  distinguished  by  their  long  pointed  wings  ;  the  first 
quill,  for  the  most  part,  being  nearly  or  quite  as  long  as  any 
other. 

These  birds  are  generally  of  a  green  color  varied  with  blue. 
They  associate  in  flocks,  and  in  their  appearance  and  rapid  flight 
are  much  like  the  Swallows.  The  food  of  the  Meropida,  con 
sists  of  large  insects,  which  they  capture  and  eat  during  flight. 
One  species  is  said  to  perch  and  watch  for  prey  on  the  horn  of 
the  Rhinoceros,  giving  notice  to  that  animal  of  the  approach  of 
the  hunter  ;  but  usually  they  take  their  food  on  the  wing.  These 
birds  are  entirely  confined  to  the  continents  and  isltinds  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere.  They  do  not  construct  nests,  but  lay  their 
eggs  in  holes. 

The  EUROPEAN  BEE-EATER,  M.  apiaster,  (Lat.  a  bee-eater,) 
in  its  coloring  and  shape,  is  not  unlike  the  King-fisher.  It  an 
nually  visits  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  ap 
pearing  in  flocks  of  twenty  or  thirty,  and  skimming  over  the 
vineyards  and  olive  plantations  in  pursuit  especially  of  bees  and 
wasps.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  birds  are  never  stung  ;  they 
seize  the  insect,  and  with  their  strong  beak  crush  it  at  once. 
The  flesh  of  the  Bee-eater  is  sufficiently  esteemed  to  be  sold  in 
the  markets  both  of  Italy  and  Egypt.  The  boys  of  Candia,  it  is 
said,  take  it  after  this  manner  :  they  bend  a  pin  like  a  hook,  and 
tying  it  by  the  head  to  the  end  of  a  thread,  they  thrust  it  through 
a  Cicada,  (as  boys  bait  hooks  with  a  fly,)  holding  the  other  end 
of  the  thread  in  their  hand.  The  Cicada  so  fastened,  neverthe 
less  continues  its  flight,  which  the  merops  perceiving,  pursues 
and  catches  it,  swallowing  pin  and  all,  whereby  she  is  captured. 


INSESSORES.  309 

The  ROLLERS,  which  are  in  some  respects  intermediate  between 
the  Swallows  and  Bee-eaters,  have  been  variously  arranged  by 
naturalists.  With  Swainson,  we  place  them  among  the  Meropi- 
dce.  These  are  represented  by  the  genus  Coracias,  (Gr.  kora- 
kias,  raven-like.)  the  birds  of  which  have  a  straight  and  moder 
ate  sized  bill,  and  very  short  perching  or  insessorial  feet.  One 
species,  C.  Abyssinica,  has  two  long,  loose  processes,  terminat 
ing  the  two  external  quills. 

The  COMMON,  or  GARRULOUS  ROLLER,  C.  garrula,  (Lat.  talk 
ative,)  is  plentifully  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  mouth 
is  slightly  furnished  with  bristles  like  those  of  the  Night-jar; 
the  voice  is  loud  and  chattering,  whence  its  specific  name.  To 
the  species  C.  orientalis,  (Lat.  eastern,)  Linn,  the  name  of  DOL 
LAR  BIRD  is  given.  Swainson  refers  it  to  a  sub-genus  Eurysto- 
mus,  (Gr.  eurus,  broad;  stoma,  mouth.)  It  resembles  the  com 
mon  Roller,  but  has  a  shorter  and  wider  bill,  and  longer  wings; 
the  sides  of  the  gape  are  smooth.  It  is  a  native  of  South  Aus 
tralia.  The  natives  near  Sydney  call  it  the  NATAY-KIN  ;  the 
Colonists  name  it  Dollar  Bird.  (See  Chart.) 

THIRD  FAMILY.     TODID^E,  (Lat.  todus,  a  small   bird.)     TODIES. 

The  Todies  are  a  small  family,  resembling  the  King-fishers 
in  their  general  form,  and  found  chiefly  within  the  tropics  of  both 
hemispheres.  Their  legs  are  rather  long  ;  their  wings  short  and 
rounded,  and  incapable  of  any  but  the  most  feeble  flight.  The 
beak  is  broad  and  much  flattened,  usually  blunt  or  rounded  at 
the  tip.  In  their  habits  they  resemble  the  Fly-catchers,  hopping 
about  among  the  slender  branches  of  the  trees,  and  occasionally 
making  a  short  flight  to  capture  insects;  these  form  their  princi 
pal  food,  to  which,  in  the  case  of  some  species,  berries  are  added. 
"  They  have  scarcely  any  voice  except  at  pairing  time,  and  their 
color  closely  resembles  that  of  the  trees  in  which  they  dwell." 
The  species  included  in  the  genus  Todus  are  confined  to  Tropi 
cal  America. 

The  GREEN  TODY,  T.  viridis,  is  very  common  in  the  greater 
West  India  Islands.  This  is  a  very  familiar  and  beautiful  bird  ; 
(Plate  X.  fig.  4d.)  while  sitting  upon  some  twig  or  low  bush, 
watching  for  flying  insects,  "  it  will  often  let  a  man  come  within 
a  few  feet  and  look  at  it  for  minutes  together,  before  it  moves." 
It  is  interesting  to  note  the  various  means  Divine  Wisdom  has 
ordained  for  the  attainment  of  a  given  end.  The  Swallow  and 
Tody  live  upon  the  same  food,  (insects ;)  the  Tody's  short,  hoi- 


310  INSESSORES. 

low  and  feeble  wings,  are  to  him  as  effectual  for  securino-  his 
prey,  as  are,  for  the  same  purpose,  the  long  and  powerful  pin 
ions  of  the  Swallow  to  him. 

Eurylaimus,  (Gr.  eurus,  broad;  laimos,  throat,)  is  a  genus  of 
Todies  peculiarto  the  Eastern  Continent.  One  species  is  E.  Ja- 
vanicus,  in  which  the  beak  is,  at  the  base,  nearly  as  broad  as  its 
length.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  says  :  "  It  frequents  the  banks  of 
rivers  and  lakes,  feeding  on  insects  and  worms.  It  builds  nests 
pendent  from  the  branch  of  a  tree  or  bush  which  overhangs  the 


FOURTH  FAMILY.     TROGONIDJE.     TROGONS. 

This  is  not  a  large  family  of  birds,  but  one  pre-eminent  in 
beauty  and  brilliancy  of  plumage.  The  color  is  usually  a  me 
tallic  golden  green,  strongly  contrasted  with  scarlet,  black  and 
brown. 

The  Trogons  have  two  toes  behind  and  two  before,  as  in  the 
Woodpecker  ;  still  they  have  not  the  habit  or  power  of  climbing. 
The  wings  are  very  short  but  pointed ;  the  quill-feathers  stiff; 
the  general  plumage  soft  and  thick.  The  beak  is  short,  triangu 
lar-shaped  and  strong;  the  tip,  and  generally  the  edges  are 
notched  ;  the  gape  is  wide.  The  head  is  rather  large,  and  the 
form  full  and  plump ;  the  tail  remarkably  long  and  ample ;  the 
feathers  regularly  decrease  in  length  outward  ;  and  in  one  genus, 
•  Calurus,  (Gr.  kalos,  beautiful ;  oura,  tail,)  the  tail-coverts  are  so 
greatly  developed  as  to  conceal  the  tail,  and  hang  down  in  nar 
row  flowing  plumes  of  great  length.  (See  Chart.) 

The  food  of  the  Trogons  consists  principally  of  insects, 
"which,"  says  Mr.  Gould,  "they  seize  upon  the  wing,  as  their 
wide  gape  enables  them  to  do  with  facility  ;  while  their  feeble 
tarsi  and  feet  are  such  as  to  qualify  them  merely  for  resting  on 
the  branches  as  a  post  of  observation,  whence  to  mark  their  prey 
as  it  passes,  and  to  which,  having  given  chase,  to  return.  Daz 
zled  by  the  brightness  of  the  meridional  sun,  morning  and  even 
ing  twilight  is  the  season  of  their  activity."  The  recesses  of 
the  thickest  forests  form  their  chosen  abode  for  the  entire  year. 
The  Trogons  of  the  most  exquisite  plumage  are  found  .in  South 
America.  According  to  Mr.  Gould,  twenty-three  species  are 
inhabitants  of  America  and  its  Islands,  ten  of  the  Indian  Islands 
and  India,  and  one  of  Africa. 

The  remarkable  plumage  and  shy  habits  of  the  Trogons  were 
closely  observed  by  the  ancient  Mexicans.  According  to  Cortes, 
three  hundred  men  were  employed  in  taking  care  of  the  Royal 


INSESSORES.  311 

Menagerie  in  which  large  numbers  of  these  birds  were  kept ; 
physicians  were  also  appointed  to  watch  their  diseases  and  apply 
timely  remedies.  This  was  by  order  of  the  King,  who  not  only 
delighted  in  the  sight  of  so  many  species,  but  was  very  careful 
of  their  feathers  for  the  sake  of  the  famous  mosaic  images  and 
pictures,  as  well  as  other  works  which  were  made  of  them. 

The  Trogon  (Calurus)  resplendens,  (Lat.  shining  brightly.)  is 
the  QUESAL  of  Guatimala.  Unlike  some  others  of  the  family, 
its  beak  is  not  serrated  ;  the  head  is  surmounted  with  a  com 
pressed  and  elevated  crest;  the  upper  tail-feathers  are  so  enor 
mously  developed  as  to  hide  the  tail.  (See  Chart.)  "It  is 
Scarcely  possible,"  says  Mr.  Gould,  "  for  imagination  to  conceive 
anything  more  rich  and  gorgeous  than  the  golden-green  color 
which  adorns  the  principal  part  of  the  plumage,  or  more  elegant 
and  graceful  than  the  flowing  plumes  which  sweep  pendent  from 
the  lower  part  cf  the  back,  forming  a  long  train  of  metallic  brill 
iancy."  From  the  feathers  of  this,  "the  most  beautiful  of  a 
beautiful  tribe," — not  excluding,  however,  those  of  some  other 
species — the  Mexicans  made  Mosaic  pictures,  together  with  orna 
ments  for  their  head-dresses.  A  picture  in  mosaic,  made  from 
the  feathers  of  this  bird,  is  preserved  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum, 
Oxford,  Eng.  The  subject  is  "  Christ  fainting  upon  the  cross." 
The  entire  picture  is  about  as  large  as  the  size  of  the  palm  of 
the  hand,  and  the  figures  are  only  half  an  inch  in  height ;  yet 
it  is  said,  the  very  expression  of  the  features  is  preserved. 

Priorities,  (Gr.  serrated  )     The  MOTMOT. 

The  name  of  this  genus  is  derived  from  the  serrated  margins 
of  both  the  mandibles,  in  which  particular  it  differs  from  the 
other  Trogons.  The  Motmot,  P.  BraziHensis,  is  a  very  curi 
ous  and  handsome  bird,  inhabiting  many  parts  of  South  Amer 
ica. 

What  is  said  concerning  the  size  and  number  of  the  PERCHING  BIRDS  ? 
What  of  their  variations  in  form  and  structure  ?  Why  are  they  called 
PERCHERS  ?  What  is  said  of  their  power  of  flight  ?  What  of  their  beak, 
food,  and  musical  powers  ?  What  of  their  instinct  in  building  their  nests? 
How  do  they  always  live  ?  Into  what  TRIBES  are  they  arranged,  and  upon 
what  is  the  arrangement  based  ?  How  are  the  Split-Bills  distinguished  from 
all  the  others  ?  How  and  upon  what  do  they  feed  ?  Is  there  any  exception  to 
this  ?  Where  is  the  home  of  the  Fissirostral  birds  ?  Are  any  found  in 
temperate  zones?  Name  the  FAMILIES  into  which  this  tribe  is  divided. 
Give  the  characteristics  of  the  Night-jars.  In  what  respects  do  they  re 
semble  the  Owls  ?  Why  are  these  birds  called  Goat-Suckers  ?  What  is 
said  of  their  voices  ?  What  sp.  are  mentioned  ?  Which  is  diurnal  and 
what  is  said  of  it  ?  Describe  the  Common  G.  S.  of  E.  What  is  said  of  the 


312  INSESSORES. 

Chuck-wills-widow?     What  of  the  Whip-poor-will?     Repeat  what  is  said 
of  the  Guacharo  B. 

What  is  the  second  FAMILY  of  the  Split-billed  birds  ?  Are  they  noctur 
nal  or  diurnal?  In  what  respects  do  they  resemble  the  Night-jars  ?  How 
do  they  differ  from  them?  What  is  said  of  their  flight?  What  other  char 
acteristics  are  noted  of  the  SWALLOW  FAMILY?  What  popular  name  has 
the  Swift  or  Martin  ?  What  is  said  of  this  bird  ?  What  characteristic  of 
the  Spine-tails  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  the  scientific  name  of  the  AMERI 
CAN  SWIFT  or  CHIMNEY  SWALLOW?  What  is  its  signification  ?  Repeat  what 
is  said  of  this  bird.  What  is  said  of  the  construction,  uses,  &c.  of  the  edible 
bird-nests?  Where  are  they  found  and  how  regarded?  What  is  the  range  of 
the  Barn  Swallow?  What  English  bird  docs  it  resemble?  What  other  sp. 
are  mentioned?  How  are  the  BEE-EATERS  distinguished?  What  is  the 
general  color  of  their  plumage  ?  What  birds  do  they  resemble  ?  To  what 
birds  are  the  ROLLERS  intermediate  ?  What  habit  is  peculiar  to  one  sp.  ? 
To  what  hemisphere  are  the  Rollers  confined  ?  To  which  sp.  of  R.  is  the 
name  Dollar  Bird  given?  Describe  the  E.  Bee-Eater?  How  do  the  boys 
of  Candia  take  this  bird? 


Give  the  characteristics  of  the  third  FAMILY  or  TODIES.  To  what  region 
are  the  birds  of  the  gen.  Todies  confined  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Green  To 
dy?  What.  gen.  is  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  Continent?  What  is  said  of 
the  number,  plumage  and  size  of  the  TROGONS,  or  the  fourth  FAMILY? 
What  are  their  characteristics?  Where  found?  How  many  sp.  according 
to  Mr.  Gould  ?  How  did  the  ancient  Mexicans  regard  these  birds  ?  What 
use  did  they  make  of  their  feathers?  What  does  Mr.  G.  remark  of  the 
QUESAL  of  Guatimala?  Which  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Trogons?  What 
mosaic  picture  was  made  of  its  feathers?  Where  is  the  MOTMOT  found? 


SECTION  IV. 

SECOND  DIVISION  OF  THE  PERCHERS.     TOOTH-BILLED  BIRDS. 
Dentirostres.     (Lat.  dens,  a  tooth ;  rostrum,  a  beak.) 

The  upper  mandible  in  this  division  is  notched  on  each  side 
near  the  tip,  whence  the  name  Dentirostres,  or  Tooth-billed.  In 
the  Shrikes,  or  Butcher  Birds,  the  indentation  is  very  decided, 
and  attended  with  a  projecting  tooth,  so  as  to  show  a  connecting 
link  with  the  Birds  of  Prey  ;  the  beak  being  also  very  strong, 
hooked,  and  sharp  pointed,  and  the  habits  of  the  birds  ferocious 
and  carnivorous.  Even  the  Shrikes,  however,  differ  from  the 
Falcons  in  having  the  notch  confined  to  the  horny  surface  of  the 
beak,  whereas,  in  the  Falcon,  it  is  a  true  process,  extending  into 
the  bone  itself. 

The  favorite  food  of  the  Tooth-billed  birds  consists  of  insects, 
though  some  of  them  join  with  this  food,  berries  and  other  soft 
fruits.  Excepting  the  Finches,  belonging  to  the  Cone-billed 


INSESSORES.  313 

birds — all  the  musical  birds,  including  the  Nightingale  of  the 
Old  World,  and  the  Mocking-bird  of  the  New,  belong  to  the 
division  which  we  are  now  to  consider. 

The  Denlirostres  are  spread  over  the  globe.  They  are  com 
prised  in  five  families,  viz:  (1.)  Silviada,  or  Warblers;  (2.) 
Merulida,  or  Thrushes;  (3.)  Muscicapidce,  or  Fly-catchers; 
(4.)  Ampelidcz,  or  Chatterers  ;  (5.)  Laniada,  or  Shrikes. 

FIRST  FAMILY.      THE  WARBLERS. 
Silviada.     (Lat.  Sylvia,  or  Silvia,  a  wood.) 

The  small  singing  birds  comprised  under  the  general  name  of 
Warblers,  form  a  very  numerous,  as  well  as  interesting  group. 
The  bill  in  these  birds  is  slender,  straight,  awl-shaped,  higher 
than  it  is  wide  at  the  base,  and  furnished  with  bristles,  the  lower 
mandible  being  straight.  Audubon  enumerates  no  less  than 
forty-four  species  of  these  birds  found  on  the  American  Conti 
nent.  The  habits  of  the  different  species  vary  considerably  ; 
but  in  general,  the  Warblers  frequent  groves  and  woods,  and 
search  for  the  small  insects,  which  are  their  food,  among  the 
leaves  and  twigs,  and  the  crevices  in  the  barks  of  trees,  rather 
than  on  the  wing,  like  the  Swallows. 

Excepting  the  Humming  Birds,  we  find  among  this  group,  the 
smallest  birds  of  the  creation.  The  diminutive  Golden  Crests, 
Regulus ;  the  Nightingale,  Philomela;  the  White-throat,  or 
Petty-chaps,  Silvia,  or  Curruca,  (Lat.  caterpillar;)  the  Wood- 
warbler,  or  Wood-wren  Sylvicola,  (Lat.  wood  inhabitant,)  are 
examples  of  genuine  warblers. 

Diffused  over  all  parts  of  the  habitable  world,  it  seems  to  be  the 
office  of  these  birds  to  prevent  an  undue  multiplication  of  the  innu 
merable  insects  which  lurk  within  the  buds,  the  foliage  or  the  flow 
ers  of  plants.  The  smallness  of  these  insects,  causes  them  to 
elude  the  notice  of  the  Thrushes  and  the  larger  insectivorous  birds, 
whilst  their  habits  secure  them  against  capture  by  the  Swallows 
and  other  birds  that  take  their  prey  only  when  on  the  wing. 

The  Warblers  are,  for  the  most  part,  migratory  birds.  When 
the  increasing  warmth  of  spring  is  ushering  the  insect  tribe  into 
renewed  life  and  activity,  the  return  of  these  birds  is  providen 
tially  and  wisely  ordered,  to  prevent  its  troublesome  increase. 
In  autumn,  when  the  hosts  of  insects  begin  to  diminish,  and  no 
longer  require  to  be  kept  in  check,  these  useful  little  creatures 
take  their  flight  to  other  climes. 

The  Warblers  may  be  conveniently  arranged  into  five  groups, 


314 


INSESSOKES. 


having  different  tribes  of  insects  allotted  to  them  respectively, 
and  showing  a  correspondent  diversity  in  their  favorite  haunts. 

(1.)  THE  GOLDEN  CRESTS,  Sylviadce,  and  WOOD- WARBLERS, 
Sylvicolidce,  are  the  true  warblers,  confining  themselves  mostly 
to  the  taller  trees,  where  they  search  for  winged  insects  among 
the  leaves,  or  capture  them,  like  the  Fly-catchers,  when  attempt 
ing  to  escape.  Of  these,  the  Gold-crested  Wren,  or  Kinglet, 
Regulus,  (Lat.  dim.  of  rex.  king;)  cristatus,  (see  Chart.)  is  one 
of  the  most  attractive  species,  and  the  smallest  of  the  European 
birds,  three  and  a  half  inches  long. 

The  Golden-crested  Kinglet,  of  America,  Regulus  satraps,  is 
half  an  inch  longer  than  the  European  species,yet  agrees  with 
it  in  its  general  appearance.  The  color  is  olive  green ;  beneath 
whitish,  but  the  crown  is  orange,  or  gold  colored.  It  is  an  active 
and  restless  bird,  generally  found  in  groups,  on  the  extremities 
of  twigs  and  bunches  of  leaves.  The  Blue  Bird,  Erythaca,  or 
Sialia  Wilsonii,  or  Blue  Robin,  as  it  is  called  in  some  districts 
of  the  Union,  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Robin  Red 
breast,  of  Europe.  It  is  a  lovely  warbler,  found  in  all  parts  of 
our  country,  appearing  in  New  York  early  in  the  spring, 
(March,)  but  leaving  in  November  for  the  South,  as  far  as  Mex 
ico.  It  is  very  useful  as  a  destroyer  of  multitudes  of  noxious 
insects.  The  Myrtle  Bird,  so  called  from  its  feeding  in  autumn 
and  winter  on  Myrtle-wax  berries,  (Myrica  cerifera,)  or  the  Yel 
low-crowned  Wood- warbler,  Sylvicola  coronata,  is  perhaps  the 
best  representation  of  the  Wood-warblers, — it  is  very  common 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  ranges  from  Mexico  to  65o  N. 
Lat. 

The  summer  YELLOW  BIRD,  Sylvicola  astiva,  (Lat.  of  sum 
mer,) — so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Common  Yellow  Bird, 
(Carduelis  tristis,)  is  "remarkable  for  its  instinctive  sagacity  in 
getting  rid  of  the  eggs  of  the  Cow  Black  Bird,  (Molothrus  pecoris.) 
As  the  egg  is  too  large  to  be  thrust  out,  this  Yellow  Bird  com- 
mences  a  new  nest  above  it ;  thus  almost  horizontally  closing  it 
up,  and  then  proceeds  to  deposit  her  own  eggs." 

The  TAILOR  BIRD,  Silvia,  (Lat.  a  tit-lark,)  constructs  a  nest 
of  a  curious  kind, — by  sewing  leaves  together.  (See  Plate 
XI.  fig.  8;) 

(2.)  THE  REED-WARBLERS  and  NIGHTINGALES,  of  Europe, 
PhilomelincB,  which  haunt  the  vicinity  of  waters,  or  the  more 
dense  foliage  of  hedges,  for  insects  found  in  such  situations. 
These  are  larger  than  the  true  Warblers,  and  live  partly  upon 
fruits  as  well  as  insects. 

(3.)  THE  STONECHATS,   Saxicolina,  (Lat.  saxum,  rock;  colo, 


INSESSORES.  315 

I  inhabit,)  which  prefer  dry  commons,  or  wide  extended  plains, 
and  feed  on  the  insects  peculiar  to  such  localities.  The  Robin 
Red-breast,  Erithacus*  (Gr.  erithacos,  Red-breast;)  rubecula, 
(Lat.  a  Red-breast,) — of  ballad  -and  song  celebrity,  and  a  bird 
that  sings  throughout  the  whole  year, — belongs  to  this  third 
group.  It  is  smaller,  and  more  familiar  in  its  habits,  than  the 
American  Robin,  Turdus  migratorius. 

(4.)  THE  WAG-TAILS  and  TIT-LARKS,  Motacillida,  (from  mota- 
cilla,  Lat.  for  wag-tail.)  in  some  respects  like  the  Wading  birds, 
and  which  have  for  their  food  the  insects  that  frequent  humid 
and  wet  places. 

The  American  Pipit,  or  Tit-lark,  Antlius,  (Lat.  a  tit-lark,) 
ludovicianus,  is  of  this  group, — a  little  bird  about  six  and  a 
half  inches  long,  varying  in  its  plumage  with  age  and  sex;  in 
the  male,  of  grayish  brown  on  the  upper  parts,  and  dusky  white 
beneath.  It  feeds  on  minute  shells,  shrimps,  and  aquatic  insects 
found  on  rocky  shores  and  the  banks  of  streams,  or  on  insects 
and  various  seeds  which  it  finds  in  meadows  and  ploughed 
grounds  ;  when  feeding  in  the  latter  places,  these  Tit-larks  are 
seen  in  small  flocks;  to  this  the  specific  name  probably  refers. 
These  birds  appear  in  New  York  about  the  first  of  May, — but 
range  far  North  and  West ;  wintering  in  Louisiana  and  still 
farther  South. 

(5.)  THE  TIT-MICE,  Parida,  (from  Parus,  Lat.  for  tit-mouse, 
or  torn-tit,) — birds  which  search  assiduously  for  insects  among 
the  buds  and  tender  shoots  of  trees.  At  the  same  time,  they  are 
quite  omnivorous,  sometimes  laying  up  stores  of  grain,  and  even 
eating  small  and  sickly  birds,  when  they  are  able  to  destroy 
them.  Of  this  group,  the  Black-cap  Tit-mouse,  or  Chickadee, 
P.  atricapillus,  (Lat.  black-haired,)  is  a  familiar  example,  (Plate 
X.  fig.  4e,)  a  truly  Northern  species,  and  so  abundant  in  the  fur 
countries,  that  companies  of  them  may  be  found  in  almost  every 
thicket.  The  penduline  Tit-mouse,  or  Bottle-tit,  Parus  penduli- 
nus,  derives  its  name  from  its  purse-like,  or  bottle-shaped  nest, 
suspended  on  the  branch  of  a  willow  or  some  other  aquatic  tree, 
with  an  opening  on  the  side  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  bird 
and  its  young.  (Plate  XI.  fig.  5.) 

THE  CHESTNUT-CROWNED  TIT-MOUSE,  P.  minimus,  (Lat.  least,) 
of  the  Wahlamet,  (near  the  Pacific  coast,)  constructs  a  curious 
nest,  resembling  a  long  purse,  and  hanging  from  a  low  bush. 
(Plate  XI.  fig.  1.)  It  is  made  chiefly  of  moss,  down,  and  lint 
of  plants,  and  lined  with  feathers;  the  female  lays  six  white  eggs. 

*  This  is  spelled  Erythaca,  on  the  Chart,  after  the  manner  of  Swainson 
and  others,  but  the  true  orthography  is  that  given  in  the  text. 


310  INSESSORES. 

The  length  of  this  pretty  bird  is  only  four  and  a  half  inches. 
Linnseus  included  the  entire  group  of  Warblers  under  the  one 
genus  Motacilla. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     THRUSHES-. 

Merulida,     (Lat.    merula,    a    black   bird,)    or    Turdida,    (Lat. 
Turdus,  a  thrush.) 

The  Thrushes  are  the  most  numerous  and  diversified  of  the 
tooth-billed  division  of  birds.  The  average  size  is  considerably 
greater  than  that  of  the  Warblers.  The  beak  of  these  birds  is  as 
long  as  the  head,  and  compressed  at  the  sides;  the  upper  mandi 
ble  arched  to  the  tip ;  the  notch  is  well  marked ;  the  gape  is 
furnished  with  bristles ;  the  feet  are  long,  with  curved  claws 
adapted  for  walking  as  well  as  perching,  for  exercising  on  the 
ground  as  well  as  moving  among  the  trees.  The  food  on  which 
the  Thrushes  subsist,  is  less  restricted  than  that  of  the  Warblers; 
for,  besides  insects  and  their  caterpillars,  snails,  slugs,  earth 
worms,  etc.,  they  feed  largely  on  pulpy  and  farinaceous  berries. 
Many  of  the  species  are  gregarious  in  the  winter,  and  some,  as 
the  common  Fieldfare,  T.  pilaris,  (Lat.  like  a  ball,)  are  so  during 
the  year. 

The  colors  of  the  Thrushes  are,  for  the  most  part,  sombre,  but 
often  elegantly  arranged  ;  various  shades  of  olive  are  the  pre 
vailing  hues,  ami  these  often  take  the  form  of  spots  running  in 
chains  upon  the  breast  and  under  parts.  The  Orioles  are  dis 
tinguished  for  their  fine  contrasts  of  rich  black  and  golden 
yellow  ;  the  Breves,  Pitta,  (Gr.  pitch,)  with  remarkably  short 
tails,  and  found  in  India  and  Australia, — are  distinguished  for 
their  dazzling  blue  and  green;  while  some  of  the  African 
Thrushes  shine  like  the  metallic  lustre  of  burnished  steel. 

The  Thrushes  are  common  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
many  of  them  are  eminently  birds  of  song.  As  illustrating  the 
general  character  and  habits  of  the  family,  we  may  refer  to  the 
Song  Thrush,  Mavis,  or  Throstle,  (T.  musicus,)  which  sings 
with  sweet  and  varied  note  from  the  commencement  of  spring, 
and  even  earlier,  to  the  close  of  summer;  to  the  Blackbird,  (T. 
merula^)  whose  song  is  less  varied,  but  still  richer  and  mellower; 
and  to  the  Fieldfare,  or  Gray  Thrush,  (T.  pilaris.) 

THE  AFRICAN  SHORT-LEGGED  THRUSHES,  Brachypodidce,  (Gr. 
brachus,  short ;  pous,  a  foot,)  are  a  sub-family  ;   from  having  four 
long  bristles  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  sometimes  called  Bristly- 
necked  Thrushes. 
Another  sub-family,  is  the  BABBLERS,  or  LONG-LEGGED  THRUSHES, 


INSESSORES.  317 

Craterpodida,  (Gr.  crater,  a  wine-cup,  or  opening ;  pous,  a 
foot,)  of  Australia,  which  have  large  and  strong  feet,  and  send 
forth  loud  and  disagreeable  notes.  Among  the  true  Thrushes, 
Merulina,  is  the  AMERICAN  ROBIN,  T.  migratorius,  (Lat.  migra 
tory,)  whose  cheerful  note  is  always  most  welcome  in  the  open 
ing  spring,  and  whose  large  nest,  in  which  may  be  seen  five 
beautiful  sea-green  eggs,  appears  to  be  regarded,  even  by  boys, 
as  more  sacred  than  others. 

THE  AMERICAN  MOCKING  BIRD,  Orpheus,  (Gr.  proper  name 
of  a  famous  musician ;)  polyglottus,  (Gr.  many-tongued,)  is 
another  true  Thrush, — having  a  voice  capable  of  every  variety 
of  modulation,  surpassing,  in  this  respect,  even  the  European 
Nightingale ;  but  not  noted  either  for  its  gay,  or  its  brilliant 
plumage.  The  Mocking  Birds  are  much  sought  after  on  account 
of  their  extraordinary  vocal  and  imitative  powers,  which  remain 
undiminished  even  in  confinement.  They  are  easily  raised  ;  a 
single  bird  sells  for  from  seven  to  fifteen  or  twenty  dollars;  the 
sum  of  fifty  dollars  has  been  paid,  and  that  of  one  hundred  dol 
lars  refused  for  an  exquisite  singer.  The  first  brood  of  the 
Mocking  Bird  are  always  largest  and  stoutest.  This  bird  is 
usually  about  ten  inches  in  length.  The  CAT  BIRD,  T.  Uvidus, 
(Lat.  livid,)  is  an  aberrant  form,  of  Orpheus,  and,  in  some  parts 
of  the  United  States,  very  numerous.  It  is  nearly  as  large  as 
the  Mocking  Bird,  (see  Chart,)  and  has  a  note  which  closely  im 
itates  the  cry  of  a  young  kitten.  The  MISLETOE  THRUSH,  ( T. 
viscivorus,  (Lat.  viscus,  a  misletoe ;  voro,  I  devour,)  is  said  to 
"surpass  all  other  Thrushes  in  size,  and  is  decidedly  the  largest 
songster  of  the  European  birds."  It  is  particularly  fond  of  the 
berries  of  the  misletoe  ;  next  to  these,  it  prefers  the  berries  of  the 
mountain  ash.  Its  length  is  eleven  inches.  Some  persons  call 
it  the  STORMCOCK,  as  it  "pours  forth  its  melody  when  the  bleak 
winds  of  winter  roar  through  the  leafless  trees."  The  WATER- 
OUZEL,  or  DIPPER,  Cinclus,  (Gr.  Kinklos,  the  name  of  a  bird,) 
aquaticus, — is  an  interesting  bird,  found  principally  in  hilly  places, 
where  there  are  clear  and  rapid  brooks  and  rivulets.  It  dives 
for  considerable  distances  with  apparent  ease,  and  may  be 
seen  perched  on  the  top  of  a  stone  in  the  midst  of  a  torrent, 
in  a  continual  dipping  motion,  while  watching  for  its  food,  which 
consists  of  small  fishes  and  insects.  It  has  been  said  to  possess 
the  extraordinary  power  of  "walking,  in  quest  of  its  prey,  on 
the  pebbly  bottom  of  a  river,  and  with  the  same  ease  as  on  dry 
land."!!  Respecting  this  alleged  power,  it  has  been  well  re 
marked,  "If  the  Water  Ouzel,  which  is  specifically  lighter  than 
water,  can  manage,  by  some  inherent  power,  to  walk  on  the 


313  INSESSORES. 

ground  at  the  bottom  of  a  rivulet,  then  there  is  great  reason  to 
hope  that  we,  who  are  heavier  than  air,  may,  any  day,  rise  up 
into  it,  unassisted  by  artificial  apparatus,  such  as  wings,  gas, 
steam,  or  broom  staff." 

THIRD  FAMILY.     FLY  CATCHERS. 
Muscicapida,  (Lat.  musca,  a  fly ;  capio,  I  catch.) 

This  very  musical  family,  which  receives  its  popular  name 
from  the  expertness  of  the  birds  which  it  comprises,  in  catching 
the  flying  insects  upon  which  they  feed,  is  found  widely  diffused 
throughout  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  Continents  ;  and  in- 
eludes  many  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  feathered  tribes.  They 
appear  to  be  a  connecting  link  between  the  Split-billed  and 
the  Tooth-billed  birds.  Like  the  former,  they  have  a  beak 
which  is  broad  at  the  base,  and  hooked  at  the  tip,  while  the 
gape  is  surrounded  with  bristles ;  like  them,  also,  their  feet  are 
unusually  feeble,  or  less  developed  than  the  wings,  and  they  feed 
upon  insects  which  they  take  in  their  flight.  Indeed,  they  are  the 
most  insectivorous  of  all  the  tooth-billed  birds.  In  their  generic 
details,  the  Fly-Catchers  widely  differ;  all,  however,  are  united 
by  common  peculiarities  of  structure;  and,  particularly,  by 
having  the  beak  strong,  broad,  flat,  angular  on  the  summit,  or 
culmen,  and  notched  at  the  tip ;  and  by  having  the  side  of  the 
mouth  defended  by  thick  bristles. 

The  European  birds  of  this  family,  are  sometimes  called 
"  Restricted  Fly-Catchers,"  having  shorter  bristles  around  the 
mouth,  and  much  more  slender  bills  than  the  others.  Of  these 
there  are  but  two  species,  viz.,  M.  grisola,  the  GRAY,  or  SpoTr 
TED  FLY-CATCHER,  known  by  several  provincial  names,  all 
derived  from  its  habits, — as  the  "  Beam  Bird,"  from  a  favorite 
site  of  its  nest,  and  the  "  Cherry-chopper,"  from  its  supposed 
taste  for  the  fruit  of  that  tree.  In  some  portions  of  England, 
it  is  called  the  "Post-bird,"  and  in  other  parts,  the  "Bee- 
bird."  It  is  about  six  inches  in  length ;  its  breast  is  of  a  dull 
ish  white,  slightly  tinged  with  a  dull  orange,  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  is  brown.  It  is  a  very  tame  bird,  often  build 
ing  its  nest  in  places  where  persons  are  constantly  passing  and 
repassing, — seeming  particularly  partial  to  the  vine  and  sweet- 
briar,  as  the  support  of  its  nest.  The  note  of  this  Fly-Catcher 
is  a  weak  chirp,  and  even  that  is  not  often  heard. 

The  other  European  species,  M.  luctuosa,  (Lat.  sorrowful,)  is 
the  Pied  Fly-Catcher,  about  as  large  as  a  Linnet,  found  in 
Prussia,  Sweden,  and  sometimes  in  England.  It  has  been  called 


INSESSORES.  319 

"a  Magpie  in  miniature."  The  bill,  and  the  crown  of  the  head, 
are  black ;  the  other  parts  of  the  body  present  various  shades  of 
black,  brown  and  white ;  there  is  a  white  spot  on  its  forehead, 
from  which  its  name  is  derived.  The  female  lays  five  very 
pale  blue  eggs. 

Of  the  numerous  American  Fly-Catchers,  we  name  first,  the 
King  Bird,  or  Tyrant  Fly-Catcher ;  M.  tyrannus,  (Linn.,)  or 
Tyrannus  intrepidus,  (Lat.  undaunted,)  ranging  during  summer 
from  the  temperate  part  of  Mexico  to  the  remote  interior. 

It  receives  its  name  from  the  authority  which  it  assumes  over 
other  birds  during  the  time  of  breeding;  the  eggs  are  five  in 
number,  of  a  pale  green  color,  or  dullish  white.  At  the  breeding 
season,  the  King  Bird's  extreme  affection  for  his  mate  and  for 
his  nest  and  young,  makes  him  suspicious  of  every  bird  that 
happens  to  pass  near  his  residence,  so  that  he  attacks,  with 
out  discrimination,  every  intruder.  In  the  months  of  May,  June 
and  part  of  July,  his  life  is  one  continued  scene  of  broils  and 
battles ;  in  which,  however,  he  generally  comes  off  conqueror. 
Hawks,  and  Crows,  the  Bald  Eagle,  and  the  Great  Black  Eagle, 
all  equally  dread  an  encounter  with  this  dauntless  little  cham 
pion,  which,  mounting  to  a  considerable  height  above  these  birds, 
darts  down  upon  their  backs,  sometimes  fixing  himself  there,  to 
the  no  small  annoyance  of  his  powerful  antagonists.  In  teasing 
the  Eagle,  he  constantly  keeps  up  a  shrill  and  rapid  twittering ; 
this,  in  fact,  is  his  only  song.  The  Purple  Martin,  however, 
from  its  more  rapid  flight,  is  more  than  a  match  for  the  King 
Bird,  eluding  all  his  attacks,  and  teasing  him  as  he  pleases. 
"I  have,"  says  Wilson,  "also  seen  the  Red-headed  Woodpecker, 
while  clinging  on  a  rail  of  the  fence,  amuse  himself  with  the 
violence  of  the  King  Bird,  and  play  bo-peep  with  him  around  the 
rail,  while  the  latter,  highly  irritated,  made  every  attempt,  as  he 
swept  from  side  to  side,  to  strike  him, — but  in  vain." 

In  fields  of  pasture,  the  King  Bird  often  perches  upon  the  tops 
of  the  mullein,  and  other  rank  weeds,  near  the  cattle,  and  makes 
occasional  sweeps  after  passing  insects,  particularly  the  large 
gad-fly,  so  annoying  to  horses  and  cattle.  This  bird  preys  upon 
bees,  but  in  his  watchings  of  the  bee-hive,  it  is  said,  he  picks  out 
only  the  drones,  and  never  injures  the  working  bees. 

He  must,  however,  be  regarded  as  the  farmer's  friend,  in  de 
stroying  great  multitudes  of  insects,  whose  larvae  prey  upon  the 
productions  of  his  fields  and  gardens.  Like  all  Fly-Catchers, 
the  King  Bird  disgorges  the  harder  parts  of  insects.  This  bird 
reaches  New  York  the  last  of  April  or  the  first  of  May  ;  it  leaves 
the  Middle  States  earlier  than  most  other  species.  The  King 


320  INSESSORES. 

Bird  is  eight  inches  long,  and  fourteen  in  the  expanse  of 
its  wings. 

THE  PHEBE  BIRD,  or  PEWIT  FLY-CATCHER,  M.  fusca,  (Lat. 
dark  or  dusky.)  The  notes  of  this  bird  are  pleasing,  not  for  any 
melody  which  they  possess,  but  from  their  association  with  the 
returning  verdure  of  spring.  The  favorite  resort  of  the  Phebe 
Bird  is  by  streams  of  water,  under  or  near  bridges,  in  caves,  &c. 
Near  such  places,  he  sits  on  a  projecting  twig,  calling  out,  pe-we^ 
pewittitee  pe-we£,  fora  whole  morning, — occasionally  sallying  after 
insects,  and  returning  to  the  same  perch.  The  Pewit  appears 
in  New  York  State  the  last  of  March  or  the  beginning  of  April. 
It  lays  four  to  five  white  eggs,  with  a  few  reddish  spots  near  the 
larger  end,  and  it  sometimes  rears  three  broods  in  a  season. 
Insects  are  its  summer  food  ;  berries  and  seeds,  its  winter  fare. 
Whenever  the  Pewit  appears,  Mr.  Bartram  says,  it  is  safe  to 
plant  almost  all  kinds  of  esculent  garden  seeds,  as,  after  the 
arrival  of  this  bird,  there  are  rarely  frosts  severe  enough  to  injure 
them.  The  plumage  is  a  dark  olive  brown,  the  bill  entirely 
black;  the  tail  emarginate,  the  feathers  whitish  on  the  outer 
web.  This  familiar  and  favorite  little  bird,  winters  from  South 
Carolina  to  Mexico. 

THE  WOOD  PEWEE,  M.  virens,  (Lat.  green,  or  lively,)  is  gen- 
eraDy  found  in  the  interior  of  forests  ;  it  is  considerably  more 
abundant  than  the  Phebe  Bird;  is  rather  late  in  entering  the 
Middle  States,  seldom  reaching  Pennsylvania  and  New  York 
until  from  the  10th  to  the  15th  of  May,  but  it  advances  as  far 
North  as  Labrador,  and  is  seen  on  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

THE  AMERICAN  RED-START,  M.  ruticilla,  (Lat.  red,  inclining 
to  golden  yellow,)  is  found,  during  the  summer,  throughout  the 
United  States,  but  winters  between  the  tropics;  it  is  shy  and 
solitary,  and  varies  much  in  the  brilliancy  of  its  colors. 

Genus  Culicivora,  (Lat.  gnat-eaters,)  includes  the  Blue-grey 
Fly-Catcher,  C.  caerulea,  (Lat.  dark  blue,) — a  lively  little  bird, 
four  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  noted  for  its  being  frequently 
the  foster  parent  of  the  young  Cow- bunting,  the  real  mother  of 
which  drops  her  egg  in  its  nest.  It  ranges  from  Texas  north- 
ward. 

The  GREENLETS,  which  by  some  naturalists  are  included 
among  the  Fly-catchers,  are  by  Audubon  and  Dr.  Dekay  erected 
into  a  separate  family,  Vireonida. 

They  include  about  eight  species,  and  are  peculiar  to  Amer 
ica.  The  bills  of  these  birds  are  of  moderate  size,  but  strong, 
and  broader  than  high  at  the  base,  which  is  furnished  with  bris 
tles.  The  upper  mandible  is  notched,  and  the  tip  bent ;  the  tar- 


INSESSOEES.  321 

sus  of  moderate  length,  as  is  also  the  tail,  which  is  more  or  less 
emarginate.  We  can  only  glance  at  the  principal  species.  They 
feed  upon  insects  and  berries. 

The  YELLOW-THROATED  GREENLET,  V.  flavifrons,  (Lat.  yel 
low-front,)  is  of  an  olive  green  color;  it  winters  in  Texas  and 
Mexico,  but  in  summer  advances  as  far  north  as  Nova  Scotia. 
This  Greenlet  is  said  to  construct  a  pendulous  nest.  The  length 
is  from  five  to  six  inches. 

The  SOLITARY  GREENLET,  V.  solitarius,  has  a  bill  that  is  very . 
short  and    nearly  as  broad   as  the  Fly-catcher's.     The  color  of 
this  Greenlet  is  dusky  olive  ;  the  length  five  inches.     It  winters 
in  Mexico,  but  is  seen  as   far  north   as  Nova  Scotia  and  as  far 
west  as  the  Columbia  river. 

The  WHITE-EYED  GREENLET,  V.  novoloracensis,  (of  New 
York,)  has  a  short,  straight  bill,  abruptly  curved  at  the  tip  and 
flattened  at  the  base.  Its  general  color  is  a  dark  olive,  with  white 
underneath  ;  the  third  quill  is  the  longest ;  the  length  five  inches. 
The  notes  of  this  bird  are  uncommonly  sweet.  It  uses  bits  of 
newspaper  in  making  its  nest,  and  Wilson  says  is,  therefore,  some 
times  called  politician.  This  Greenlet  is  seen  in  New  York 
early  in  April,  and  is  common ;  it  leaves  for  the  South  in  Octo 
ber. 

The  WARBLING  GREENLET,  V.  gilvus,  (Lat.  pale  yellow,)  is 
of  a  pale  green  color  above,  but  whitish  beneath  ;  the  first  and 
fifth  primaries  are  equal ;  the  bill  short ;  the  length  five  inches. 
This  is  a  musical  little  bird,  wintering  in  tropical  America  but 
reaching  New  York  early  in  May,  and  advancing  to  46o  N.  L. ; 
it  is  seen  westward  as  far  as  Columbia  river.  Its  nest  is  pen 
dent,  containing  from  four  to  six  white  eggs,  marked  with  brown 
spots  and  lines.  The  length  is  five  inches. 

The  RED- EYED  GREENLET,  V.  olivaceus,  (from  Lat.  oliva,  an 
olive,)  is  of  a  light  olive  green  above  ;  beneath  whitish,  with 
a  yellowish  tinge  on  the  sides.  It  has  a  long  and  strong 
bill.  This  is  a  common  species,  ranging  from  Mexico  to  55o 
N.  L. 

The  LONG-BEAKED  GREENLET,  V.  longirostris,  (Lat.  long- 
beaked,)  has  wings  not  reaching  to  half  the  length  of  the  tail ; 
the  first.quill  shorter  than  the  fourth.  It  is  found  in  the  Antilles  ; 
the  length  is  five  and  one-half  inches. 

Another  genus  of  the  Greenlets  is  ICTERIA,  with  but  one  spe 
cies,  the  YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT,  /.  viridis,  (Lat.  green,)  con 
necting  the  Fly-catchers  with  the  Greenlets,  and  also  forming  the 
passage  between  the  Merula  and  the  Vireo.  This  bird  has  a 
strong  and  lengthened  beak,  curved  and  with  small  divergent 


s^* '  •  :v. ;  N 

.-• 

I   UNIVERSITY  \ 

>  nr  ,* 


3  0-2  INSESSORES. 

bristles  at  the  base  ;  the  wings  are  rounded  ;  the  third  and  fourth 
primaries  the  longest ;  the  first  scarcely  longer  than  the  sixth. 
The  color  is  a  greenish  olive  ;  the  length  seven  inches.  This  bird 
attracts  attention  by  its  singular  notes,  and  the  oddity  of  its  mo 
tions.  It  comes  from  the  tropical  regions  of  America  early  in 
May ;  along  the  Atlantic  does  not  advance  farther  than  the 
southern  part  of  New  York ;  it  is,  however,  not  uncommon  in 
the  Western  States.  It  leaves  us  among  the  earliest,  going 
South  about  the  middle  of  August. 

FOURTH  FAMILY.     CHATTERERS,  or  WAX- WINGS. 
Ampelida,  (Gr.  afinellg,  ampelis,  a  vine  or  singing  bird.) 

The  beak  in  the  Chatterers  is  stouter  in  proportion  to  its  length 
than  in  the  Fly-catchers,  the  form  of  the  lower  mandible  ap 
proaching  that  of  the  cone-billed  birds ;  the  upper  mandible  is, 
however,  ral.her  broad  at  the  base,  flat,  with  the  upper  edge  more 
or  less  angular  and  ridged,  and  the  tip  distinctly  notched.  The 
feet  are,  for  the  most  part,  stout,  with  the  outer  toe  united  to  the 
middle  one  as  far  as,  or  beyond  the  first  joint.  In  many,  the  wide 
gape  extends  beyond  the  eye,  and  in  some  it  is  nearly  as  wide  as 
in  the  Night-jars.  The  absence  of  bristles  from  the  gape  indi 
cates  that  the  wide  opening  is  not  to  catch  insects  on  the  wing, 
as  in  the  Swallow  family.  The  Chatterers  feed  chiefly  on  ber 
ries  and  other  soft  fruit,  which  they  swallow  whole  ;  and  this 
food  naturally  requires  a  wide  passage  ;  occasionally  they  feed 
on  insects.  Their  home  seems  to  be  in  fruit-bearing  trees,  and 
they  very  seldom  come  to  the  ground. 

The  species  in  this  family  are  not  very  numerous  ;  but  they 
are  of  varying  forms,  and  widely  scattered.  Many  of  them  are 
distinguished  for  their  soft  and  silky  plumage  and  the  brilliant 
colors  which  adorn  it.  The  plumage  of  the  head  forms  a  long 
and  pointed  crest,  which  is  capable  of  being  erected,  and  is  com 
mon  to  both  sexes.  Some  of  these  birds  are  distinguished  by  hav 
ing  singular  appendages  to  the  secondaries  of  the  wing,  and 
sometimes  to  the  feathers  of  the  tail  ;  the  shaft  of  the  feather 
being  extended  beyond  the  vane,  and  its  tip  dilated  into  a  flat 
oval  appendage  of  a  brilliant  scarlet  hue,  and  exactly  resembling 
the  appearance  of  red  sealing-wax.  Hence  they  are  sometimes 
called  Wax-wings;  from  the  silky  softness  and  smoothness  of 
their  plumage,  and  particularly  that  of  the  tail,  they  are  also 
named  SILK-TAILS. 

The  BOHEMIAN  CHATTERER,  or  SILK- TAIL,  A.  garrulus,  or 
Bombycilla,  (Gr.  Bombux,  silk-worm,)  garrulus,  is  the  only  spe- 


INSESSORES.  3J3 

cies  known  in  Europe ;  south-east  of  Germany  it  is  quite  abun 
dant.  Its  general  plumage  is  of  a  purplish  red  hue  ;  the  crown 
and  crest  are  of  a  chestnut  brown ;  some  five  or  six  of  the 
secondary  feathers,  and,  in  very  old  males,  some  of  the  tail  feath 
ers  also,  have  the  extended  scarlet  appendages  which  are  refer 
red  io  above.  Prince  Bonaparte  gives  a  very  amiable  charac 
ter  of  the  European  Wax-wing  in  a  state  of  nature.  In  the 
spring  it  eats  all  sorts  of  flies  and  other  insects ;  in  autumn  and 
winter  different  kinds  of  berries.  It  is  fond  of  the  berries  of 
the  mountain  ash  ;  of  grapes  it  is  exceeding  greedy,  and  is, 
therefore,  with  reason,  called  ampelis.  When  taking  wing  it  ut 
ters  a  note  resembling  the  syllables  zz,  zi,  zi,  but  it  is  generally 
silent,  though  it  bears  the  name  of  Chatterer.  In  captivity  it 
eats  almost  any  vegetable  substance,  losing  at  the  same  time, 
all  its  vivacity  and  its  amiable  social  habits.  Its  length  is  nine 
or  ten  inches.  This  bird  was  seen  by  Dr.  Richardson  inN.  Lat. 
50o,  in  flocks,  near  the  Great  Bear  Lake  ;  it  has  also  been  pro 
cured  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia. 

The  CEDAR  WAX-WING,  or  CEDAR  BIRD,  B.  Carolinensis, 
ranges  from  Texas  as  far  north  as  the  Fur  countries,  and  west 
ward  to  the  Columbia  river.  Its  nest  is  built  in  the  fork  of  a 
cedar  or  apple  tree,  and  is  composed  of  stalks  of  grass,  coarse 
without  and  fine  within.  In  this  it  lays  three  or  four  eggs  of  a 
bluish  white,  marked  with  dots  of  black  and  purple.  It  devours 
every  fruit  or  berry  that  comes  in  its  way.  Dr.  Brewer  says  it 
remains  all  the  year  round  at  Boston,  and  confers  great  benefit 
on  the  farmer  by  destroying  thousands  of  the  destructive  canker- 
worm.  Audubon  thinks  the  name  of  Fruit  devourers  would  be 
more  appropriate  for  these  birds  than  that  of  Chatterers.  "  By 
way  of  dessert,"  however,  they  eat  largely  of  winged  insects, 
being  troubled  with  most  voracious  appetites. 

The  A.  cotinga,  (Gr.  from  kotillo,  to  chatter,)  (see  Chart,) 
an  inhabitant  of  Brazil,  is  sometimes  called  the  Pompadour  Chat 
terer,  from  having  been  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  thought 
less  and  extravagant  mistress  of  Louis  XV. 

The  RED,  or  JAPANESE  WAX- WING,  B.  phanicoptera,  (Gr. 
phoinicos,  red;  pteron,  wing,)  bears  great  resemblance  to  the 
Cedar  Bird.  It  was  discovered  by  means  of  the  scientific 
mission  to  Japan,  instituted  by  the  government  of  the  Nether 
lands. 

The  BELL-BIRD,  Procnias,  (Gr.  prokne,  a  proper  name  or 
Swallow,)  carunculata,  (Lat.  from  caruncula,  a  small  piece  of 
flesh.)  is  a  species  of  the  Chatterers  distinguished  by  the  soft  car 
buncle  or  fleshy  excrescence  at  the  base  of  the  beak.  It  is  the 


324  INSESSORES. 

celebrated  Campanero  of  South  America,  whose  voice,  during 
the  stillness  of  mid-day,  it  is  said,  exactly  resembles  the  tolling 
of  a  bell. 


At  uncertain  intervals,  the  Chatterers  appear  in  particular 
districts  in  immense  flocks,  and  so  remarkable  have  such  visita 
tions  appeared,  that  they  have  been  recorded  as  events  of  history, 
and  regarded  as  ominous,  in  some  way,  of  great  public  calami 
ties. 

FIFTH  FAMILY.    SHRIKES,  or  BUTCHER  BIRDS. 
Laniadce,  (Lat.  lanius,  a  butcher.) 

The  structure  of  these  birds  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
Perchers,  but  their  beak  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  falcons,  in 
its  strength,  its  arched  form,  its  strongly  hooked  point,  (see  Chart,) 
and  in  the  distinct  tooth  which  precedes  the  usual  notch  of  the 
tooth-billed  tribe.  This  peculiarity  of  beak  is  accompanied  by 
a  carnivorous  appetite,  a  rapacious  cruelty,  and  a  courage  alto 
gether  raptorial,  and  which,  as  indicating  a  kindred  nature,  have 
induced  naturalists  to  associate  them  with  birds  of  prey. 

The  Shrikes  not  only  devour  the  larger  insects,  especially 
grasshoppers,  but  even  attack  and  overpower  small  birds  and 
quadrupeds,  seizing  them  with  their  beak  or  claws,  and  bearing 
them  to  some  station  near  to  tear  them  in  pieces  with  their 
toothed  and  crooked  beak.  These  birds  live  in  families  for  a 
few  weeks  after  the  breeding  season  ;  they  fly  irregularly  and 
precipitately,  uttering  shrill  cries  ;  nestle  on  trees  or  in  bushes  ; 
lay  five  or  six  eggs  and  take  great  care  of  their  young.  Many 
of  them  have  the  curious  habit  of  impaling  their  prey  upon  a 
large  thorn,  and  then  pulling  it  to  pieces  and'devouring  it  at  their 
leisure.  Hence  they  have  derived  the  name  of  Butcher -birds. 
Mr.  Bell,  when  traveling  in  Russia,  had  one  of  these  birds  given 
to  him,  which  he  kept  in  a  room,  having  fixed  up  a  sharpened 
stick  for  him  in  the  wall ;  and  on  turning  small  birds  loose  in  the 
room,  the  Butcher-bird  instantly  caught  them  by  the  throat  in 
such  a  manner  as  soon  to  suffocate  them,  and  then  stuck  them  on 
the  stick,  pulling  them  on  with  bill  and  claws  ;  and  so  served  as 
many  as  were  turned  loose,  one  after  another,  on  the  same  stick. 

The  power  which  the  Shrikes  have  of  clutching  with  their 
toes  is  remarkably  great.  They  always  hold  their  prey  in  one 
foot,  resting  on  the  tarsal  joint  of  that  foot,  unless  when  they 
have  fastened  the  prey  upon  a  thorn,  when  they  pull  it  to  pieces 
in  a  contrary  direction.  They  show  great  boldness  in  defending 


INSESSORES,  325 

themselves  and  their  nests  from  their  more  powerful  enemies ; 
and  the  parents  evince  great  attachment  to  each  other  as  well 
as  to  their  young.  This  family  comprises  a  large  number  of 
species,  distributed  through  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  Some  of 
them  have  a  remarkably  melodious  song. 

The  GREAT  GRAY  SHRIKE,  L.  excubitor,  (Lat.  a  sentinel,)  re- 
ceives  its  specific  name  from  its  habit  of  watching  for  birds  of 
prey,  and  chattering  loudly  as  soon  as  it  perceives  them.  Bird- 
catchers  sometimes  avail  themselves  of  this  peculiarity  in  taking-; 
hawks.  A  pigeon  is  fastened  to  a  net  by  way  of  bait.  A  string 
is  attached  and  brought  within  the  turf  hut  where  the  bird-catcher 
sits.  Close  to  the  hut  a  shrike  is  tied  to  the  ground,  and  two 
pieces  of  turf  are  set  up  as  a  shelter  for  the  bird  from  the 
weather,  and  as  a  refuge  from  the  hawk.  As  soon  as  the  hawk 
appears  in  the  distance,  the  shrike  becomes  agitated  ;  as  it  draws 
nearer,  he  begins  to  scream  with  fright;  and  just  as  the  hawk 
pounces  on  the  pigeon,  he  runs  under  his  turf,  which  is  the  sig 
nal  to  the  bird-catcher  to  pull  the  string,  thereby  enclosing  the 
hawk  within  the  folds  of  the  net.  The  nest  of  this  bird  is  built 
on  trees,  and  contains  about  six  grayish-white  eg^s,  ash-colored 
on  the  larger  end.  The  length  of  the  Great  Gray  Shrike  is  from 
nine  to  ten  inches. 

The  GREAT  AMERICAN  SHRIKE,  L.  lorealis,  (Lat.  northern,) 
is  larger  in  size,  but  in  other  respects,  does  not  differ  much  from 
the  preceding  European  Shrike. 

The  RED- BACKED  SHRIKE,  L.  collurio,  (Gr.  kolluridn.)  has 
derived  its  English  name  from  having  the  back,  scapulars, 
and  wing-coverts  of  a  rusty  red  color.  (See  Chart.) 

What  is  the  2d  DIVISION  of  the  PERCHERS?  Why  are  they  so  called? 
In  what  birds  is  the  notch  most  remarkable?  What  are  their  habits?  How 
does  their  beak  differ  from  the  Falcons'  ?  What  is  said  of  the  TOOTH-BILLED 
BIRDS?  Do  they  include  all  the  musical  birds?  What  is  the  exception? 
Into  how  many  FAMILIES  are  these  birds  divided?  What  is  the  1st  FAMILY? 
What  is  said  of  their  numbers?  How  many  American  sp.  docs  Audubon 
enumerate?  What  is  said  of  the  habits  and  size  of  these  birds?  What 
office  do  they  perform?  What  is  said  of  their  migrations?  Into  how  many 
GROUPS  may  they  be  arranged?  Which  are  the  TRUE  WARBLERS?  What 
sp.  are  particularly  mentioned?  Which  is  the  smallest  of  European  birds? 
What  birds  are  included  in  the  2d  GROUP  ?  What  in  the  3d  GROUP?  What 
celebrated  bird  is  found  in  this  group?  How  does  it  differ  from  the  A. 
Robin?  What  is  the  4th  GROUP?  What  A.  sp.  is  mentioned?  What  is 
the  5th  GROUP?  What  is  a  familiar  example?  Why  is  the  Penduline  Tit 
OP  Bottle  Tit  so  called? 

Name  the  2d  FAMILY.  What  is  said  of  their  numbers,  favorite  haunts 
and  average  size  ?  What  of  their  beak,  food  and  plumage  ?  For  what  are 

14 


323  INSESSORES. 

the  ORIOLES  distinguished?  For  what  the  BREVES  and  AFRICAN  THRUSHES? 
What  sp.  illustrate  the  general  character  and  habits  of  this  family?  To 
what  sub-family  does  the  AMERICAN  ROBIN  belong?  What  is  said  of  the 
Mocking-bird?  What  of  the  Cat-bird?  Of  the  Misletoe  Thrush?  Of  the 
Water  Ouzel  or  Dipper  ? 

What  is  the  3d  FAMILY?  Why  are  they  so  called?  How  do  they  appear 
to  connect  the  Split-billed  and  Tooth-billed  birds?  Into  how  many  genera 
does  Audubon  arrange  them?  What  are  the  EUROPEAN  FLY-CATCHERS 
sometimes  called  and  why  ?  Mention  the  sp.  What  is  said  of  the  King 
bird?  What  of  the  Phebe  B.  ?  What  of  the  Wood  Pewee  and  the  Amer 
ican  Redstart?  How  have  the  Greenlets  been  arranged?  What  is  said 
of  them? 


What  is  the  4th  FAMPLY  ?  Give  the  characteristics  of  these  birds.  What 
is  their  food  ?  What  is  said  of  their  plumage  ?  Why  are  they  called  WAX- 
WINGS?  Name  and  describe  the  only  E.  sp.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Cedar 
B.  ?  What  of  the  Pompadour  Chatterer  ?  Of  the  Asiatic  Wax-wing  ?  Of 
the  Bell  B.  ?  What  has  been  inferred  from  the  appearance  of  immense 
flocks  of  Chatterers  in  certain  districts  ? 


What  is  the  name  of  the  5th  and  last  FAMILY  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
structure  of  these  birds?  What  accompanies  their  peculiarity  of  beak?  Is 
their  food  confined  to  the  larger  insects?  What  curious  habit  have 
they?  What  name  is  hence  given  to  them?  What  is  related  by  Mr  Bell ? 
What  is  said  of  the  power  of  their  toes?  What  of  their  boldness?  Does 
this  family  include  many  sp.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  G.  G.  SHRIKE  ?  What 
of  the  Great  American  S.  ?  What  of  the  Red-backed  S.  ? 


Trace  those  mentioned  on  the  Chart. 

SECTION  V. 

THIRD  DIVISION  OF  THE  PERCHERS.     CONE-BILLED  BIRDS. 
Conirostres.     (Lat.  conus,  a  cone  ;  rostrum,  a  beak.) 

This  division  is  less  numerous  than  the  Dentirostres,  but  still 
includes  a  great  number  of  birds  of  varying  size,  structure  and 
habits.  Naturalists  regard  this  tribe  as  typical,  not  only  in  the 
Order  of  the  Perchers.  but  in  the  whole  Class  of  Birds. 

The  chief  character  by  which  they  are  associated  together,  is 
found  in  the  beak,  which,  though  differing  in  shape  and  compar 
ative  size,  is  generally  short ;  at  the  same  time,  it  is  thick,  and 
very  strong,  more  or  less  conical  in  form,  and  usually  without  a 
notch  at  the  tip.  In  one  .pretty  large  group,  however,  the 
TANAGERS,  of  Louisiana,  and  South  America, — gay,  fire-colored 
birds, — the  beak,  while  partaking  of  the  conical  form  of  this 
division,  is  distinctly  notched ;  constituting  them  one  link  of 
connexion  between  this  and  the  preceding  tribe,  (Dentirostres.) 


INSESSORES.  327 

The  feet  in  the  Cone-billed  Birds  are,  upon  the  whole,  formed 
more  for  perching  than  for  walking,  though  many  birds  of  this 
division,  walk  habitually  upon  the  ground. 

Seeds  and  grain  are  the  principal  food  of  these,  the  "Hard- 
billed  "  Birds  ;  and  for  opening  the  different  capsules,  and  seed 
vessels,  as  well  as  for  crushing  hard  seeds  themselves,  their  stout 
and  horny  beaks  are  peculiarly  fitted.  Some  of  these  birds, 
however,  join  insects  to  vegetable  food  ;  and  a  part  of  them  are 
nearly  or  quite  omnivorous.  As  the  form  of  the  beak  varies  from 
that  of  a  short  and  broad  cone,  so  does  the  appetite  proportiona- 
bly  vary  from  an  exclusive  seed  diet.  The  Cone-billed  Birds, 
particularly  the  FINCHES,  seem  to  prefer  the  temperate  and 
colder  to  the  warmer  regions;  but  they  are  represented  in  all  the 
countries  of  the  globe.  The  families  of  this  tribe  are  the  follow 
ing,  viz:  (1.)  Corvida,  or  Crows;  (2.)  Sturnida^  or  Starlings; 
(3.)  FringillidO)  or  Finches;  (4.)  Loxiada,  or  Cross-bills;  (5.) 
Bucerotidce,  or  Horn-bills;  (6.)  Musophagidce,  or  Plantain 
Eaters. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     THE  CROWS. 
Corvidce,  (Lat.  corvus,  a  raven.) 

THE  CROWS  are  among  the  largest  of  the  Passerine,  or  Perch- 
ing  Birds,  They  are  widely  spread,  but  yet  comparatively  few 
in  number.  Their  beak  is  powerful,  more  or  less  compressed  at 
the  sides,  conical,  but  long,  having  the  upper  mandible  usually 
arched,  the  gape  nearly  straight,  and  the  nostrils  concealed  by 
stiff  bristles,  pointing  forwards.  The  plumage  is  dark  and  som 
bre,  often  black,*more  or  less  glossed,  and  sometimes  varied  with 
gray  or  white.  To  this  sombre  coloration,  the  Jays,  however, 
are  an  exception,  being  usually  arrayed  in  the  richest  azure  and 
purple.  They  are  also  more  exclusively  arboreal  than  others  of 
the  family  which  walk  a  great  deal  on  the  ground. 

The  CorvidcB  are  birds  of  firm  and  compact  structure ;  their 
wings  are  long,  pointed  and  strong  ;  their  feet  and  claws  robust. 
Their  disposition  is  bold  and  daring  ;  they  are  very  sagacious; 
easily  tamed,  and  rendered  familiar.  Most  of  them  have  the 
faculty  of  imitating  with  much  accuracy  the  sounds  which  they 
hear,  and  even  words  of  human  language.  They  show  a  strange 
propensity  for  thieving,  and  for  hiding  substances  that  can  be  of 
no  use  to  them  whatever,  particularly  if  they  display  metallic  or 
polished  surfaces,  or  brilliant  colors.  They  may  be  ranked  as 
omnivorous ;  insects  and  their  larvae,  grain,  fruits,  bread,  flesh, 


323        ,  INSESSORES. 

both  when  fresh  and  when  putrid,  they  can,  by  turns,  devour 
with  avidity. 

"THE  CROW,  (Corvus,)  "as  Svvainson  strikingly  remarks,  "is 
the  type  of  types,  or  the  preeminent  type  of  all  birds,  uniting  a 
greater  nujnber  of  properties  than  are  to  be  found  in  any  other 
genus  of  birds.  Like  the  Hawk,  it  soars  in  the  air,  and  seizes 
living  birds;  like  the  Vulture,  it  devours  putrid  substances,  and 
picks  out  the  eyes  of  young  animals;  like  the  Climbers,  it  dis 
covers  its  food  when  hidden  from  the  eye,  by  pecking;  like  the 
Parrot  family,  it  has  a  taste  for  vegetable  food;  has  great  cun 
ning,  sagacity,  and  powers  of  imitation,  even  to  counterfeiting 
the  human  voice;  like  the  Waders,  it  walks  with  facility,  and 
has  great  powers  of  flight;  like  the  Aquatic  birds,  it  can  both 
catch  and  feed  upon  fish.  Thus  it  unites  some  of  the  properties 
of  all  other  birds,  and  stands  the  preeminent  type  ofthe  Perchers." 

The  largest  and  most  powerful  species  of  the  genus  Corvus,  is 
the  well  known  Raven,  C.  corax,  (Lat.  a  raven,) — the  CORBIE, 
of  Scotland*  celebrated  even  from  the  time  of  the  universal 
deluge,  and  ever  looked  upon  as  a  bird  of  dark  omen.  It  is 
twenty-five  inches  in  length,  and  fifty  inches  in  the  spread  ofthe 
wings, — ranging  from  the  Arctic  seas  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
in  the  Eastern  Continent,  and  from  the  same  seas  to  Mexico,  on 
the  Western;  unchanged  in  character,  amidst  all  the  variations 
and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold;  traveling  in  pairs,  and  flying  so 
high  that  it  would  escape  notice  but  for  its  frequent  crying,  in 
all  times  and  places,  showing  itself  possessed  of  acute  and 
powerful  sight  and  smell  ;  and  at  perpetual  variance  with  all 
other  feathered  tribes. 

THE  COMMON  *  CROW,  C.  Americanus,  is  seventeen  inches  in 
length,  being  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Common  Carrion  Crow 
of  Europe,  from  which  it  differs  in  its  voice,  its  gregarious  habits, 
and  the  shape  of  its  tongue.  Both  are  regarded  and  treated  as 
nuisances.  Tens  of  thousands  of  them  are  shot  every  season. 
They  may  be  of  some  use  to  farmers  in  ploughing  time,  by 
picking  up  worms  and  the  larvee  of  insects;  but  of  other  good 
deeds  of  the  Crow,  we  are  ignorant.  No  sooner  are  the  seeds 
in  the  ground,  than  he  begins  to  search  after  and  devour  them; 
for  Indian  Corn  and  eggs  he  seems  to  have  a  wonderful  inclina 
tion ;  and  even  relishes  young  chickens,  turkeys  and  goslings; 
at  the  same  time,  he  is  very  cunning  in  avoiding  the  sn  ires 
which  are  devised  to  entrap  and  destroy  him.  The  FISH  CROW, 
C.  ossifragus,  (bone-breaker,) — found  on  the  sea-coast  as  far 
North  as  New  York,  like  the  Raven  and  Common  Crow,  robs 
other  birds  of  their  eggs  and  their  young ;  but,  being  regarded 


INCESSORES.  329 

as  inoffensive,  it  is  usually  unmolested.  It  takes  the  liberty, 
however,  to  feed  with  great  freedom  on  the  best  garden  fruits. 
The  MAGPIES,  Pica,  (Lat.  magpie,)  and  the  JAYS,  Garrulus,  (Lat. 
chatting,  or  talkative,)  are  near  relatives  of  the  Crows.  The 
well  known  BLUE  JAY,  G.  cristatus,  (crested,)  is  capable  of  living 
in  cold  as  well  as  warm  climates,  and  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  truly  omnivorous,  and,  in  times  of  scarcity, 
has  been  known  to  feed  even  on  carrion.  Though  extremely 
beautiful  in  its  appearance  and  graceful  in  its  movements,  (see 
Plate  X.  fig.  4c.)  it  is  a  deceitful,  and  often  a  very  mischievous 
bird.  The  NUT-CRACKERS,  Nucifraga,  (Lat.  nux,  a  nut;  frango, 
to  break  )  all  belong  to  this  family.  In  their  habits,  they  resem 
ble  both  the  Jays  and  the  Woodpeckers, — climbing  trees  and 
perforating  their  bark,  and  devouring  all  sorts  of  fruits  and 
insects,  as  well  as  small  birds.  The  FRUIT  CROWS,  Coracince, 
are  a  sub-family  of  South  American  Birds,  about  whose  proper 
place  there  has  been  some  question  among  naturalists,  but  which 
are  placed  by  Swainson  with  the  Corvida.  The  most  remark 
able  of  these  are  the  Capuchin  Baldhead,  Coracina gymnocephala, 
(Gr.  bald  headed.)  a  bird  about  as  large  as  the  Common  Crow, 
of  Spanish-snuff  color,  or,  as  some  say,  capuchin  color.  Its 
large  beak  and  ample  forehead,  bare  of  feathers,  to  which  the 
specific  name  refers,  give  it  a  very  singular  appearance.  The 
Crested  Crow,  C.  cephaloptera,  (Gr.  head-winged,)  is  also  a  sin 
gular  looking  bird,  of  a  uniform  blue-black  hue,  having  the 
head  and  base  of  the  bill  ornamented  with  a  crest,  forming  a  sort 
of  parasol,  to  shade  the  face,  and  reaching  to  the  end  of  the  bill, 
compressed  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Rupicola,  or  Cock  of 
the  Rock.  "The  sides  of  the  neck  are  naked,  but  long  feathers 
forming  a  loose  pelerine,  and  hanging  down  lower  than  the 
breast,  spring  from  beneath  the  throat  and  from  the  sides  of  the 
neck.  This  crest  and  feathers  of  the  pelerine  give  metallic 
reflections/'  (Lesson.) 

In  the  family  of  the  Corvida  are  included  the  Birds  of  Para 
dise,  which  some  naturalists  have,  with  reason,  erected  into  a 
separate  family,  called  ParadiseadfE,  including  some  of  the  most 
singular  and  magnificent  of  the  feathered  tribes.  They  are 
natives  of  New  Guinea,  to  which  they  are  almost  confined.  Of 
these  birds,  splendid  as  they  are,  fiction  has  presented  many 
strange  and  exaggerated  descriptions.  For  a  long  time,  it  was 
asserted  that  some  of  them  are  without  legs !  They  considera 
bly  resemble  the  Crows  in  their  general  structure,  and  they  also 
approach  them  in  si/e.  In  these  birds,  the  wings  are  long  and 
round,  the  tail  varying  in  length  at  the  extremity,  or  else 


830  INSESSOKES. 

rounded.  The  tarsi  are  robust,  long,  and  covered  by  a  single 
feathered  scale ;  the  toes  long  and  strong,  especially  the  hind 
toe;  the  claws  large,  curved,  and  powerful.  The  sides  of  the 
body,  the  neck,  the  breast,  the  tail,  and  sometimes  the  head,  are 
ornamented  with  lengthened  and  peculiarly  developed  showy 
feathers ;  the  plumage  of  the  face  and  throat,  is  commonly  of  a 
scaly  or  velvety  texture,  and  most  richly  glossed  with  metallic 
hues,  while  other  parts  of  the  body  are  frequently  arrayed  in 
rich  and  brilliant  colors. 

There   are   several   species  of  these  birds,  but  the  EMERALD 
BIRD  OF  PARADISE,  which  is  figured  on  the  Chart,  is  the  one  best 
known.     It  is  impossible  adequately  to  describe   its  beauty  of 
form,  and  the  vivid   and  changing  tints  of  its  plumage.     The 
generic  part  of  the  scientific  name,  Paradisca  apoda,  is  from  the 
Greek  Paradeisos,  a  pleasure-ground ;  thp  specific  name,  which 
means  footless,  was  given  it   by   Linnaeus,  "  because  the  older 
naturalists  called  it  footless. 'r     The  truth  is,  the  natives  of  New 
Guinea  were  accustomed  to  dry  birds  of  this  species,  (having 
first  cut  off  the  legs,)  and  to  offer  them  for  sale.     They  were 
taken  to  other  countries  in  this  "footless"  condition  ;  and  hence, 
conjectures  arose  that  they  lived  in  the  air,  buoyed  up  by  the  light 
ness  of  their  feathery  covering;  that  the  shoulders  were-  used  for 
a  nest ;  that  the  only  rest  which  they  took,  was  by  suspending 
themselves  from  a  branch  by  the  filamentary  feathers  of  the  tail  j 
that  their  food  was  the  morning  dew, — and  other  things  of  a  like 
character, — amusing  enough,  but  entirely  without  foundation,  in 
fact.     So  far  from  living  wholly  on  dew,  this  bird  eats  no  small 
amount  of  insects,  such  as  grasshoppers,  etc.,  which,  however, 
it  will  not  touch  when  dead  ;  it  also  feeds  largely  on  the  seeds 
of  the  teak  tree,  and  on  figs  and  aromatics;  when  alive,  it  is 
about  the  size  of  a  Common  Jay,  or  Pigeon  ;  its  note  is  like  that 
of  the  Starling.     The   body,  breast,  and   lower  parts,  are  of  a 
deep  rich  brown ;  the  forehead  is  clothed  with  close-set  feathers 
of  a  velvety  black  shot  with  green;  the  throat  of  a  rich  golden, 
green ;  the  head  yellow ;  the  sides  of  the  tail  are  clothed  with  a 
splendid  plume  of  downy  feathers  of  a  soft  yellow  color.     By 
these    are    placed   two  long    filaments,  or    thread-like    shafts, 
which   extend   nearly  two  feet   in   length.     (See  figure   on  the 
Chart.)     "Of  these  beautiful  feathers,  the  bird  is  so  proud,  that 
it  will  not  suffer  the  least  speck   of  dirt  to  remain  upon  them, 
and  it  is  constantly  examining  its  plumage,  to  see  that  there  are  no 
spots  on  it.     When  in  its  wild  state,  it  always  flies  and  sits  with 
its  face  to  the  wind,  lest  its  elegant  flying  plumes  should  be  dis 
arranged."     The  female  is  without  these  floating  plumes  of  the 


INSESSORES.  331 

male,  and  her  colors  are  less  lustrous.  The  Emerald,  in  its 
motions  is  lively  and  agile,  and,  in  general,  it  perches  only  upon 
the  tops  of  the  most  lofty  trees.  These  birds  are  killed  by  the 
natives  with  blunt  arrows,  and  sold  to  the  Europeans ;  this  forms 
a  gainful  traffic ;  and  hence,  the  Chinese,  it  is  said,  fabricate 
imitations  of  these  "  celestial  fowls,"  of  the  feathers  of  Parrots 
and  Paroquets,  which  they  sell  at  high  prices  to  strangers. 


SECOND  FAMILY.     THE  STARLINGS. 
Sturnidce.     (Lat.  Sturnus,  a  starling,  or  stare.) 

THE  STARLINGS  are  u  numerous  and  widely  distributed  fam 
ily  ;  larger,  for  the  most  part,  than  the  average  of  the  perching 
birds  ;  but  of  less  size  than  the  Crows,  which,  in  structure  and 
manners,  they  much  resemble.  The  beak  in  these  birds,  is  of  a 
form  well  adapted  for  penetrating  the  earth  in  search  of  the 
worms  and  underground  larvee  upon  which  they  feed. 

The  plumage  is  commonly  of  dark  colors,  but  has  a  peculiar 
richness;  black,  glossed  with  lustrous  hues  of  steel  blue,  purple, 
or  green,  of  the  prevailing  color,  but  occasionally  it  is  relieved 
by  broad  masses  of  crimson  or  yellow,  (and,  in  a  few  instances, 
of  white,)  as  in  the  Icterus,  or  Baltimore  Oriole. 

The  Starlings  live  in  societies,  sometimes  immensely  numer 
ous,  and  seem  universally  to  prefer  the  locality  of  plains  fre 
quented  by  cattle  ;  in  this  particular,  resembling  the  Maize 
Birds. 

THE  COMMON  STARLING,  (S.  vulgaris,)  it  has  been  observed, 
becomes  wonderfully  familiar  in  the  house ;  is  very  docile ; 
always  gay  and  wakeful;  soon  knows  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
house,  remarks  their  motions  and  air,  and  adapts  himself  «.o 
their  humors  ;  he  repeats  correctly  the  airs  which  he  is  taught, 
imitates  the  cries  of  men  and  animals,  and  the  songs  of  all  the 
birds  in  the  same  room  with  himself;  but  his  acquirements  are 
of  little  value,  for  he  forgets  as  fast  as  he  learns  The  Starling 
lays,  twice  in  a  year,  from  four  to  six  eggs  of  a  delicate  pale 
blue,  or  of  an  ashy  green  color.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the 
Blackbird. 

THE  MEADOW  STARLING,  or  Meadow  Lark,  (Sturnella  ludo- 
viciana.)  is  a  beautiful  bird,  found  abundantly  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  as  far  North  as  the  Fur  countries,  wintering 
in  the  Carolinas,  or  Florida.  It  builds  its  nest  at  the  foot  of 
some  tall,  strong  grass.  This  bird,  though  useful  in  destroying 


332  INSESSORES. 

thousands  of  larvae  in  meadows,  is  a  little  too  fond  of  scratching 
up  the  seeds  of  grain,  and  of  plucking  up  young  corn;  it  has 
been  known  even  to  kill  and  eat  small  birds.  The  male  is 
about  eleven  inches  in  length. 

THE  RED-WINGED  STARLING,  *S.  prczdatorius,  (Lat.  plunder, 
ing,)  ranges  from  Labrador  to  Mexico, — north  of  Maryland 
being  migratory.  From  its  strong  predilection  for  corn  or 
maize,  and  its  extensive  depredations  upon  the  young  ears,  it  has 
acquired  a  bad  reputation,  having  among  other  names,  that  of 
CORN  or  MAIZE  THIEF.  A  remarkable  characteristic  of  this 
bird  is,  that  the  male  is  nearly  two  inches  longer  than  the  female, 
and  of  proportionate  magnitude. 

THE  BOAT-TAILS  are  American  Birds,  and  the  largest  of  the 
Starling  family,  and  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  Crows.  Their 
t  ills  are  so  concave  on  their  upper  sides  as  to  resemble  a  boat, 
\vhence  the  sub-family  name,  Scapliidurina,  (Gr.  skaphis,  a 
boat;  oura,  a  tail.)  The  typical  birds  of  this  group,  (Scaphi- 
are  found  in  South  America. 

Another  genus,  sometimes  included  in  the  Boat-tail  Birds,  is 
Quiscahis,  which  has  several  representatives  in  the  United  States. 
Among  these  are  (1)  the  Boat-tailed  Grackle,or  Great  Crow  Black 
Bird,  Q.  major,  (Lat.  greater,)  about  sixteen  inches  in  length,  and 
found  in  the  Southern  States,  particularly  on  the  sea-coast.  The 
food  of  this  species  consists,  principally,  of  the  small  crabs,  called 
4  fiddlers;"  (2)  the  Purple  Grackle,  or  Common  Crow  Black 
bird,  is  a  constant  resident  in  the  Southern  States,  but  migrating 
very  far  North.  It  appears  in  the  State  of  New  York  about 
the  middle  of  April,  and  is  notorious,  and  dreaded  for  its  attacks 
on  Indian  Corn;  (3,)  the  Rusty  Crow  Blackbird,  Q.ferrugincus, 
(Lat.  iron-colored.)  of  similar  character  and  habits  with  the  pre 
ceding,  but  ranging  still  farther  North. 

The  sub-family,  LamprotornitKE,  (Gr.  lamprotes.  splendor; 
nrnis,  a  bird,)  includes  Grackles  found  in  Asia  and  Africa,  in 
which  they  represent  the  Boat-tails  of  America. 

THE  ORIOLES,  or  Hang-Nests,  Icterus,  (Gr.  Yellow  Thrush,) 
— sub-family,  Icterina, — are  a  numerous  and  beautiful  group 
of  American  Birds,  of  which  the  Baltimore  Oriole,  7.  Baltimore, 
is  the  most  noted.  This  is  sometimes  called  Golden  Oriole, 
Golden  Robin  ;  and  also  Fire-Bird,  Fire  Hang-Bird,  from 
the  bright  orange  seen  through  the  green  leaves,  and  resem 
bling  a  flash  of  fire;  but  more  generally,  the  Baltimore  Bird  ; 
its  colors  of  black  and  orange,  resembling  those  of  the  arms 
or  livery  of  Lord  Baltimore,  formerly  proprietary  of  Mary 
land.  The  materials  which  this  bird  uses  for  making  its  nest, 


INSESSORES.  333 

vary  with  the  temperature.  In  Louisiana,  its  nest  (see  Plate 
XI.  fig.  4)  is  constructed  of  moss,  woven  throughout,  so  that  the 
air  can  easily  pass  through  it,  and  it  is  placed  in  the  coolest  posi 
tion";  so  strongly  is  it  secured,  that  no  wind  can  carry  it  off 
without  breaking  the  branch  to  which  it  is  suspended.  In  Penn 
sylvania  and  New  York,  the  nest  is  constructed  of  the  warmest 
and  softest  materials,  and  so  placed  as  to  be  exposed  to  the 
sun's  rays.  In  summer,  the  Baltimore  Orioles  are  dispersed 
over  the  United  States,  and  as  far  North  as  Nova  Scotia.  The 
song  of  this  bird,  is  a  clear,  mellow  whistle,  repeated  at  short 
intervals.  The  male,  according  to  Audubon,  does  not  receive 
its  full  plumage  until  the  third  spring.  The  principal  food  of  the 
Oriole  consists  of  caterpillars,  beetles,  and  bugs,  particularly  one 
of  a  brilliant  glossy  green. 

Dr.  DeKay,  in  the  Natural  History  of  New  York,  includes 
the  Crow  Blackbirds,  (QuiscaZus,)  the  Orioles,  (Icterus,)  the  Cow 
Bunting,  (Mofothrus,)  and  the  Bob-o'lirik,  (Dolichonyx,)  in  one 
family,  Quiscalidce.  But  Audubon  arranges  these  together, 
with  the  Marsh  Blackbird,  Agelaius,  in  the  family  Agelaina, 

MINO  BIRD. — Among  the  Starlings  we  also  place  the  Mino 
Bird,  Eulabes,  (Gr.  eulabes,  circumspect,  or  religious,)  Javana- 
cus,  or  Gracula  religiosa  ;  following  Swainson  in  this  arrange 
ment,  who  deems  it  quite  unreasonable  to  place  this  long-legged 
Grackle  close  to  the  short-legged  ROLLERS,  as  M.  Lesson  has 
done.  This  bird  has  a  short  and  stout  beak,  with  the  tip  dis 
tinctly  notched.  Its  plumage  is  of  a  deep  velvety  black,  with  a 
white  space  in  the  middle  of  the  wing  ;  behind  the  eye  spring 
fleshy  carbuncles  of  a  bright  orange  color. 

The  Mino  Bird  feeds  on  insects  and  fruits.  It  is  easily  tamed; 
learns  to  whistle  and  talk  with  great  facility,  and  is  therefore  a 
great  favorite  with  the  Javanese.  Marsden  says,  it  has  the  fac 
ulty  of  imitating  human  speech  in  greater  perfection  than  any 
other  of  the  feathered  tribe.  There  is  said  to  be  a  smaller 
variety  of  this  bird  in  India. 

THIRD  FAMILY.     FINCHES. 
FringiUidcR.     (Lat.  Fringitta,  a  finch.) 

The  Finches  are  a  large  and  interesting  family,  the  smallest 
of  the  Perchers,  and,  for  the  most  part,  excellent  songsters. 
They  have  short,  thick,  and  powerful  beaks  ;  both  mandibles  are 
usually  of  equal  thickness,  and  their  length  and  breadth  nearly 
alike,  so  that  when  the  beak  is  closed,  it  generally  appears  like 
a.  very,  short  cone  divided  in  the  middle  by  the  gape.  In  some 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XI. 

Fig.  1.  Nest  of  the  CHESTNUT  CROWNED  TITMOUSE,  suspended  from  the 
fork  of  a  twig,  nine  inches  long,  more  than  three  in  diameter,  entrance 
at  the  top  less  than  an  inch  wide,  made  of  the  softest  materials. 
Fig.  2a.  Nests  of  the  AFRICAN  WEAVER-BIRDS,  (REPUBLICAN  GROSBEAKS  of 
Swainson.)  The  numerous  entrances  to  this  BIRD  TOWN  lead  to  regu 
lar  streets,  having  nests  on  each  side,  at  about  two  inches  distance  from 
each  other ;  the  general  roof  or  cover  is  built  by  the  united  labors  of 
the  birds,  and  sometimes  shelters  hundreds.  That  from  which  this  fig 
ure  was  taken  was  thought  to  contain  a  society  of  eight  hundred  or  a 
thousand. 

Fig.  2b.  Hive  nests  of  the  SOCIABLE  WEAVER-BIRDS.  The  lower  surface 
abounds  with  perforations  admitting  the  birds  to  their  nests,  but  ex 
cluding  snakes  and  other  intruders.  They  never  occupy  the  old  nests, 
but  continue  to  add  successive  tiers  until  the  branches  yield  to  the  ac 
cumulated  weight. 

Fig.    3.  Nest  of  the  WOOD  SWALLOW. 

Fig.  4.  Nest  of  the  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE,  closely  interwoven  with  flax,  hemp, 
tow,  hair,  and  bits  of  thread,  cord,  &c.,  stitched  through  and  through 
with  horse  hair,  securely  suspended  from  the  branch  of  a  tree. 
Fig.  5.  Nest  of  the  PENDULINE  TITMOUSE,  or  BOTTLE  TIT,  made  of  the 
down  of  the  willow,  poplar,  and  thistle,  lined  with  feathers,  containing 
from  ten  to  fourteen  eggs. 

Fig.    6.  Nest  of  the  PENSILE  WEAVER-BIRDS,  or  WEAVER  FINCHES,  shaped 
like  a  Chemist's  retort ;  suspended  over  water  from  trees ;  entrance 
from  beneath. 
Fig.    7.  Nest  of  the  WREN  ;  of  hay,  if  against  a  hay-stack ;  of  moss,  if 

against  a  mossy  tree. 

Fig.  8.  Nest  of  the  TAILOR-BIRD,  or  TAILOR  WARBLER,  of  Ceylon,  curi 
ously  formed  by  stitching  with  plant  fibres  or  threads  of  cotton  a  dead 
leaf  to  a  living  one ;  nest  open  at  the  top  and  filled  with  fine  down. 
A  species  in  Italy  are  said  to  sew  their  materials  together  with  spiders' 
webs. 
Fig.  9.  BAR-TAILED  HUMMING  BIRD,  of  Peru;  the  nest  of  soft  delicate 

materials,  is  often  warped  or  woven  together  with  spiders'  webs. 
Fig.  10.  Nests  of  the  BANK  SWALLOWS  or  SAND  MARTINS,  numerous  in  sand 
banks  or  artificial  excavations,  such  as  gravel-pits.  Audubon  says, 
"the  little  creatures  are  so  industrious  he  has  known  a  hole  dug  to  the 
depth  of  three  feet  four  inches,  the  nest  finished  in  four  days,  and  the 
first  egg  deposited  on  the  morning  of  the  fifth." 

Fig.  11.  GOURD-SHAPED  nests  of  the  REPUBLICAN  or  CLIFF  SWALLOW,  built 
of  muddy  sand  under  the  eaves  or  cornices  of  buildings,  or  attached 
to  rocks  overhanging  rivers,  where  they  are  found  grouped  by  hundreds. 
NOTE. — The  nests  of  RAPTORIAL  birds  are  seldom  met  with,  as  they  are 
usually  built  in  lofty  trees  or  inaccessible  precipices.     OWLS  do  not  usually 
construct  nests,  but  deposit  their  eggs  in  some  hole,  in  a  tree,  an  old  build 
ing,  or  in  the  ground.     INSECTIVOROUS  birds  are  solitary  builders  ;  among 
the  Shrikes,   Thrushes,  Warblers,  Tit-mice,  and  Fly-catchers,  there  is  not 
one  instance  of  a  species  either  living  or  building  in  societies.     Pensile 
lests  are  altogether  peculiar  to  perching  birds,  and  are  more  common  in 
tropical  than  temperate  latitudes.     Hundreds  of  hang-nests  may  be  seen  in 
Brazil  attached  to  a  single  tree;  some  of  them  are  said  to  measure  between 
four  and  five  feet.     Other  nests  are  said  to  have  a  portico  or  ante-room 
where  the  male  bird  often  sits  during  the  time  of  the  female's  incubatioa. 


PI  . 


INSESSORES.  337 

genera,  however,  the  conical  form  is  less  obvious,  by  the  lateral 
and  vertical  swelling  of  its  outline.  The  GROSBEAK,  or  HAW 
FINCH,  Coccothraustes,  (Gr.  kokkos,  grain;  iliraud,  I  break,)  has 
a  beak  enormously  thick  in  proportion  to  its  length,  and  in  com 
parison  with  the  size  of  the  head.  In  this  bird,  and,  indeed,  in 
all  the  Finches,  the  great  strength  of  the  beak  well  adapts  it  for 
the  uses  to  which  it  is  destined,  as  the  food  of  this  bird  consists 
of  seeds  often  enclosed  in  woody  capsules  of  great  hardness,  or 
the  kernels  of  stone  fruits,  which  must  either  be  opened  by  a 
forcible  wrench,  or  crushed  by  a  strong  pressure.  The  Finch 
es,  besides  seeds,  also  feed  on  grain,  and  occasionally  on 
insects. 

These  birds  frequent  fields,  groves,  and  woodlands ;  numbers 
of  them  are  found  in  gardens,  building  their  nests  in  bushes. 
Many  of  them,  in  a  state  of  captivity,  are  rendered  subservient 
to  human  improvement,  and  become  favorite  domestic  pets.  So 
numerous  are  the  genera  and  species  of  this  family,  it  is  impos 
sible,  within  the  limits  of  this  volume,  to  give  any  more  than  the 
briefest  notices  of  some  of  the  more  prominent  ones. 

1.  We  notice  the  WEAVERS,  sub-family,  PloceincB,  (Gr.  plo- 
keus,  a  weaver  ) 

These  birds  build  their  nest  upon  branches  extending  over 
a  river  or'  pool  of  water ;  it  is  shaped  exactly  like  a  chemist's 
retort,  (Plate  XI.  fig  6  ;)  and  is  suspended  from  the  head  ;  and 
the  shank,  of  eight  or  nine  inches  length,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
is  the  opening,  almost  touches  the  water.  It  is  made  of  green 
grass,  and  curiously  woven.  The  Weaver  Birds  also  construct 
the  celebrated  hive-shaped  nests.  (See  nests  of  the  Social 
Weaver  Birds,  Plate  XI.  fig.  2.)  The  Textor,  (Lat.  Weaver,) 
erythrorhyncus,  (Gr.  eruthros,  red ;  rhuncfios,  a  beak.)  The 
RED-BEAKED  WEAVER,  of  South  Africa,  companies  with  Buffa 
loes,  and  obtains  from  their  hides  its  supply  of  food.  It  serves 
these  animals  by  ridding  them  of  the  insects  with  which  their 
hides  are  infested,  and  by  flying  up  on  any  alarm,  it  becomes  to 
them  as  a  sentinel,  indicating  the  approach  of  danger,  or  of  any 
thing  unusual.  This  bird  does  not  appear  to  attach  itself  to  any 
quadruped  but  the  Buffalo. 

THE  WIDOW  BIRDS,  or  Whidah  Finches,  ranged  by  Swainson 
under  the  sub-genus  Vidua,  (Lat.  a  widow,) — have  long  boat- 
shaped  tails,  with  the  two  middle  feathers  excessively  lengthened, 
and  generally  broad  and  convex.  In  Senegal  and  South  Africa, 
is  found  the  Widow  Bird  of  the  "English  salesmen  and  fanciers," 
V.paradisea,  about  the  size  of  a  Canary  bird, — but  the  two  feathers 
next  to  the  middle  tail- feathers  are  a  foot  in  length  from  the  base, 


333  1NSESSORES. 

and  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  width  ;  the  two  middle  feathers 
have  very  broad  webs  on  their  basal  half,  (or  extending  about  three 
inches  midway,)  but  the  remainder  of  the  shaft  becomes  like  a 
plumeless,  hair-like  process  of  the  same  length.  The  term, 
'"  widowed,"  is  applied  to  this  group  from  the  sombre  hue  which 
prevails  in  the  plumage,  "suggesting  the  idea  of  widow's 
weeds."  Among  the  PIoceifKE,  Swainson  places  the  JAVA 
SPARROW,  Amadina,  represented  by  the  Tiaris,  or  Creslrt,  in 
South  America,  in  which  the  thickness  of  the  beak  is  enormous 
in  proportion  to  its  length,  and  the  middle  feathers  of  the  tail  are 
the  longest.  This  bird  is  frequently  kept  as  a  pet  in  cages, 
living  on  seeds. 

II.  THE  BUNTINGS,  sub-family,  Emlerizida,  are  an  interest 
ing  group  of  Passerine  birds,  differing  from  the  Finches  proper, 
chiefly  by  having  a  knob  on  the  "palate,"  or  on  the  under  man- 
(iible, — the  sides  of  the  under  mandible  bending  inwards;  their 
strong  conical  beak  is  well  adapted  for  breaking  the  seeds  which 
constitute  their  principal  food. 

THE  LARK  BUNTINGS,  Plectrophanes,  (Gr.  plectron;phaino,  to 
display,)  have  moderately  long  tarsi;  the  side  toes  of  equal 
length ;  the  hind  toe  strong,  with  a  lengthened  and  nearly 
straight  claw.  There  are  several  species  of  these  birds,  among 
which  is  the  SNOW  LARK  BUNTING,  P.  nivafts,  (Lat.  snowy,) 
which  appears  in  the  Eastern  part  of  the  United  States  early  in 
November,  and  in  some  parts,  remaining  until  March.  The 
summer  plumage  of  the  Snow  Bunting,  is  pure  white  and  black, 
but  it  is  found  in  all  varieties  of  plumage.  In  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  it  is  called  the  Snow  Flake  ;  in  Labrador,  New  Found- 
L;nd,  and  elsewhere,  the  White  Bird;  and  also  the  White  Snow- 
Bird,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  COMMON  SNOW  BIRD,  Slrutlms, 
(Gr.  stroutlws,  a  sparrow:)  hyemalis,  (Lat.  of  winter.)  The 
Arctic  Bird,  the  Lapland  Snow-B.rd,  or  Bunting,  P.  Lapponicus, 
breeds  in  moist  meadows,  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  seas;  and 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  is  seen  during  the  extreme  cold  of 
winter.  Audubon  observed  these  birds  in  Kentucky  and  Missouri. 
They  have  been  seen  as  far  North  as  74o  Lat. 

THE  BUNTINGS,  E?nberiza,  include  a  large  number  of  species. 
The  BLACK  THROATED  BUNTING,  E.  Americana,  is  abundant  in 
the  Middle  and  Atlantic  districts  of  the  Union,  but  exceedingly 
fo  in  the  vast  prairies  of  the  West.  Its  simple  and  unmusical 
hotes,  are  said  to  resemble  those  of  the  CORN  BUNTING,  of  Europe, 
F>.  miliaria,)  (Lat.  of  millet.)  Its  length  is  six  inches.  The 
YELLOW  WINGED  BUNTING,  E.  passerina,  (Lat.  sparrow. like,)  is 
a  small  bird,  only  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  which  "passes,  un- 


INSESSORES.  339 

observed,  from  Mexico  to  Connecticut.  The  individuals  seem 
to  move  off  in  a  sulky  mood,  and  in  so  concealed  a  way,  that 
their  winter-quarters  are  yet  unknown."  The  FIELD  BUNTING, 
E.  pusilla,  (Lat.  very  small,  or  weak,)  breeds  from  Maryland  to 
Maine.  It  is  social  and  peaceable,  and  trills  its  notes  like  a 
young  Canary  Bird.  In  length  it  is  six  inches. 

THR  CHIPPING  BUNTING,  or  CHIP-BIRD,  E.  socialis,  (Lat.  so 
cial,)  is  known  to  all.  It  is  confined  to  the  United  States  and 
the  adjacent  Eastern  provinces;  associating  with  the  Song 
Sparrow,  or  Finch,  Fringilla  melodia,  and  other  birds  of  the  same 
genus.  The  Chip-Bird  builds  its  nest  on  some  low  bush  and 
lines  it  with  cow-hair;  lays  from  four  to  five  bright  greenish 
blue  eggs,  spotted  with  brown  chiefly  at  ihe  larger  end.  It 
seems  determined  to  make  up  in  quantity  any  defect  in  the 
quality  of  its  notes,  for  it  sings  all  the  day  long.  It  migrates  to 
the  Southern  States  in  the  winter,  and  is  among  the  earliest  of 
the  Spring  birds.  This  bird  may  be  noticed,  gleaning  up 
crumbs  from  our  yards,  and.  our  very  doors, — it  will  even  ap 
proach  the  threshold  to  pick  up  the  crumbs  thrown  to  it, — in 
this  social  characteristic,  it  is  singular  ;  it  is  distinguished  by 
its  black  bill  and  frontlet.  Its  length  is  five  and  a  half  inches. 
This  bird  seems  to  represent,  in  America,  the  Common,  or  House 
Sparrow,  of  Europe,  Pyrgita  domestica  ;  but  it  is  less  bold  and 
crafty  than  the  latter  bird,  and  probably  less  voracious  also. 
Buffon  estimated  that  a  pair  of  Sparrows  will  destroy  about 
4,000  caterpillars  weekly  in  feeding  their  young;  this  is  some 
compensation  for  the  birds'  devastation  in  granaries  and  barns. 

THE  TREE  SPARROW,  or  CANADA  BUNTING,  E.  Canadensis, 
breeds  in  the  Fur  countries.  Audubon  thinks  it  also  breeds  in 
Maine.  This  bird  may  be  seen  in  the  magnificent  elms  that 
ornament  Boston  and  its  adjacent  villages.  It  is  a  sweet  songster. 
The  well  known  SNOW  BIRD,  Strutlms  liyemalis,  or  Niphcea, 
(snowy,)  liiemalis,  Aud.,  migrates  from  the  North,  at  night,  as  far 
as  30o  N.  L.  It  is  common  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  conti 
nent  of  Europe.  This  is  a  shy,  timorous  bird,  and  is  rarely 
seen  except  in  snow-storms,  when  it  appears  in  flocks  around 
dwellings.  At  night,  it  resorts  to  stacks  of  corn  or  hay,  making 
there  a  hole  for  its  resort  in  cold  weather.  Its  nest  is  built  on 
the  ground;  the  eggs  are  usually  four  in  number,  of  a  spherical 
form,  yellowish  white,  and  sprinkled  with  reddish  brown  dots. 
Length  six  and  a  quarter  inches. 

THE  INDIGO  BUNTING,  or  INDIGO  BIRD,  Spiza,  (Gr.  from  spizd, 
to  chirp  ;)  cyanea,  (sky-blue,)  is  one  of  our  beautiful  birds  coming 
from  the  South,  and  appearing  in  New  York  late  in  May, — it  is 


340  INSESSORES. 

seen  throughout  the  United  States.  Its  note  nearly  equals  that 
of  the  Canary,  but  is  not  so  sonorous.  This  bird  seems  gradu 
ally  to  lose  its  brilliant  tints  when  caught  and  caged,  as  does  the 
PAINTED  BUNTING,  S.  ciris,  (Gr.  keiris,  name  of  a  bird,)  of  Caro 
lina,  Louisiana,  and  South  America.  In  certain  lights,  the  plumage 
of  the  Indigo  Bird  appears  of  a  rich  sky-blue,  and  in  others,  of  a 
vivid  verdigris  green  ;  so  that  "the  same  bird,  in  passing  from  one 
place  to  another,  before  your  eyes,  seems  to  undergo  a  total 
change  of  color."  (Wilson.)  Its  length  is  five  and  a  half  inches. 
The  Painted  Bunting  is  found  in  the  orange  groves  of  the  South. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans,  where  it  is  caught 
in  trap-cages. 

THE  SHORE  FINCHES,  Ammodramus,  (Gr.  ammos,  sand  ;  dra- 
mein,  to  run,)  are  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Texas  to 
Massachusetts, — and  in  summer,  in  our  salt  marshes,  where  they 
breed.  The  Seaside  Finch,  A.  maritimus,  (of  the  sea,)  feeds 
chiefly  on  marine  Crustacea,  and  such  insects  as  are  found  on  the 
seashore.  Its  builds  its  nest  on  the  ground  ;  and  lays  from  four 
to  six  grayish  white  eggs,  speckled  with  brown.  Length  from 
seven  to  eight  inches.  The  SWAMP  SPAKROW,  A.  palustris, 
forms  the  principal  food  of  the  Sparrow  Hawks  and  Hen-Har 
riers.  In  New  York,  it  is  often  called  the  Red  Grass-bird. 
Swamp  Sparrows  have  been  found  abundantly  in  the  marshes  of 
Cayuga  Lake.  Their  note  is  a  harder  tone  than  that  of 
other  Sparrows.  The  length  is  about  six  inches.  This  bird 
ranges  from  Texas  to  Labrador.  It  is  said  to  be  abundant  about 
Boston  during  the  winter  ;  has  a  short,  conical  bill,  higher  than 
broad  at  the  base,  onri  very  acute  at  the  tip. 

THE  LINNETS,  Linana,  include  several  species.  The  BROWN 
LINNET,  L.  linota,  is  a  song-bird  common  in  every  part  of  Eu 
rope.  Of  this  Linnet,  it  has  been  said,  "it  is  the  cleanliest  of 
birds,  delighting  to  dabble  in  the  water,  and  to  dress  its  plumage 
in  every  little  rill  that  runs  by.  The  extent  of  voice  in  a  single 
bird  is  not  remarkable,  being  more  pleasing  than  powerful,  yet 
a  large  field  of  furze,  in  a  mild  sunny  April  morning,  animated 
with  the  actions  and  cheering  music  of  these  harmless  little 
creatures,  united  with  the  bright  glow  and  odor  of  this  early 
blossom,  it  not  without  its  gratification." 

The  Common  Linnet  frequents  commons  and  neglected  pas 
tures,  and  builds  its  nest  in  the  center  of  a  large  and  dense  brush. 

THE  LESSER  RED-POLL,  L.  minor,  in  length  about  five  inches, 
and  the  MEALY  RED  POLL,  L.  borealis,  in  length,  five  inches  and  a 
half,  are  found  within  the  United  States.  The  Pine  Linnet,  L. 
pinus,  (Lat.  pine,)  sings  while  on  the  wing,  like  the  Goldfinch. 


INSESSORES.  341 

It  feeds  among  the  branches  of  the  tallest  Fir  trees,  as  well  as  on 
the  seeds  of  Thistles,  much  in  the  manner  of  the  European  SISKIN, 
on  the  Fringilla  Syinus,  (Lat.  black-thorn.)  Its  length  is  a  little 
less  than  five  inches. 

THE  AMERICAN  GOLDFINCH,  or  YELLOW  BIRD.  Carduelis, 
(Lat.  a  thistle-finch,)  tristis,  (Lat.  sad,)  (see  Chart,)  is  a  well 
known  and  handsome  bird,  similar  in  its  song  and  flight  to  the 
Goldfinch.  Its  plumage  and  notes  make  it  universally  agreea 
ble.  The  Yellow  Bird  is  abundant  in  the  middle  districts  of  the 
Union,  in  summer,  and  so  hardy  is  it,  that  it  often  remains  there 
during  the  whole  winter.  It  ranges  from  the  tropics  to  the 
northern  and  southern  regions.  Its  length  is  four  and  a  half 
inches.  This  bird  feeds  principally  on  the  seeds  of  hemp,  the 
sun-flower,  and  various  species  of  thistles.  From  its  fondness 
for  the  thistle  down,  it  has  been  called  the  THISTLEFINCH.  It  is 
sometimes  kept  in  cages  for  song,  and  will  live  to  a  great  age  in 
a  cage  or  room.  Audubon  says  he  has  known  instances  in 
which  birds  of  this  species  had  been  confined  for  ten  years. 
They  had  been  taken  in  trap-cages,  as  the  writer  has  taken 
them,  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  city.  This  bird  is  not 
only  beautiful,  but  seems  to  give  evidence  of  unusual  sagacity. 
It  can  be  trained  to  draw  water  for  its  drink  from  a  glass, — and 
when  it  alights  on  a  twig  covered  with  bird-lime,  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  it,  "it  no  sooner  discovers  the  nature  of  the  treacher 
ous  substance,  than  it  throws  itself  backwards,  with  closed  wings, 
and  hangs  in  this  posture  until  the  bird-lime  has  run  out  in  the 
form  of  a  slender  thread  considerably  below  the  twig,  when, 
feeling  a  certain  degree  of  security,  it  beats  its  wings,  and  flies 
off," — and,  says  Audubon,  from  whom  we  now  quote,  "I  have 
observed  Goldfinches  that  had  escaped  from  me  in  this  manner, 
when  about  to  alight  on  any  twig,  whether  smeared  with  bird 
lime  or  not,  flutter  over  it,  as  if  to  assure  themselves  of  its  being 
safe  for  them  to  perch  upon  it."  Its  length  is  four  and  a  half 
inches.  Several  species  of  Goldfinch  are  found  in  the  United 
States. 

THE  FINCHES  PROPER,  Fringilla,  include  quite  a  number  of 
species,  among  which  are  the  SONG  SPARROW,  F.  melodia,  (Gr. 
song,)  which  presents  two  varieties;  one  having  spots  generally 
distributed  over  the  breast;  the  other  having  fewer  spots  on  the 
breast,  but  a  large  black  one  in  the  center, — appearing  among  us 
even  before  the  Pewee  and  Blue  Bird.  The  SONG  SPARROW  is 
the  harbinger  of  spring;  it  is  "the  earliest,  sweetest,  and  most 
lasting  songster."  The  first  named  variety  builds  its  nest  in 
low  shrubs  a  few  feet  from  the  ground  ;  the  other  builds  it  upon 


INSESSORES. 

the  ground.     It  feeds  chiefly  upon  insects.     Its  length  is  about 
six  and  a  half  inches. 

THE  FOX-COLORED  FINCH,  or  SPARROW,  F.  iliaca,  (Lat.  from 
ilia,  flanks,)  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  genus,  being  seven  and 
a  half  inches  long,  and  breeds  in  countries  North  of  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  seen  as  far  North  as  680  Lat.,  and  ranges 
South  to  within  30o  of  the  equator. 

THE  BAY-WINGED  SPARROW,  or  GRASS  BIRD,  GREY  GRASS 
BIRD,  F.  graminea,  is  ranked  by  Audubon  and  Wilson  with  the 
Buntings.  We  follow  Dr.  DeKay  in  placing  this  familiar  Spar 
row  with  the  Finches  proper.  It  feeds  on  grass  seeds  and  insects. 
Length  five  and  a  half  inches. 

THE  WHITE-THROATED  FINCH,  F.  Pennsylvanica,  is  an  active 
Northern  Sparrow,  appearing  in  New  York,  more  or  less,  during 
the  whole  year,  and  advancing  as  far  as  660  North. 

THE  GROUND  FINCHES,  Pipilo,  (Lat.  to  peep,  or  chirp,)  scoop 
out  the  earth  and  build  their  nests  on  the  ground.  They  live 
on  grubs  and  earth  and  wire-worms. 

THE  TOWHEE  GROUND-FINCH,  P.  erythrophtha7?nus,  (Gr.  eru- 
tliros.  red  ;  ophlhalmos,  eye,)  is  found  in  large  numbers  on  the 
Pine  Barrens  of  Kentucky,  It  breeds  in  New  York  State,  and 
is  known  "  under  the  name  of  CHE  WINK  from  its  peculiar  note,  and 
of  GROUND  ROBIN,  from  its  seldom  attempting  to  fly  high."  In 
Louisiana  it  is  called  GRASSET,  and  esteemed  by  epicures. 

There  are  several  species  of  PURPLE  FINCHES,  Erythrospiza, 
(Gr.  fruthroSi  red;  spiza^  a  bird  like  a  sparrow.)  The  CRESTED 
PURPLE  FINCH.  E,  purpurea,  (Lat.  purple,)  frequently  associates 
with  the  Cross-bills,  and  feeds  upon  the  same  trees, — it  ranges 
from  Texas  to  Labrador.  Length  six  inches.  This  bird  is  seen 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  New  York  State  as  late  as  December 
and  January. 

THE  PINE  BULL-FINCH,  or  Common  Pine  Finch,  Corythus, 
(Gr.  korus,  a  crest;)  enucleator,  (Lat.  kernel,  or  seed-sheller,) 
is  a  most  beautiful  bird,  and  a  charming  songster;  of  a  red 
color,  (the  female  olive-green,)  with  the  wings  and  tail  brown, — 
ranging  from  Pennsylvania  to  Newfoundland,  and  breeding 
from  Maine  northward.  The  length  is  eight  and  a  half  inches. 
It  has  been  seen  in  large  flocks  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
city.  Nuttall,  Bonaparte,  and  others,  name  this  bird  Pyrrlmla, 
(Gr.  purrhoulas,  from  puros,  red,)  enucleator. 

THE  CARDINAL  GROSBEAK,  or  CRESTED  RED  BIRD,  Pitylus, 
(Gr.  pitulos,  frequent  agitation  and  movement)  cardinalis, — is 
a  bird  which  no  one  can  see  without  admiring.  In  richness  of 
plumage,  elegance  of  motion,  and  strength  of  song,  this  species 


INSESSORES.  343 

surpasses  all  its  kindred  found  within  the  United  States.  Length 
eight  inches.  It  breeds  abundantly  from  Texas  to  New  York. 
In  some  parts,  it  is  called  the  Virginia  Nightingale. 

THE  BLUE  GROSBEAK,  Coccoborus  cceruleus,  and  the  ROSE- 
BREASTED  GROSBEAK,  Coccoborus  ludovicianus,  are  also  very 
beautiful  species. 

THE  SUMMER  RED  BIRD,  Pyranga  cestiva,  (Lat.  of  sum- 
mer,)  coming  from  Mexico  and  farther  South,  is  seen  among 
us  in  the  hottest  part  of  summer,  rarely  moving  eastward  of 
New  York.  It  feeds  on  insects,  particularly  the  largest 
beetles.  This  bird  cannot  bear  cold,  or  even  temperate  weath 
er,  and  its  stay  in  the  United  States,  (where  it  breeds,)  scarcely 
exceeds  four  months.  Length  seven  and  a  half  inches.  This 
bird  is  also  called  Tanagra,  (Gr.  a  brazen- vessel,)  in  allusion 
to  the  color  of  the  female  bird.  The  BLACK-WINGED  RED 
BIRD,  or  TANAGER,  is  seven  inches  in  length ;  reaches  New 
York  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  goes  as  far  as  49o  N.  L. 
It  migrates  by  night  in  September. 

LARKS. 

Sub-family  Alaudince^  (Lat.  atauda,  a  lark.) 

Of  these  singing  birds  there  are  many  species,  characterized 
by  a  long  and  straight  hind  claw,  a  strong  straight  bill,  and  by 
being  able  to  raise  the  feathers  on  the  back  part  of  the  head  in 
the  form  of  a  crest.  The  greater  part  of  them  are  migratory ; 
they  build  their  nests  on  the  ground  and  may  be  regarded  as  pe 
culiarly  birds  of  the  fields  and  meadows.  The  Larks  are  every 
where  distinguished  for  their  vigilance  and  their  song.  The  con 
formation  of  their  feet  does  not  adapt  them  for  perching,  but 
rather  for  walking  on  the  earth.  They  accordingly  always 
build  on  the  ground,  making  usually  a  rather  slight,  though  neat 
nest,  and  laying  about  five  eggs,  for  the  most  part  of  a  grayish 
white,  with  specks  of  a  brown  color.  They  frequently  rear  two 
broods  of  young  during  the  summer. 

These  birds  are  famed  for  singing  while  in  flight,  and  soaring 
to  great  heights  in  the  air.  From  the  situation  of  their  nests, 
they  are  much  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  predaceous  animals  of 
the  weasel  kind,  which  destroy  a  great  many  of  the  eggs  and 
young.  During  their  migrations,  immense  numbers  of  these 
singing  birds  are,  contrary  to  our  sense  of  justice,  taken  in  nets 
to  increase  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  particularly  on  the  conti 
nent  of  Europe.  Svvainson  considers  the  genus  Alauda  to  be  of 


344  INSESSORES. 

the  Fissirostral  type,  but  they  are  more  commonly  ranked  with 
the  Cone-billed  birds,  where  we  have  placed  them. 

The  SKY-LARK,  A.  avensis,  the  Alouelte  of  the  French,  the 
Feld  Lerche  of  the  Germans,  and  the  Lodola  of  the  Italians,  is 
widely  celebrated  for  its  inexpressibly  beautiful  song,  chanted 
far  up  in  the  air,  when  the  bird  is  at  liberty  and  in  its  natural 
state.  It  commences  to  sing  early  in  the  spring,  and  continues 
its  song  during  the  entire  summer.  "  When  this  Lark  first  rises 
from  the  earth,  its  notes  are  feeble  and  interrupted ;  as  it  ascends 
however,  they  gradually  swell  to  their  full  tone,  and  long  after 
the  bird  has  reached  a  height  where  it  is  lost  to  the  eye,  it  still 
continues  to  charm  the  ear  with  its  melody."  Its  food  consists 
of  insects  and  their  larvae,  with  many  sorts  of  seeds  and  grain. 
The  Sky-lark  is  about  seven  inches  in  length.  It  is  found 
throughout  Europe ;  also  in  Asia  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Africa. 

The  WOOD-LARK,  A.  ar~borea,  is  smaller  and  can  perch  on 
trees,  a  power  denied'to  the  Sky-lark. 

The  HORNED  LARK,  A.  cornuta,  (Lat.  horned,)  is  an  Ameri 
can  species  of  a  dusky  brown  color,  seven  and  a  half  inches  in 
length.  Its  head  has  erectile  feathers.  This  Lark  ranges  from 
680"  N.  Lat.  to  Texas.  It  is  seen  during  the  coldest  weather. 

Dr.  Buckland  figures  a  Lark,  (alauda,)  among  the  land  mam 
mals  and  birds  of  the  third  period  of  the  Tertiary  series,  in  the 
first  plate  of  his  illustrations  of  his  "  Bridgewater  Treatise." 

SUB-FAMILY.     The  COLIES. 
Coliada,  (Gr.  xohos,  kotids,  the  name  of  a  bird.) 

The  Colies  are  ranked  by  Swainson  among  the  Muscophagada, 
or  Plantain-eaters.  Others  rank  them  among  the  Finches.  Gosse, 
jn  his  work  on  Birds,  raises  them  to  the  rank  of  a  family,  and 
places  them  between  the  Finches  and  Plantain-eaters.  They 
are  few  in  number  and  confined  to  Africa  and  India.  The  two 
mandibles  of  the  short,  conical  beak,  are,  in  these  birds,  arched, 
the  point  of  the  upper  slightly  overhanging  the  lower.  The  feath 
ers  of  the  tail  are  exceedingly  long  and  stiff;  like  the  Humming 
v  Birds,  they  deviate  from  the  general  rule  of  twelve  tail-feathers, 
having  but  ten,  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  the  Swifts,  and  also 
in  having  the  hind  toe  capable  of  being  turned  forwards,  so  that 
all  the  four  toes  point  in  one  direction.  In  their  general  form 
and  habits,  they  do  not,  however,  show  any  likeness  to  the 
Swifts.  The  Colies  live  mostly  on  trees,  climbing  about  much  in 
the  manner  of  Parrots.  They  go  in  large  flocks  and  even 


INSESSORES.  345 

breed  in  communities,  constructing  numerous  large  and  round 
nests  in  the  same  bushes  ;  in  each  nest  five  or  six  eggs  are  de 
posited.  It  is  said  these  birds  sleep  suspended  from  a  branch, 
with  their  heads  downwards,  many  of  them  together  ;  and  that 
when  the  weather  is  cold, -as  it  sometimes  is  in  South  Africa, 
they  are  found  so  benumbed  in  the  morning  that  they  may  be 
readily  taken,  one  after  another,  without  their  making  an  effort 
to  escape.  The  plumage  of  the  Coly,  (Colius,)  is  short,  thick, 
and  smooth,  with  a  silky  appearance.  The  feathers  of  the  head 
are  lengthened,  forming  a  long  pointed  crest,  which  can  be 
erected  at  pleasure.  The  prevailing  colors  are  gray  or  ashy, 
from  which  circumstance,  and  that  of  their  crawling  about  trees, 
they  are,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  called  Muys-vb'gel,  or 
Mouse- birds. 

The  Colies  live  chiefly  on  fruits,  the  buds  of  trees,  and  the 
tender  sprouts  of  vegetables.  On  account  of  the  mischief  which 
they  do  in  gardens,  they  are  much  disliked.  They  are  bad 
walkers,  but  expert  climbers,  clinging  to  the  branches  in  all  sorts 
of  attitudes.  Their  cry  is  monotonous,  (the  wind-pipe,  (trachea,) 
being  furnished  with  but  a  single  pair  of  vocal  muscles.)  and 
that  of  the  largest  species  is  said  to  resemble  the  bleating  of  a 
lamb.  The  flesh  of  the  Colies  is  of  a  delicate  flavor  and  highly 
esteemed.  It  forms  the  common  food  of  several  species  of  the 
Birds  of  Prey.  The  C.  Senegalensis,  as  its  name  imports,  is  a 
native  of  West  Africa.  It  has  a  pearly-gray  plumage  with 
greenish  reflections ;  the  forehead  is  yellow  ;  the  under  part  of 
the  body  ruddy  ;  and  a  naked  reddish  skin  surrounds  the  eye. 

FOURTH  FAMILY.     CROSS-BILLS. 
Loxiadce,  (Gr.  Ao£6g,  loxos,  oblique.) 

The  beak  of  the  CROSS-BILLS,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  8,)  is  of  unique 
form,  the  mandibles  curving  to  the  right  and  left,  and  always  in 
opposite  directions  to  each  other.  In  some  of  these  birds  the 
upper  mandible  is  turned  to  the  right,  the  lower  mandible  curved 
to  the  left ;  in  others  the  position  of  the  mandibles  is  reversed  as 
to  their  direction.  The  upper  mandible  has  a  limited  degree  of 
motion  on  the  head  or  cranium,  the  upper  jaw  bones  and  the 
nasal  ones  being  united  to  the  frontal  bone  by  flexible  osseous 
laminse.  The  lower  jaw  is  remarkably  strong,  and  the  muscles 
by  which  this  and  the  upper  mandible  are  moved,  are  large,  par- 
ticularly  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  act  with  great  power  in  asidewise 
direction.  By  this  extraordinary  bill,  these  birds  are  enabled  to 
extract  the  seeds  from  pine  cones  with  remarkable  facility  ;  and 


346  INSESSORES. 

they  are  confined  to  localities  in  which  these  cones  can  be  ob 
tained,  such  as  the  Hartz,  or  great  pine  forests  of  Germany 
They  first  fix  themselves  across  the  cone,  then  bring  the  point: 
of  the  mandibles  from  their  crossed  position  to  be  immediate!] 
over  each  other.  In  this  reduced  compass,  they  insert  their  beaks 
and  then  opening  them,  not  in  the  usual  manner,  but  by  drawing 
the  lower  mandible  sidewise,  they  force  open  the  scales,  if 
this  process,  they  are  aided  by  the  beautiful  and  peculiar  adap 
tation  of  the  tongue,  an  additional  portion,  partly  osseous,  with  i 
horny  covering  being  articulated  to  the  front  end  of  the  bone  oi 
the  tongue,  (os  liyoides.)  Underneath  this  grooved  appendage  i; 
another  small  muscle  which  is  attached  at  one  end  to  the  bone  ol 
the  tongue  ;  at  the  other,  it  is  joined  to  the  movable  piece,  anc 
by  its  erection  bends  the  point  downwards  and  backwards;  whilst 
therefore,  the  points  of  the  beak  press  the  shell  from  the  body  of  th( 
cone,  the  tongue,  brought  forward  by  its  own  muscle,  is  enabled 
by  additional  ones,  to  direct  and  insert  its  cutting  scoop  beneatr 
the  seed,  and  the  food  thus  dislodged  is  transferred  to  the  mouth 

While  these  birds  are  at  work  on  the  fircones,  they  send  fortt 
a  gentle  twitter,  and  may  be  seen  climbing  among  the  branches 
like  parrots ;  but  they  are  also  said  to  have  a  pleasant  song 
poured  forth  only  in  the  winter  months,  or  at  the  season  of  incu 
bation.  The  Cross-bills  are  subject  to  considerable  changes  ol 
color. 

The  male  of  the  COMMON  CROSS-BILL,  Loxia  curvirostra.  (Lat 
curve-beaked.)  varies  from  a  beautiful  red  to  an  orange  color  or 
the  head,  neck,  breast  and  back  ;  the  female  is  generally  of  i 
dull  olive  green  on  those  parts  which  are  red  in  the  male.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  German  Parrot,  and  on  account  of  its  swee 
and  well  tasted  flesh,  is  in  special  request  in  the  bird-market  of 
Vienna,  (Austria.)  for  the  purposes  of  the  table.  This  bird  i: 
five  and  three-fourths  inches  long.  It  is  a  regular  inhabitant  of 
all  our  pine  forests  (situated  north  of  40o  N.  Lat.,)  from  the  be- 
ginning  of  September  to  the  middle  of  April,  building  its  nest  or 
the  highest  part  of  the  fir  trees,  and  making  use  of  the  resinou: 
matter  which  exudes  from  them  for  fixing  it  to  the  trees. 

The  AMERICAN  CROSS-BILL,  L.  Americana,  is  of  a  red  color 
with  brownish  tail  and  wings,  from  six  and  one-half  to  sever 
inches  in  length  ;  feeds  on  the  cones  of  the  hemlock,  and  or 
apples  and  other  fruits,  which  the  bird  breaks  open  for  its  seeds 
Bonaparte  and  other  naturalists  consider  this  species  as  distinc 
from  the  European  Cross-bill.  It  is  a  northern-bird,  but  breed: 
as  far  south  as  Pennsylvania. 

Another  species  is  the  WHITE  WINGED  CROSS-BILL,  L.  leucop 


INSESSORES.  347 

tera,  (Gr.  white  winged,)  which  is  somewhat  less  than  a  Gold 
finch,  (according  to  DeKay,  six  and  one-half  inches  long.)  It 
ranges  from  40o  to  68°  N.  Lat.,  and  is  common  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Ontario.  (N.  B.  These  Cross-billed  birds  are  included 
by  Audubon  in  the  family  of  Finches.  In  the  N.  Y.  State  Nat. 
Hist,  they  have  a  like  arrangement.) 

FIFTH  FAMILY.     The  HORN  BILLS. 
Bucerotidce,  (Gr.  ^ovxa^w?,  boukeros,  ox-horned.) 

The  characteristics  of  the  birds  of  this  family  which  most  ar- 
rest  the  attention,  are  the  enormous  extent,  and  singular  protu 
berances  of  the  beak,  In  many  of  the  species  this  organ  is  con 
siderably  larger  than  the  head  ;  there  is  a  large,  uncouth  look 
ing  projection,  various  in  form,  on  its  summit.  This  projection 
sometimes  resembles  a  horn,  or  the  crest  of  a  helmet  which  often 
encroaches  upon  the  skull  towards  the  crown  of  the  head.  The 
mandibles  in  adult  birds  are  both  notched  on  the  edges.  The 
protuberance  on  the  upper  mandible  is  small  when  the  bird  is 
young,  and  does  not  attain  its  great  size  until  the  bird  is  fully 
grown.  (Plate  IX.  fig.  13.)  By  a  beautiful  provision  of  the 
Creator,  for  birds  supporting  so  large  an  organ,  the  horny  case 
of  the  beak  is  very  thin,  thus  diminishing  the  weight ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  bony  core  is  hollowed  into  numerous  cells  of 
various  sizes  and  forms,  with  very  thin  walls  between  them,  so 
that  the  needed  firmness  is  preserved  in  union  with  remarkable 
lightness.  The  bones  of  the  body  are  also  permeated  with  air 
more  than  those  of  any  other  bird.  The  tongue  in  the  Horn- 
billed  birds  is  fleshy,  and  like  that  of  the  Birds  of  Prey,  short 
and  deep  in  the  throat;  the  tail  is  long,  broad,  and  more  or  less 
rounded  at  the  extremity,  consisting  of  only  ten  feathers ;  the 
feet  are  short,  strong  and  formed  for  walking  or  perching  ;  the 
claws  short  and  blunt. 

The  Bucerotidoe  are  large  sized  birds ;  they  are  gregarious  and 
noisy,  and  live  both  on  animal  and  vegetable  food ;  few  are 
smaller  than  a  Crow,  and  some  are  much  larger  than  a  Raven. 
The  plumage  is  usually  of  a  sombre  cast,  but  frequently  relieved 
with  masses  of  white;  the  beak  and  naked  skin  often  exhibit 
bright  colorings  during  life.  The  abode  of  these  birds  is  lim 
ited  to  Africa,  India,  and  the  large  islands  adjacent. 

The  Horn-bills  seem  to  be  most  nearly  related  to  the  Crows 
on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  Toucans  on  the  other,  thus  connect 
ing  the  Perchers  and  the  Climbers.  That  they  form  a  link  be 
tween  these  two  orders  was  proved  from  anatomical  examina- 


348  INSESSORES. 

tions  of  the  bird  made  by  Professor  Owen.  More  than  twenty 
species  of  the  genus  Buceros  have  been  named. 

The  ITALIAN  RAVEN,  B.  hydrocorax,  (Gr.  Water  Raven,) 
found  in  the  Moluccas  and  in  Africa,  has  the  walk  of  the  Crow, 
but  is  unlike  that  bird  in  its  food,  rejecting  carrion,  and  being 
particularly  fond  of  nutmegs,  devouring  them  so  greedily  as 
often  to  do  serious  damage.  The  flesh  is  very  delicate,  and 
when  roasted,  possesses  an  aromatic  flavor  derived  from  its  food. 

The  RHINOCEROS  HORN-BILL,  B.  Rhinoceros,  differs  from  the  In- 
dian  Raven  in  living  upon  carrion  ;  it  "  casts  forth  a  strong  smell, 
and  hath  a  foul  look,  and  much  exceeds  the  European  Raven  in 
bigness."  This  bird  is  about  the  size,  though  rather  more  slender 
than  a  hen-turlfey  ;  its  color  is  black,  except  the  lower  part  of  the 
belly  and  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  are  white  ;  the  bill  is  usually 
about  ten  inches  long  and  of  a  yellowish  white  ;  the  upper  mandi 
ble  red  at  the.  base ;  the  lower,  black  ;  the  legs  are  short,  strong,  and 
of  a  pale  yellow  color.  The  cry  consists  of  a  short  hoarse  croak, 
but  when  the  bird  is  excited,  this  is  changed  to  a  loud  discord 
ant  noise.  It  breeds  in  the  hollows  of  lofty  trees.  The  flight 
of  the  Horn-bills  is  sailing  and  resembles  that  of  the  crow;  on 
the  ground,  they  advance  by  a  leaping  kind  of  movement,  assisted 
by  the  wings.  When  making  their  leaps  on  the  highest  branches 
oi'  trees,  and  in  their  loud  call  note  to  their  mates,  the  hollow 
protuberance  of  their  beaks  seems  to  be  to  them  like  a  sounding 
board,  increasing  the  reverberations  of  the  air.  The  beak,  it  is 
thought,  "constitutes  a  necessary  defence  against  monkeys  and 
other  animals  which  may  seek  to  assail  its  nest;"  or  it  may  be 
used  in  "  drawing  snakes  and  lizards  from  their  lurking  places, 
and  young  birds  and  eggs  from  the  recesses  of  old  and  decaying 
trees." 

SIXTH  FAMILY.     PLANTAIN- EATERS. 

Musophagada,  (Gr.  /uovou,  musa,  gen.  term  for  plantain  ;  qD<tyw, 
phago,  to  eat.) 

This  family,  though  a  small  one,  includes  birds  of  uncommon 
elegance  and  richness  of  plumage.  They  have  a  short  beak  ; 
the  upper  mandible  is  much  arched,  and  has  its  edges  cut  into 
minute  saw-like  teeth ;  the  lower  mandible  is  thin  and  narrow. 
The  feet  are  short  and  formed  for  climbing,  the  outer  toe  being 
capable  of  a  partial  reversion  ;  it  is,  however,  united  to  the  mid 
dle  toe  by  a  short  membrane.  The  tail,  as  in  the  Colies,  con 
sists  of  but  ten  feathers;  the  head  is  generally  clothed  with  a 


INSESSORES.  349 

long  and  elegant  crest.  In  their  habits  they  show  affinity  to  the 
Toucans,  among  the  Climbing  Birds,  with  which  they  are  prob 
ably  connected  by  the  Horn-bills,  (Bucerolida.)  Some  of  them, 
as  the  PLANT-CUTTERS,  Phytotoma,  (Gr.  phuton,  a  plant;  temno, 
to  cut,)  show  an  affinity  to  the  Bull-Finches.  The  Plant-Cutters 
are  small,  the  CHILIAN  PLANT-CUTTER,  P.  rara,  being  about  the 
size  of  a  quail.  They  feed  on  plants  and  have  the  destructive 
habit  of  cutting  them  off  close  to  the  root;  often  they  capriciously 
cut  off  a  quantity  without  touching  them  any  further.  On  this 
account  the  rustic  inhabitants  carry  on  a  continual  war  against 
these  birds,  and  children  who  destroy  their  eggs,  are  rewarded. 
The  nest  is  built  in  obscure  places  and  on  lofty  trees,  and  thus 
the  Plant-Cutters  escape,  in  some  degree,  the  persecutions  of 
their  enemies. 

The  PLANTAIN  EATERS  PROPER,  are  confined  to  Africa,  where 
they  subsist  almost  entirely  on  fruits.  Their  movements  are  ex- 
tremely  light  and  elegant,  and  unlike  the  Colies,  they  pass  with 
an  easy  gliding  flight  from  tree  to  tree.  The  first  and  fourth 
toes  are  directed  laterally.  It  is  said  they,  therefore,  usually 
perch  lengthwise  on  the  horizontal  branches,  along  which  they 
walk,  clasping  the  bough  with  their  two  toes  arranged  side-wise, 
while  the  other  two  point  forwards.  These  birds  live  either  in 
pairs  or  in  families,  according  to  the  season.  They  construct  a 
nest  like  the  Parrots,  in  which  they  lay  four  eggs,  delicately 
white. 

On  the  gold  coast  and  in  Senegal  is  found  the  Musophaga 
violacea,  the  Violet-colored  Plantain  Eater — a  "magnificent 
bird." 

The  TOURACOS,  belonging  to  this  family,  include  seven  species, 
arranged  under  the  generic  name  Corythaix,  (Gr.  xogvOalS,  koru- 
thaix.)  They  have  a  brilliancy  of  plumage,  elegance  of  form, 
and  grace  of  motion.  Their  long  and  broad  tail  and  their  high 
pointed  crest  add  much  to  their  beauty.  The  color  of  these 
birds  is  almost  always  rich  green,  set  off  with  gorgeous  crimson 
or  purple  on  the  expanded  wing.  One  of  the  most  attractive 
species  is  the  C.  erythrolophys,  (Gr.  red  crested.)*  When  un 
der  excitement,  the  crest  of  this  bird  is  elevated  into  a  somewhat 
conical  form,  compressed  at  the  sides,  so  that  the  head  appears 
as  if  covered  with  a  warrior-like  helmet.  To  this  appearance 
the  generic  name  refers,  signifying  a  warrior,  or  one  who  moves 
the  helmet.  In  a  state  of  repose,  the  crest  feathers  fall  down 

*  One  of  these  Red  or  Fire  Crested  Touracos  lived  for  some  years  in  the 
garden  of  the  Zoological  Society,  (London.)  An  engraving  taken  from 
this  bird  during  life,  may  be  found  in  the  "  Penny  Cyclopedia." 


350  INSESSORES. 

upon  the  head  and  project  behind.     The  Touracos   are    about 
twenty  inches  in  length. 

What  is  the  3d  DIVISION  OF  PERCHERS?  What  is  said  of  their  number? 
Mention  the  chief  characteristics  by  which  they  are  united.  What  pecu 
liarity  of  the  beak  is  found  in  one  genus  of  these  birds  ?  What  link  do 
they  thus  form  ?  To  what  are  the  feet  generally  adapted  ?  What  is  the  princi 
pal  food  of  these  HARD-BILLED  BIRDS?  What  other  food  do  they  use? 
In  what  proportion  does  their  food  vary  from  an  exclusive  seed  diet  ?  What 
regions  do  these  birds  frequent?  Mention  the  families  into  which  they  are 
divided. 


Is  the  CROW  FAMILY  a  numerous  one?  Describe  the  beak  and  plumage. 
What  group  form  an  exception  in  respect  to  plumage?  In  what  other  re 
spect  do  they  differ  ?  What  is  said  of  the  structure  and  disposition  of  the 
Crow  ?  What  of  their  propensity  for  thieving  ?  What  of  their  food  ? 
Show  how  the  Crow  is  a  remarkable  type  of  the  Birds.  Which  is  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  of  this  family  ?  How  large  is  it  and  how  re 
garded?  What  more  is  said  of  it?  What  is  the  size  of  the  Common 
Crow,  and  how  does  it  compare  with  that  of  Europe?  In  what  respects  is 
it  a  nuisance  ?  Does  the  FISH  CROW  dhTer  from  the  raven  and  common 
crow  in  character?  What  Birds  of  Prey  are  near  relatives  of  the  Crow? 
What  is  said  of  the  BLUE  JAY  ?  What  group  do  the  NUTCRACKERS  resem 
ble  in  their  habits?  What  is  said  of  the  FRUIT  GROWS?  What  species 
are  mentioned  ?  What  remarkable  birds  are  included  in  this  family  ?  Of 
what  region  are  they  natives  ?  Give  a  general  description  of  these  birds. 
Which  species  is  best  known?  Give  the  meaning  of  the  generic  and  spe 
cific  name.  Why  were  the  birds  of  this  species  considered  footless?  What 
strange  conjecture  respecting  them  arose ?  On  what  do  they  feed?  Give 
further  particulars. 

What  is  the  2d  FAMILY  of  the  Cone-Billed  Birds?  What  is  said  of  their 
number  and  distribution  ?  What  of  their  beak  and  plumage  ?  Are  they 
solitary  or  social  in  their  habits?  What  is  said  of  the  COMMON  STARLING? 
Of  the  MEADOW  STARLING?  Of  the  RED  WINGED  STARLING?  Which  are 
the  largest  of  the  Starling  family?  Why  are  they  so  called?  Where  are 
the  Typical  Birds  of  this  group  found?  What  other  genus  is  sometimes 
included  in  the  Boat  tails  ?  What  Grackles  are  found  in  Asia  and  Africa  ? 

What  other  SUB-FAMILY  is  mentioned  ?  Which  is  the  most  noted  species  ? 
What  is  said  of  it  ?  Describe  its  nest.  What  is  said  of  the  Mino  Bird  ? 
Where  is  it  found  ?  What  faculty  has  it  in  great  perfection  ? 

What  is  the  3d  FAMILY  of  CONE-BILLED  BIRDS?  What  is  said  of  their 
number,  size,  and  musical  powers?  Describe  their  beaks.  What  is  pecul 
iar  in  that  of  the  Grosbeak  or  Hawfinch?  What  use  do  they  make  of  it 
in  obtaining  their  food?  What  Sub-Family  is  first  noticed?  Describe 
their  nests.  Whence  does  the  Red  Beaked  Weaver  obtain  its  food? 
What  is  said  of  the  Whidah  Finches?  Why  is  the  term  Widow  applied  to 
this  group  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Java  Sparrow  ?  What  SUB-FAMILY  is 
next  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  LARK  BUNTING?  Describe  the 
Snow  Lark  Bunting.  The  Lapland  Snow  Bird.  What  species  of  the  Bunt 
ings  are  mentioned?  Describe  the  Chipping  Bird.  What  European  bird 
does  it  represent  in  this  country  ?  What  fact  shows  the  usefulness  of  Spar 
rows?  What  Bunting  breeds  in  the  fur  countries?  Describe  the  SNOW 


INSESSORES.  351 

BIRD.  What  is  said  of  the  Indigo  Bird  ?  What  of  the  PAINTED  BUNTING? 
Where  are  the  SHORE  FINCHES  found?  What  species  are  mentioned? 
What  is  the  generic  name  of  the  Linnets?  What  has  been  said  of  the 
Brown  Linnet?  What  other  sp.  are  mentioned?  To  what  group  does  the 
American  Goldfinch  or  Yellow  B.  belong  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  Mention 
the  species  which  are  given  of  the  FINCHES  PROPER.  What  is  said  of  the 
GROUND  FINCHES?  What.  sp.  of  Purple  Finches  are  mentioned?  What  is 
said  of  the  Pine  Grosbeak?  What  of  the  Cardinal  Grosbeak  ?  What  other 
sp.  of  Grosbeak  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  Summer  Red  B.? 
Why  is  this  bird  called  the  Tanagra  ?  What  SUK-FAMILY  is  next  mentioned? 
How  characterized?  For  what  are  they  famed?  What  is  said  of  the  Sky- 
Lark?  What  of  the  Wood-Lark?  Of  the  Horned-Lark?  What  addi 
tional  SUB-FAMILY  is  mentioned?  How  do  others  rank  them?  To  what 
countries  are  they  confined?  Describe  them.  What  is  said  of  their  social 
habits?  What  of  their  plumage?  Why  are  they  much  disliked?  What 
is  said  of  their  cry?  Of  their  flesh  ?  What  sp.  is  named? 

What  is  the  4th  FAMILY?  Describe  the  beak.  What  use  do  these  birds 
make  of  it?  What  aids  them  in  this  process?  What  is  remarkable  in  this 
organ  ?  What  sp.  are  mentioned  ? 


What  is  the  5th  FAMILY?  What  are  their  most  noticeable  characteris 
tics  ?  What  renders  their  large  beak  supportable  '!  What  is  said  ol  the 
bones  of  the  body  and  the  tongue?  On  what  do  they  live  ?  Describe  their 
plumage.  To  what  regions  are  they  Jimiteti?  To  what  other  birds  are  they 
nearly  related?  How  many  sp.  of  the  gen.  JBuccros  have  been  named? 
What  is  said  of  the  Indian  Raven?  What  of  the  Rhinoceros  Horn-bill? 


What  is  the  name  of  the  LAST  FAMILY  ?  Give  their  leading  characteris 
tics?  To  what  ottier  birds  are  they  related  ?  Why  are  they  called  PLAN 
TAIN  EATERS?  What  is  said  ol  the  Plant-Gutters?  To  what  region  are  tlie 
P.  Eaters  confined  ?  Describe  their  movements,  &c.  ?  What  species  is 
found  on  the  gold  coast  of  Africa?  What  other  birds  belong  to  this  fam 
ily?  What  is  their  generic  name?  What  is  its  signification'''  What  is 
said  of  this  group  ?  Which  is  the  most  attractive  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
crest  feathers  ? 


Name  and  trace  those  mentioned  on  the  Chart. 

SECTION  VI. 

FOURTH  DIVISION  OF  THE  PERCHERS.     THIN  BILLED  BIRDS. 

Tenuirostres,  (Lat.  tenuis,  thin,  or  slender;  rostrum,  beak.) 
This  group  of  birds,  M.  Vigors  considers  "the  most  interesting 
of  the  animal  world."  They  are  characterized  by  the  length 
and  the  slenderness  of  the  bills,  which  are  frequently  curved 
and  notched  at  the  up.  The  tongue  is  often  divided  at  the  end 
into  two  or  more  filaments;  sometimes  the  slender  filaments  are 
so  numerous  as  to  resemble  a  painter's  brush.  The  peculiar 
conformation  of  tne  bill  seems  chiefly  intended  to  protect  the 

15 


353  INSESSORES. 

tongue,  by  which,  and  not  by  the  bill,  these  birds  suck,  or  lick 
up  the  nectar  of  flowers,  drawing  in  with  the  honied  liquid, 
multitudes  of  minute  insects,  which  form  the  solid  part  of  their 
food.  The  feet  are  very  short  and  delicate. 

The  smallest  birds,  and  those  the  most  brilliantly  adorned,  are 
found  in  this  group.  Many  of  the  genera  are  clothed  with  a 
plumage  of  metallic  lustre;  on  particular  parts  of  their  bodies, 
especially  the  forehead  and  throat,  they  have  feathers  of  a  scale- 
like  appearance,  which  reflect  the  varying  hues  of  precious 
stones.  The  Thin-billed  Birds  are  principally  to  be  found  in 
the  tropical  regions,  but  many  species  visit  the  temperate  zones, 
and  a  few  are  permanent  residents  of  high  latitudes.  They  are 
arranged  into  five  families:  (1,)  Promeropida  or  Upupidcz, 
Hoopoes;  (2,)  Cinnyrida  or  Nectarinidce,  Sun  Birds;  (3.) 
Trochilida,  Humming  Birds;  (4,)  Mehphagida,  Honey-Eaters; 
(5,)  Certhiada,  Creepers. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     HOOPOES. 

PromeropidcB,  (Gr.  Tr^ae^oi//,  promerops,)   or    Upupidcz,  (Lat. 
upupa,  a  hoopoe.) 

The  Hoopoes  are  a  small  family  of  birds  confined  to  the  Old 
World,  and  most  of  them  found  in  Africa  and  India.  They  ex 
hibit  some  relations  to  the  Bee-Eaters  of  the  Fissirostral  division. 
One  species,  ine  Common  Hoopoe,  visits  Europe  in  company 
with  the  Bee- Eaters  and  other  Swallow. like  birds,  but  unlike 
them,  walks  upon  the  moist  ground  and  newly  turned  earth,  in 
search  of  insects  and  their  larvae;  but  the  species  of  the  genus 
Promerops,  seek  for  minute  insects  in  the  corollas  of  flowers. 
The  Common,  or  European  Hoopoe,  U.  epops,  (Gr.  epops,  a 
hoopoe,)  receives  its  name  from  the  cry  of  the  male  bird,  which 
is  '-/toop,  hoop."  It  has  a  very  long  and  slender  beak,  slightly 
curved  throughout  its  length,  and  compressed  at  the  sides;  long 
and  rounded  wings,  and  a  long  and  broad  lail.  The  toes  are 
three  before  and  one  behind  ;  the  hind  toe  is  long,  with  a  long 
and  nearly  straight  claw.  The  head  is  furnished  with  an 
erectile  crest,  the  feathers  of  whicn  are  of  a  ruddy  buffccolor, 
terminated  with  black ;  the  plumage  presents  striking  contrasts 
of  color,  black,  gray,  buff,  yellowish-white  and  white.  The 
length  is  twelve  and  a  half  inches.  It  has  been  known  to  breed 
in  England  ;  building  its  nest  in  hollow  trees,  and  laying  from 
four  to  seven  eggs,  of  a  pale  bluish  gray  hue.  The  Red  beaked 
Promerops,  P.  erylhrorhyncus,  (Gr.  red-beaked,)  has  a  very  long 
wedge-like  tail,  but  is  without  an  erectile  crest.  The  long, 


INSESSORES.  353 

slender  beak,  is  of  a  coral-red ;  the  entire  plumage  varies  with 
metallic  blue  and  green.  This  brilliant,  bird  is  found  in  South 
Africa.  It  lives  in  small  flocks.  The  Grand  Promerops, 
Epimachus,  (Gr.  cpimachos,)  magnus,  (see  Chart,)  has  a  gradua 
ted  tail,  three  times  as  long  as  the  body  ;  the  feathers  of  the  sides 
are  lengthened,  raised  and  curled.  They  glitter  on  their  edges 
with  steel-blue,  azure,  and  emerald-green,  like  precious  stones, — 
those  of  the  body  are  of  a  deep,  or  brownish  black.  It  inhabits 
the  coasts  of  New  Guinea.  Swainson  says  it  is  "a  bird  of  such 
excessive  rarity,  that  only  two  perfect  specimens  have  been 
known  to  exist  in  Europe." 

SECOND  FAMILY.     SUN  BIRDS. 

CinnyridcR,  (Gr.  xiwn,  Jcinna,  a  grass;  vyiov,  hurion,  honey 
comb?)  Genus  Cinnyris,  Cuv. — or  NectarinidiB,  (Gr.  ^exTce^, 
nectar,  nectar.)  Genus  Nectamnia,  Illig. 

The  Sun-Birds,  so  called  from  their  splendid  glossy  plumage, 
are  arranged  into  two  groups,  (1,)  Cinnynda,— genus  Cinny 
ris, — of  Africa,  India  and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipel 
ago,  which  have  comparatively  slender  bills  and  feet,  and  the 
tongue  retractile  and  simply  forked ;  and,  (2,)  the  Nectarinida, 
of  South  America  and  the  Pacific  islands,  which  have  the  beak 
and  feet  comparatively  strong,  and  hold  an  intermediate  rank 
between  the  Creepers,  (CertMada,}  and  the  Sun  Birds,  (Cinnyri- 
dcz)  and  the  Humming  Birds,  (TrocliihdcB.)  The  Nectarines 
are  to  the  New  W^rld  what  the  Sun  Birds  are  to  the  Old  ;  their 
tongue  ends  in  a  sort  of  pencil  or  brush;  and  they  hop  from 
flower  to  flower,  seeking  the  nectar  of  each  ;  while  the  Sun 
Birds  and  the  Humming  Birds  make  no  use  whatever  of  their 
feet  as  they  extract  their  food,  but  in  feeding,  are  poised  upon 
the  wing.  The  Sun  Birds  and  Humming  Birds,  as  M.  Vigors 
remarks,  approach  each  other  in  the  slendernes  of  their  bill,  the 
vividness  and  changeable  lustre  of  their  plumage,  and  the  habit 
of  hovering  on  the  wing  when  they  feed,  and  being  chiefly  sepa 
rated  from  each  other  by  the  comparatively  stronger  foot  and 
bill  of  the  Sun  Birds.  Both  groups  of  Sun  Birds  are  included 
by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  in  one  family,  Nectarinida ;  but  Swainson 
arranges  the  several  genera  under  the  name  Ginnyrida. 

Some  of  the  Sun  Birds  add  the  charm  of  song  to  that  of  brill- 
iancy  of  plumage;  and  the  music  of  one  has  been  compared  to 
that  of  the  Nightingale.  Their  nest  is  usually  suspended,  and 
of  a  globe-like  form,  having  an  opening  on  one  side,  generally 
near  the  bottom. 


334  INSEoiORES. 

In  the  case  of  the  Nectar ini-i,  of  South  America,  the  nest  is 
placed  in  the  worm-eaten  trunks  of  mimosa-tvees,  and  contains 
feur  or  five  eggs,  entirely  white.  The  Sun  Birds  of  the  genus 
Meltthrtples.  (Gr.  meli,  honey,  trepho.  to  nourish,)  included  in 
the  Neciarjne  group,  are  found  in  the  Hawaiian  islands.  The 
beautiful  yellow  fearhers  of  th^se  birds,  interspersed  with  a  few  of 
a  scarlet  color,  are  worn  as  ornaments  of  the  head.  "These 
feathers  are  among  the  most  celebrated  productions  '  of  the  above 
named  elands.  "Each  bird  yields  only  a  few,  and  some  thousands 
are  required  to  form  a  head-dress.  The  wreath,  or  tiara,  is 
sometimes  valued  as  high  as  two  hundred  and  fitly  dollars.  The 
birds,  (Me7-tkreptes  Pacific  a)  are  taken  by  means  of  bird-lime, 
made  from  the  pisonia,  and  the  catching  of  them  is  practiced  as 
a  trade  oy  the  mountaineers.  The  wearing  of  these  feathers  is 
a  symbol  of  high  rank."* 

THIRD  FAMILY.     HUMMING  BIRDS. 
TrocJnhdce,  (Gr.  TQo%dos,  trocht/os,  a  trochil,  or  wren.) 

The  family  of  Humming  Birds  is  one  of  great  interest.  Mr. 
Gould,  in  his  recently  published  work,  enumerates  about  sixty 
genera,  and  his  collection  contains  more  than  three  hundred 
species.  They  are,  however,  separated  from  each  other  by 
comparatively  slight  variations  in  the  length  and  curvature  of 
the  beak,  the  form  of  the  wings,  and  the  greater  or  less  deve'op- 
mentof  ihe  tail,  and  of  other  parts.  These  birds  are  all  confined  to 
this  Continent  and  che  West  India  Islands:  some  species  penetrate, 
in  summer,  to  high  latitudes  on  each  side  of  the  equator.  The 
gorgeous  flashings  and  changing  tint,  and  the  lustre,  as  of  burn- 
ished  metal,  which  are,  to  some  extent,  seen  in  the  Sun  Birds, 
are  in  the  birds  of  this  family  preeminently  conspicuous. 

They  are  the  smallest  of  the  feathered  races;  (See  Chart;) 
some  species  are  exceeded  both  in  size  and  weight  by  several 
of  the  insect  tribe,  while  a  few  species  are  as  large  as  a 
Swallow. 

The  Humming  Birds  are  not  less  remarkable  for  their  structure 
than  for  the  remarkable  splendor  of  their  plumage.  The  exces 
sively  long  wings  are  moved  by  pectoral  and  other  muscles, 
which  form  nearly  the  whole  of  the  fleshy  substance  of  the  bird  ; 
those  of  the  feet  "  are  reduced  to  the  least  possible  quantity  con 
sistent  with  the  requisite  stability," — all  this  showing,  that  they 
were  adapted  by  the  Creator  to  spend,  as  they  do,  the  most  active 


Narrative  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition. 


INSESSORES.  355 

part  of  a  highly  active  life  in  the  air.  The  humming  noise  made 
by  these  birds,  is  produced  by  the  extremely  rapid  movement  of 
their  wings. 

The  tongue  is  their  principal  organ  for  obtaining  their  food  in 
the  honied  juices  of  flowers  and  insects  ;  and  like  that  of  the 
Wood-peckers,  it  is  so  framed,  that  it  can  be  darted  out  of  the 
bill,  as  a  spring  suddenly  released  from  its  restraint.  It  is  of  such 
a  length,  that  it  can  be  protruded  some  distance  from  the  bill. 
The  long  and  slender  beak  comes  admirably  in  aid  for  inserting 
the  tongue  into  the  nectaria  of  flowers.  The  sight  of  the  Hum 
ming-Birds  is  very  acute  within  the  range  required  for  its  exer 
cise,  as  is  also  the  sense  of  hearing. 

The  females  are  without  the  splendid  plumage  of  the  males, 
and  are  clothed  in  modest  dress.  Some  species  living,  as  they 
do,  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
have  the  tarsi  warmly  and  largely  protected  with  white  plumelets, 
and  look  as  if  they  had  downy  muffs  on  their  legs. 

Humboldt  notices  the  religious  belief  of  the  Mexicans,  that 
Toyamiqui,  the  spouse  of  the  god  of  war,  conducted  the  souls  of 
those  warriors  who  had  died  in  defence  of  the  gods,  into  the 
mansions  of  the  sun,  and  transformed  them  into  humming-birds; 
and  it  must  be  owned,  they  form  an  image  of  the  soul,  scarcely 
less  spiritual  than  the  butterfly  of  the  Greeks. 

The  nests  of  these  birds  are  as  wonderful  as  any  that  are 
made.  (Plate  XI.  fig.  9.)  They  vary  greatly  in  form  and 
structure;  but  in  all,  the  soft  and  delicate  materials  are  so  put 
together  as  to  furnish  as  much  warmth  as  possible,  that  being 
an  object  of  the  highest  importance  when  the  body  of  the  ani 
mal  is  generally  so  small,  and  the  quantity  of  animal  heat 
given  out  accordingly  diminished.  The  eggs  are  two  in  num 
ber,  of  an  elongated  form,  and  in  some  species,  extraordinarily 
small.  These  birds  are  very  valiant  in  defence  of  their  nests. 
When  attending  their  young,  they  attack  any  bird,  indiscrimi 
nately,  which  approaches  the  nest.  This  display  of  valor,  it 
is  suggested,  probably  fostered  the  Mexican  belief,  that  the 
bodies  of  these  diminutive  creatures  contained  the  souls  of  slain 
warriors. 

Among  the  most  beautiful  species,  are  the  Sickle-winged 
Humming-Bird,  T.falcatus,  (Lat.  from  falx,  a  sickle  ;)  the  Re- 
curved-bill  Humming-Bird.  T.  recurvirostris,  (Lat.  recurved- 
beak;)  Gould's  Humming-Bird,  Ornismus,  (Gr.  Bird-mouse.) 
GouUii;  the  Bar-tailed  Humming-Bird,  (Plate  XI.  fig.  9,)  T. 
sparganurus,  (Gr.  baud -tailed ;)  the  Double-crested  Humming- 


o56  INSESSORES. 

Bird,  T.  cornutus,  (Lat.  horned,) in  length  a  little  more  than  four 
inches. 

Four  species  are  found  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States. 
(1.)  The  Mango  Humming-Bird,  T.  Mango,  found  on  Florida 
Keys;  four  inches  and  three-quarters  in  length;  (2,)  the  Anna 
Humming-Bird,  T.  Anna,  found  on  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to 
wards  California;  three  inches  and  three-quarters  in  length  ;  (3,) 
the  Red-throated  Humming-Bird,  or  Red-throated  Honey-Sucker, 
T.  colubris,  (Lat.  serpentine  ;)  three  and  a  half  inches  in  length  ; 
ranging  from  Mexico  to  57o  N.  Lat.  This  is  the  species  most 
commonly  seen  in  the  State  of  New  York,  (Plate  X.  fig.  4b,) 
and  well  known  for  its  golden  green  color,  and  its  ruby  colored 
throat ;  and  (4,)  the  Ruff-necked  Humming. Bird,  T.  rvfus, 
rather  more  than  three  inches  and  a  half  in  length  ;  discovered 
by  Capt.  Cook,  who  found  it  abundant  at  Nootka  Sound ;  it  is 
met  with  also  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Blue  Mountains  of  the'  Co 
lumbia  River. 

FOURTH  FAMILY.     HONEY-EATERS. 
MelipTiagidfE,  (Gr.  fidh,  meU,  honey ;  y&yu,  phdgo,  to  eat.) 

The  birds  of  this  family  in  some  measure  depart  from  the 
tenuirostral  type  in  the  increased  stoutness  of  the  beak.  This 
organ  is,  in  these  birds,  awl-shaped  and  arched,  and  has  the  tip 
distinctly  notched  ;  the  hind  toe  is  so  strong  and  robust,  that 
it  serves  as  a  support  to  the  bird  while  taking  its  food  ;  the  tongue 
is  still  capable  of  protrusion,  but  in  a  subordinate  degree,  and 
is  terminated  by  a  brush  of  hairs. 

These  birds  are  chiefly  confined  to  Australia,  where  they  feed 
on  the  nectar  and  pollen  of  flowers.  As  in  that  country  the 
fields  are  never  without  blossom,  they  have  in  the  luxuriant 
vegetation,  a  support  that  never  fails.  They  also  live  on  insects 
and  berries.  Usually,  they  are  of  sombre  colors,  black  or  olive- 
brown,  without  any  metallic  lustre.  Their  nests  are  cup-shaped, 
constructed  in  the  forks  of  small  branches  of  shrubs,  not  far 
removed  from  the  ground.  The  Honey-Eaters  are  larger  than 
most  of  the  Thin-billed  Birds;  several  species  equal  a  Thrush 
in  size,  and  some  are  of  considerably  greater  dimensions.  The 
Warty-faced  Honey-Eater,  Melipliaga  phrygia,  is  described  as 
sometimes  to  be  seen  in  great  numbers,  constantly  flying  from 
tree  to  tree,  particularly  among  those  known  as  the  blue  gum, 
from  the  blossoms  of  which  they  extract  the  honey  with  their 
tongues  as  they  pass  along.  One  species  is  said  to  pick  holes  in 
the  bark  of  trees,  and  thence  to  extract  insects,  very  much  in 


JNSESSORES.  857 

the  manner  of  the  Woodpecker ;  indeed,  these  birds  probably 
represent  in  Australia,  the  true  Woodpeckers,  which  are  not 
found  in  that  region.  The  Tui,  or  Poe-Bird,  Prosthemadera 
Cmcinnata,  of  New  Zealand,  is  about  the  size  of  a  Black-Bird  ; 
from  its  great  imitative  power,  it  has  been  called  "  the  Mocking- 
Bird;"  and  from  its  peculiar  plumage,  the  "Parson-Bird." 

FIFTH  FAMILY..    CREEPERS. 
Cerihiada,  (Gr.  xtgOiog,  kerthios,  Creeper  kind.) 

The  birds  of  this  family  manifestly  deviate  from  the  tenuiros- 
tral  type,  and  approach  the  order  of  the  Climbers,  (Scansores.) 
We  therefore  follow  Cuvier  and  Charles  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
who,  while  including  them  among  the  Thin-Billed  Birds,  place 
them  on  the  confines  of  the  present  order.  (See  Chart.)  In  these 
birds  the  tongue  is  still  capable  of  protrusion,  but  is  no  longer 
divided  into  filaments;  the  tip,  however,  is  sharp,  horny,  and 
fitted  for  transfixing  insects,  which  are  sought  beneath  the  bark 
of  trees,  in  crevices  of  walls,  and  similar  concealed  situations. 
To  aid  them  in  taking  their  insect  prey,  the  beak  also  is  generally 
slender,  sharp-pointed  and  strong,  curved  in  various  degrees; 
sometimes,  as  in  the  Wall  Creeper,  Ticlwdroma,  (Gr.  wall-run 
ner,)  muraria,  (of  a  wall,)  a  species  of  Southern  Europe,  the 
beak  is  almost  straight ;  and  at  others,  as  in  the  Tree-Creeper, 
Dendrocolaptes,  (Gr.  tree-beater,)  found  in  Brazil,  the  beak  is 
bont  almost  to  a  semi-circle. 

This  family  are  Climbers,  but  still  have  not  the  feet  of  the 
Climbers  proper,  (Scansores,)  with  which  M.  Vigors  arranges 
them.  The  outer  toe  is  not  reversible,  but  the  back  toe  is  con- 
siderably  larger  and  stronger  than  it  is  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
perching  birds. 

Some  of  these  birds,  as  the  Tree  Creepers,  have  the  shafts  of 
the  tail  feathers  strong  and  rigid,  and  their  tips  are  lengthened 
beyond  the  barbs,  as  in  the  Woodpeckers,  and  to  Vneet  the  same 
exigency,  viz.  :  the  wearing  away  of  the  more  fragile  parts  by 
the  constant  friction  of  the  tip  of  the  tail  against  perpendicular 
surfaces  ;  in  the  species  now  referred  to  that  organ  being  thrown 
in  and  pressed  against  the  tree  or  wall  for  support  in  climbing. 

The  Common  Creeper,  Certhia  familiaris,  is  not  more  than 
five  inches  in  length,  of  a  yellowish  brown  color  above,  the  un- 
der  parts  being  white.  It  is  generally  distributed  throughout 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  Wilson  says:  "The  Brown 
Creeper  is  an  extremely  active  and  restless  little  bird.  In  winter 
it  associates  with  the  small  spotted  woodpecker,  nuthatch,  titmouse, 


358  INSESSORES. 

&c.,  and  often  follows  in  their  rear,  gleaning  up  those  insects 
which  their  more  powerful  bills  had  alarmed  and  exposed  ;  for 
its  own  slender  incurvated  bill  seem  unequal  to  the  task  of  pen 
etrating  into  even  the  decayed  wood  ;  though  it  may  enter  mto 
holes  and  behind  scales  of  the  bark."  It  builds  its  nest  in  some 
rent  or  cleft  in  a  tree,  where  a  branch  has  been  broken  off,  or 
where  a  hole  has  been  chiseled  by  a  woodpecker,  and  deposits  in 
it  six  or  eight  ash-colored  eggs,  marked  with  dusky  reddish  spots. 
The  voice  of  the  Creeper  is  a  monotonous  cry,  not  very  loud, 
but  often  and  suddenly  repeated,  especially  in  its  flight  from  tree 
to  tree.  The  food  on  which  it  lives  consists  principally  of  small 
beetles,  bugs  and  flies,  which  it  draws  from  their  places  of  con 
cealment.  Wilson  mentions  having  found  in  its  stomach,  the 
seeds  of  the  pine  tree  and  large  quantities  of  gravel.  Did  our 
limits  permit,  we  would  give  details  of  genera  and  species 
found  in  South  America  and  Australia. 

The   Nuthatches,  Sitta,  are  allied  to  the  Titmice  on  the   one 
hand,  and  the  Woodpeckers  on  the  other.     They  have  a  stronger 
bill  than  that  of  the  Tree  Creepers;   and  it  is  straight  and  pointed 
like  that  of  the  Woodpeckers,  used  rather  to  scale  off  the  bark 
than  to  perforate  it  ;   and  they  do   not   support  themselves   upon 
the  tail.     They  run  about  the  trunk  and  branches  of  trees,  seek 
ing  for  insects  and  their  larvae,  berries  and  nuts ;  they  are  noted 
for  their  instinct  of  fixing  a  nut  in  a  chink  while  they  pierce  it 
with  the  bill,  swinging  the  whole  body  as  on  a  pivot,  to  make  the 
stroke  more  effective.     The   name    Nuthatches  is  given  to  these 
birds  on  account  of  the  hatches  or  hammerings  which  they  make 
on  hard  nuts  in  search  of  the  larvae  within.     From  four  to  six 
species  of  these  birds  are  found  within  the  United  States.     The 
White-breasted  Nuthatch,  S.    Carolinensis,  is  about  five  inches 
long,  of  a  slate  blue    above  and    pure    white  beneath;  it   ranges 
from    Mexico  to   Maine.     The   eggs   are   whitish,   spotted   with 
brown   at   the    larger   end,    and  from    four   to   six  in  number. 
The   Red-bellied  Nuthatch,    S.  Canadensis,  is  four  and  a  half 
inches  long  and  lead-colored.     This  is  a  more  northern  bird  than 
the  preceding,  ranging   from   Maryland  to  Nova   Scotia.      The 
BROWN-HEADED  Nuthatch,  S.  pusilla,  ranges  from  Texas  to  Mary 
land.     The  PYGMY  NUTHATCH,  S.  pygmea,  is  found  in  California  ; 
it  is  less  than  four  inches  long. 

The  Wrens,  Troglodytes,  (Gr.  troglodutes,  a  creeper  into 
caves.)  are  properly  included  in  the  present  family,  though  they 
have  been  differently  arranged  by  some  authors.  (See  Chart.) 
The  House  Wren,  T.  aedon,  is  a  familiar  little  bird  which  has 
become  inviolable,  like  the  robin,  from  the  confidence  which  it 


INSESSORES.  359 

shows  in  courting  the  neighborhood  of  man.  This  Wren  is  of 
a  dark  brown  above  with  blackish  bands  ;  beneath  it  is  whitish,  with 
faint  or  obscure  bands.  It  builds  its  nest  in  boxes  or  houses  pre 
pared  by  man,  in  which  it  lays  six  or  eight  flesh-colored  eggs. 
It  is  said  that  it  seldom  or  never  builds  a  distinct  nest,  but  always 
conceals  it  in  things  "  placed  for  its  convenience  around  houses, 
or  in  the  hollow  of  trees."  The  nest  is  proportionably  very 
lar^e.  Audubon  figures  one  beautifully  as  built  in  an  old  hat. 
The  House-Wren  shows  great  antipathy  to  cats.  "Although  it 
does  not  attack  puss,  it  follows  and  scolds  her  until  she  is  out  of 
sight."  It  ranges  as  far  as  the  57o  N.  L.  Audubon  thinks  it 
spends  the  winter  southward  of  the  United  States.  Its  length  is 
four  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Winter  Wren,  T.  hyemalis,  closely  resembles  the  Euro 
pean  Wren,  T.  Europceus  ;  its  song  is  energetic  and  musical ; 
it  lays  ten  or  twelve  whitish  eggs.  This  Wren  is  small,  being 
only  three  inches  and  a  half  in  length. 

The  Wood  Wren,  T.  Aimricanus,  is  nearly  the  same  as  the 
House  Wren,  but  spends  the  winter  within  the  limits  of  the  Uni 
ted  States. 

The  Mocking  Wren,  T.  hidoviciamis,  is  noted  for  its  mimicry 
and  song ;  it  is  about  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  ranges 
from  Texas  to  New  York. 

The  Ox-peckers,  or  Ox-eaters,  Buphagida,  genus  Buphaga, 
(Gr.  bous,  an  ox  ;  phago,  to  eat.)  found  in  Southern  Africa,  are 
also  included  among  the  Creepers.  These  birds  have  a  large  ob 
tuse  and  nearly  quadrangular  bill,  the  lower  mandible  being 
stronger  than  the  other,  and  both  swollen  towards  the  point,  it 
somewhat  resembles  a  pair  of  pinchers  or  scissors.  The  Ox- 
peclcers  fasten  themselves  with  their  strong,  hooked  claws  and 
elastic  tails  upon  the  backs  of  ruminant  quadrupeds,  such  as 
oxen,  buffaloes,  antelopes  and  camels,  and  also,  some  travelers 
say,  upon  the  backs  of  the  Rhinoceros  and  Hippopotamus,  and 
with  their  beak  dig  and  squeeze  out  from  their  backs  the  larvae 
(or  maggots)  which  the  gadflies  have  deposited.  Wherever,  by 
the  presence  of  an  elevation,  the  bird  is  aware  of  the  existence 
of  a  maggot,  he  extracts  it  with  strong  blows  of  his  bill.  This 
treatment  the  animals  willingly  bear,  seeming  to  look  upon  these 
birds  as  their  benefactors,  as  really  they  are,  especially  in  a  re 
gion  where  such  insects  abound. 

What  is  the  4th  DIVISION  of  the  PERCHERS?  How  does  Vigors  regard 
them?  What  are  their  characteristics?  For  what  does  the  bill  seem 
chiefly  designed  ?  What  is  said  of  their  size  and  plumage  ?  What  of  their 


SCO  INSESSORES. 

distribution  ?  Name  the  families  into  which  they  are  arranged.  Where 
are  the  HOOPOES  found?  What  sp.  visits  Europe  ?  From  what  does  it  re 
ceive  its  name  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  is  the  food  of  the  gen.  Pro- 
merops?  What  is  said  of  the  Red-Beaked  P.  ?  What  of  the  Grand  P.? 


What  is  the  2d  FAMILY  ?  Why  are  they  so  called  ?  Into  what  groups 
are  they  arranged?  To  what  regions  are  the  CINNYRID^E confined?  What 
is  said  of  their  bills  and  feet?  Where  are  the  birds  of  the  2d  GROUP  found? 
To  what  birds  are  they  intermediate  ?  What  is  said  of  the  NECTARINES  ? 
How  do  they  differ  from  the  Sun  B.  and  Humming  B.  in  their  mode  of 
procuring  their  food  ?  Are  any  of  the  Sun  B.  musical  ?  What  is  said  01 
their  nests  ?  What  use  is  made  of  the  feathers  of  one  sp.  of  this  bird  ? 

_  What  is  the  3d  FAMILY?  Are  they  numerous?  What  is  said  of  the  dis 
tinction  between  the  sp.  ?  What  of  their  size,  structure,  and  plumage  ? 
How  and  whence  do  they  obtain  their  food?  What  is  said  of  their  tongue? 
What  of  their  sight  and  hearing  ?  How  are  some  of  them  protected  against 
the  cold  in  elevated  regions?  What  does  Humboldt  notice?  What  is  said 
of  the  nests  of  these  birds,  &c.  ?  What  species  are  named? 

Mention  the  4th  FAMILY?  What  is  said  of  the  beak  of  these  birds? 
To  what  region  are  they  chiefly  confined  ?  On  what  do  they  feed  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  plumage  ?  Of  their  size  ?  What  sp.  are  mentioned  ? 


What  is  the  5th  FAMILY  ?  Are  they  strictly  Tenuirostral  birds  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  tongue  ?  On  what  do  they  feed  ?  Are  they  strictly  Climb 
ers?  What  is  said  of  the  tails  of  the  TREE  CREEPERS?  Describe  the 
Brown  Creeper.  Describe  the  bill  of  the  NUTHATCHES.  What  use  do  they 
make  of  it?  Why  are  they  called  Nuthatches?  What  sp.  are  found  in  the 
U.  S.  ?  Which  is  the  smallest?  What  is  the  generic  name  ot  the  WRENS? 
What  is  its  signification  ?  Describe  the  HOUSE  WREN.  What  other  sp.  are 
mentioned  ?  Where  are  the  Ox-peckers  found  ?  Kepeat  what  is  said  ot 
them. 

Name  and  trace  those  figured  on  the  chart. 

SECTION  VII 

THIRD  ORDER.     CLIMBERS. 
SCANSORES,  (Lat.  scando,  to  climb.) 

The  birds  of  this  order  are  unlike  in  their  food  and  in  their 
general  structure  and  habits  ;  but  as  a  distinguishing  character 
common  to  them  all,  they  have  four  toes  rising  nearly  to  the  same 
level,  the  outer  toes  being  turned  backwards  more  or  less  perma 
nently.,  like  the  thumb,  so  that  these  are  opposable  to  the  middle 
and  inner  toes,  which  point  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  pe 
culiar  disposition  of  their  toes  gives  these  birds  great  facility  in 
climbing  the  branches  of  trees,  but  it  renders  walking  more  diffi- 


SCANSORES.  301 

cult  to  them.  As  they  pass  most  of  their  lives  in  trees,  their 
powers  of  flight  are  usually  moderate.  Their  nests  are  ordina 
rily  constructed  with  less  skill  than  those  of  the  Perchers,  these 
birds  often  employing  for  this  purpose  the  hollows  of  decayed 
trees,  and  ono  family  depositing  their  eggs  in  the  nest  of  other 
birds.  They  feed  on  insects  and  fruits,  and  the  species  feeding 
upon  each  may  be  known  by  the  greater  or  less  robustness  of 
the  beak. 

This  order  is  divided  into  four  families,  viz.  :  (1.)  Ramphasti- 
da,  (Toucans;)  (2.)  Picida,  (Woodpeckers;)  (3.)  Psittacidce, 
(Parrots;)  (4.)  Cuculida,  (Cuckoos.) 

(Swainson  also  includes  in  this  order  the  Certhiadce,  (Creepers,) 
which  have  the  rigid  tail  of  the  Woodpeckers,  but  the  feet  of  the 
Perchers,  among  whom  they  were  placed  by  Prince  Bonaparte.) 

FIRST  FAMILY.     TOUCANS. 


Ramphastidce,  (Gr.  'gaft^aaT^g,  ramphastes,  a  pike.) 

The  Toucans  are  all  natives  of  Tropical  America.  They  are 
large  birds,  clothed  with  brilliant  plumage,  and  found  in  the 
depths  of  magnificent  forests.  They  associate  together  in  small 
companies,  which  are  said  sometimes  to  include  even  distinct 
species. 

These  birds  are  easily  recognized  by  the  extraordinary  size 
of  the  beak,  which  in  the  typical  genus,  Rqmphaslos,  is  nearly 
as  large  and  as  long  as  the  body  itself;  it  is  rendered  light  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  Horn-Bills,  being  permeated  by  a  very  thin 
and  fragile  net  work  of  bony  fibres,  of  a  honey-comb  appear 
ance,  and  is  said  to  be  borne  with  so  much  of  ease  and  grace  as 
entirely  to  remove  the  idea  of  uncouthness  which  its  appearance 
suggests  to  those  who  look  at  it  only  in  figures  and  stuffed  speci 
mens. 

The  edges  of  the  mandibles  are  both  regularly  notched  at  wide 
intervals,  and  curved  downwards  to  the  tip  ;  the  tongue  is  nar 
row,  lengthened,  and  barbed  on  the  sides  like  a  feather  ;  the  feet 
are  formed  more  for  grasping  than  flying,  having  two  toes  before 
and  two  behind,  and  accordingly  these  birds  are  seen  on  trees, 
hopping  from  branch  to  branch.  Their  general  movements  are 
light  and  elegant,  but  having  short,  rounded  wings,  their  flight, 
though  rapid,  is  labored  and  in  straight  lines. 

Their  powers  of  smell  are  exquisite  ;  the  nerves  of  that  sense 
nre  so  distributed  in  the  beak  as  to  enable  them  more  readily  to 
discover  their  food.  This  is  both  animal  and  vegetable  ;  but 
they  prefer  the  eggs  and  young  of  other  birds;  in  obtaining  these 


3G2  SCANSORES. 

from  the  deep  hanging  nests  found  in  the  regions  which  they  in 
habit,  they  use  their  enormous  beaks,  the  surface  of  which  is 
endowed  with  sensibility,  enabling  them  to  explore  the  contents 
of  these  nests.  It  is  said  these  birds  are  remarkably  fond  of 
bathing  in  cold  weather.  They  nestle  in  the  hollows  of  trees, 
laying  two  white  and  delicately  rounded  eggs. 

The  Toucan  takes  great  care  of  his  bill,  packing  it  awny  and 
covering  it  carefully  with  the  feathers  of  its  back  before  sleep 
ing,  when  it  exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  large  round  ball  of 
feathers. 

Mr.  Gould  arranges  the  Toucans  into  two  sections;  (1.)  the 
TOUCANS  proper,  Rampliastos^  (from  Gr.  ramphos,  a  beak,)  in 
cluding  eleven  species  ;  (2.)  the  ARACARIS,  Pteroglossus,  (Gr. 
pteron,  wing;  glossa,  a  tongue.) 

In  the  former  the  beak  is  without  grooves  ;  but  in  the  latter  it 
is  notched  at  wide  intervals.  The  tail  in  the  Aracaris  is  shorter 
than  in  the  Toucans  proper,  and  is  graduated  instead  of  squared. 

The  true  Toucans  are  generally  black  on  the  upper  parts, 
with  vivid  colors,  chiefly  red  and  yellow,  on  the  throat  and  breast. 
The  beak  is  often  tinted  with  brilliant  hues  which  vanish  after 
death.  The  TOUCAN,  R.  Toco,  (see  Chart,)  is  one  of  the  largest  of 
this  section,  being  twenty-seven  inches  in.  tot;il  length,  of  which 
the  beak  is  seven  inches  and  a  half.  It  ranges  from  the  River 
La  Plata  to  Guiana. 

The  KEEL-BEAKED  TOUCAN,  R.  carinatus,  (Lat.  carina,  a  keel,) 
is  conspicuous  for  the  number  and  brilliancy  of  the  hues  adorning 
its  beak,  which  is  keeled  along  the  upper  edge. 

The  ARACARI,  P.  pluricinctus,  (Lat.  many-girdled.)  has  the 
breast  marked  with  two  broad  bands  of  black,  the  upper  sepa 
rated  from  the  throat  by  an  intervening  space  of  yellow,  dashed 
with  red  ;  a  similar  but  broader  space  separates  the  two  bands  of 
black,  the  lower  of  which  is  bounded  by  scarlet,  advancing  as 
far  as  the  thighs,  which  are  brownish  olive.  The  total  length  is 
twenty  inches  ;  the  bill  four  inches  and  a  half.  It  is  a  native  of 
Brazil. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     PARROTS. 
Psittacidce,  (Gr.  iplTTaxog,  psittakos,  a  parrot.) 

These  birds  are  remarkable  for  their  beautiful  colors,  their 
powerful  bill,  their  fleshy  tongue,  and  their  imitation  of  the 
human  voice.  The  articulation  of  some  of  the  species  is  so  per 
fect,  that  when  unseen,  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  Jhe  words 
pronounced  do  not  come  from  the  rnouth  of  man.  The  power  of 


SCANSORES.  363 

moving  the  upper  mandible  is  much  more  highly  developed  in 
this  family  than  in  other  birds,  that  organ  not  being  connected 
into  one  piece  with  the  skull,  by  elastic  and  yielding  bony  plates, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  birds  in  general,  but  constituting  a  par 
ticular  bone,  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  skull,  and  joined  to  it. 
This  mobility  becomes   more   conspicuous,  for  the   reason  that 
their  vigorous  jaws  are  set  in  motion  by  a  greater  number  of 
muscles  than  are  found  in  other  birds.     The  advantages  of  this 
peculiarity  of  structure  are  apparent,  when  we  remember  the 
use  which  a  Parrot  makes  of  the  beak,  as  a  third  hand,  to  assist 
it  in  climbing  from  bough  to  bough,  or  about  the  bars  of  its  cage 
when   in   confinement.      The   beak  appears  to  be  well  supplied 
with   nerves  of  sensation,  as  the   bird  not  only  seems  to  enjoy 
holding  its  food  with  the  tip  of  its  bill,  but  sometimes  scratches 
that  organ  with  its  foot,  plainly  showing  that  there  must  be  sensa 
tion.     The  thick  and  fleshy  tongue  of  the  Parrots,  is  a  very  del 
icate  organ  of  taste;  it   is  covered,  like  that  of  the  Mammalia, 
with  papilla,  and  being  moistened  by  a  constant   secretion  of 
saliva,  they  are  able  to  select  and  taste  different  kinds  of  food. 
In   some   of  the  Australian   species  which   suck  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  the  tongue,  while  retaining  the  thick  form  and  fleshy 
structure  common  to  the  family,  is  distinguished  by  the  peculiar 
ity  of  terminating  in  a  number  of  very  delicate  and  close-set  fil 
aments,  which  can  be  protruded  and  expanded  like  a  brush.     One 
of  these  species,  the  Australian  LORIKEET,  is  of  a  predominant 
azure  color,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Blue-mountain  Parrot, 
Trichoglossus,   (Gr.   hair-tongued ;)    liamatodus,   (Gr.  of  blood- 
color,) — when  shown,  in   confinement,  a  colored  drawing  of  a 
flower,  it  applied  the  tip  of  its  tongue  to  it,  as  if  it  would  suck  it, 
and  on   another  occasion,  made   a  similar  attempt  on  seeing  a 
piece  of  furniture  calico. 

The  most  prevalent  hue  of  the  Parrots,  is  a  soft  and  lustrous 
green,  varied,  however,  with  scarlet,  yellow  and  blue  in  profu 
sion,  usually  arranged  in  broad  and  well  defined  masses. 

The  Parrot  tribe  have  been  arranged  into  several  groups, 
founded,  to  a  great  extent,  upon  variations  of  plumage. 

(1.)  The  TRUE  PARROTS  (Psittacus)  are,  for  the  most  part, 
found  in  tropical  America.  Their  prevailing  color  is  green. 
The  Ash-colored,  or  Gray  Parrot,  P.  erythacus,  is  seen  in  Africa. 
This  group  excels  all  the  others  in  powers  of  imitation.  The 
species  of  the  Green  Parrots  are  numerous.  The  best*  known, 
are  the  FESTIVE  PARROT,  P.festivus,  and  the  AMAZON'S  PARROT, 
P.  Amazonicus.  The  latter  has  superior  mimic  propensities,  but 
the  Festive  Parrot  is  the  larger  in  size.  The  Amazon  Parrot 


3G4  SCANSORES. 

can  be  easily  taught  to  repeat  many  words  and  sentences.  It 
lives  on  fruit,  particularly  that  of  the  Mangrove-tree.  The 
COMMON  GRAY  PARROT,  P.  erythacus,  is  thought  superior  to  all 
others  in  docility  and  mimicry ;  when  well  taught,  it  completely 
imitates  the  human  voice;  and  is  clear  in  its  articulation.  A 
Roman  cardinal,  it  is  said,  "gave  a  hundred  gold  pieces"  for  one 
of  these  birds  which  had  learned  to  repeat  distinctly  the  "Apos 
tle's  creed."  La  Vaillant  mentions  one  which  had  lived  in  con 
finement  ninety-three  years.  The  Parrots  of  this  group  are 
square-tailed,  and  have  no  crests.  (2.)  The  LONG-BILLED  PAR 
ROTS,  (Australian  genus  Nestor,)  are  the  connecting  link  between 
these  and  the  Cockatoos.  (3.)  The  COCKATOOS,  Plyctolopliina, 
(Gr.  with  washed,  or  folding  crests.)  are  natives  of  Australia  and 
the  Indian  Islands.  These  are  also  square-tailed,  but  have 
crests  upon  their  heads.  (Plate  X.  fig.  5a.)  They  are  white 
birds,  with  the  crests  and  under  parts  of  the  tail-feathers  yellow  ; 
quite  gentle  in  disposition,  and  easily  domesticated,  with  the  ex 
ception  of  a  large  Black  Cockatoo,  found  in  Australia.  Their 
imitative  powers  seldom  go  beyond  a  very  few  words  added  to 
their  own  cry  of  "Cockatoo."  (4.)  The  LOVE-BIRDS,  Psittacula, 
are  a  group  of  beautiful  and  diminutive  birds,  nearly  allied  to 
the  True  Parrots,  and  found  on  both 'Continents.  They  are  dis 
tinguished  by  their  slightly  graduated  tails;  and  they  have  no 
furcula,  or  wish-bone.  (5.)  The  PARRAKEETS,  or  PARRAQUETS, 
Palaornis,  (Gr.  palaios,  old;  ornis,  bird,)  are  natives  of  India 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  Some  eleven  or  twelve  species  are 
enumerated,  one  of  which  is  found  in  Australia ;  their  color  is 
green,  with  the  under  parts  scarlet.  One  species  is  named  P. 
Alexandri,  after  Alexander  the  Great,  in  whose  time  these  birds 
were  first  introduced  into  Europe.  They  have  ever  been  noted 
for  their  beauty  of  form  and  movement;  their  powers  of  imita 
tion,  arid  their  show  of  affection  when  kindly  treated.  Amid  the 
luxuries  of  Rome,  the  "  Indian-Bird  "  was  kept  in  cages  of  the 
most  costly  materials,  nor  was  any  price,  however  great  deemed 
extravagant,  or  beyond  its  value.  A  species  which  Wilson 
calls  the  Parrakeet,  but  which  is  named  by  Audubon  Psittacus 
Garolinensis,  is  found  as  far  north  as  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  The 
Parrakeets  have  long  pointed  tails.  (6.)  The  MACAWS,  or  MAC- 
CAWS,  Macroceros,  (Gr.  long-horned.)  are  American  Birds. 
Those  of  South  America  and  the  Antilles,  are  the  largest  and 
most  highly  colored.  Their  imitative  powers  are  much  less 
than  those  of  the  True  Parrots,  but  when  domesticated,  they  be 
come  greatly  attached.  These  birds  are  long-tailed,  and  the 
largest  of  the  family.  The  M.  Ararauna,  of  Brazil,  has  a 


SCANSORES.  385 

plumage  of  rich  hue  above;  the  under  parts  light  saffron.  It  is 
thirty-nine  inches  long,  including  the  tail,  which  measures 
twenty-four.  (7)  The  LORIES,  Lorius,  are  a  group  found  in 
the  Moluccas  and  the  Eastern  Islands, — remarkable  for  the  very 
rich  and  mellow  hues  of  their  plumage  ;  blending  scarlet  with 
green,  violet-purple,  violet-blue,  and  orange-yellow.  They 
are  lively  and  active,  and  of  an  affectionate  disposition,  and  show 
great  docility  in  the  articulation  of  words  and  sentences.  The 
beak  of  these  birds  is  lengthened,  and  comparatively  feeble ;  the 
tail  rounded,  or  graduated.  They  feed  upon  the  juice  of  flowers 
or  the  pulp  of  the  softest  fruits. 

THIRD  FAMILY.     WOODPECKERS 
Picidce,  (Lat.  picus,  a  woodpecker.) 

These  birds  are,  in  their  whole  organization,  adapted  to  climb 
ing,  and  eminently  entitled  to  be  called  Scansores. 

The  feet  are  short,  but  very  strong ;  the  toes  are  placed  in  pairs, 
two  pointing  forward  and  two  backward,  (Plate  X.  fig.  23;)  the 
claws  are  large,  much  curved,  and  very  hard  and  sharp,  ena 
bling  the  bird  to  cling  firmly,  and  creep  on  trees  in  all  directions. 
The  tail-feathers  terminate  in  points,  and  are  uncommonly  hard, 
so  that,  being  pressed  against  the  bark,  they  assist  the  bird  in  its 
progress,  or  in  keeping  its  position.  The  bill,  destined  for  the 
laborious  operation  of  penetrating  the  wood,  or  stripping  off  the 
bark  of  forest-trees,  is  beautifully  adapted  for  the  purpose,  being 
wedge-shaped,  and  in  one  species,  (Picus  principalis,)  nearly  of 
the  color  and  consistency  of  ivory,  whence  it  has  been  termed  the 
IVORY-BILLED  WOODPECKER.  This  bird  obtains  its  food,  consisting 
of  the  larvse  of  wood-boring  insects,  by  chiseling  away  the  bark 
and  surrounding  wood,  until  the  subtle  grub  is  exposed.  The  head 
then  acts  as  a  hammer,  of  which  the  beak  is  the  face  or  point, 
and  the  curved  neck  the  handle,  and  being  moved  by  muscles 
of  great  energy,  the  sharp  and  wedge-like  beak-tip  is  propelled 
against  the  tree  in  a  succession  of  strokes  given  with  remarkable 
force  and  activity. 

To  help  in  this  work  of  chiseling  out  its  grub- worm  food,  the 
Woodpecker  also  has  a  worm-like  tongue,  barbed  at  the  point, 
and  capable  of  being  protruded  to  a  great  length  ;  for  which 
purpose  there  is  a  peculiar  structure  and  arrangement  in  the 
muscles  at  the  base  of  the  tongue.  By  means  of  its  protruding 
tongue,  this  bird  transfixes  the  insects  which  it  dislodges  from 
their  hiding  places  with  its  powerful  bill.  Added  to  this,  there 
is  on  each  side  of  the  head,  a  very  large  gland  which  secretes  a 


306  SCANSORES. 

glutinous  substance  ;  this  gland  being  compressed  by  the  mus 
cular  action  which  protrudes  the  tongue,  the  viscid  matter  is 
poured  out  upon  the  sides  of  the  tongue  as  it  is  thrust  forth,  and 
this  is  sufficiently  adhesive  to  attach  to  itself  small  insects,  such 
as  ants,  small  grubs,  beetles,  &c.,  which  are  rapidly  drawn  in 
and  swallowed.  "But  as  many  of  the  boring  larvae  are  too 
heavy  thus  to  adhere,  and  would  hold  on  by  their  tuberculous 
feet,  or  by  their  strong  jaws,  the  capture  of  such  is  effected  by  a 
horny  tip  of  the  tongue  being  set  with  numerous  fine  barbs  on 
each  side,  pointing  backwards;  the  fine  point  readily  pierces  the 
skin  of  the  insect,  the  barbs  yielding  as  it  enters,  but  when  once 
within,  it  cannot,  without  much  force,  be  withdrawn,  the  barbs 
having  expanded  within  the  skin,  and  so  the  insidious  grub,  de 
spite  his  efforts  to  maintain  his  tenanty,  is  dragged  forth  by  the 
powerful  contraction  of  the  Woodpecker's  elastic  tongue."  All 
this  is  to  be  placed  among  those  beautiful  contrivances  of  the 
Divine  Mind,  which  are  so  conspicuous  in  the  "Animal  King 
dom,"  and  which,  in  so  interesting  and  striking  a  manner,  exhibit 
the  benevolent  and  fatherly  care  of  Him,  without  whose  notice 
not  even  "a  Sparrow  falleth  to  the  ground." 

The  Woodpeckers  are  widely  scattered  over  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Continents.  As  yet,  however,  no  representative  of  this 
family  has  been  found  in  Australia.  The  prevailing  hue  of 
these  birds  is  black,  often  handsomely  spotted  with  white,  and 
varied  with  brilliant  red,  the  latter  especially  upon  the  head. 
They  lay  their  eggs  and  bring  up  their  young  in  capacious 
chambers,  which  are  hollowed  outof  the  trunks  of  trees.  Among 
the  birds  of  this  family,  is  included  the  Yimx,  more  properly 
lunx,  (Gr.  iW|.  iunx.)  or  WRYNECK,  (Y-  torquil/a.)ofo\d  described 
by  Aristotle,  and  known  to  classical  scholars  as  referred  to  in 
the  second  Idyl,  of  Theocritus.  Its  general  color  is  ash,  spotted 
with  brown  or  black ;  its  beak  is  short,  straight,  and  depressedly 
conical.  TheWryneck  is  a  companion  of  the  Cuckoo,  appearing 
and  departing  about  the  same  time ;  and  in  captivity,  is  a  great 
favorite. 

The  species  of  Woodpeckers  are  quite  numerous.  Audubon 
mentions  twenty-one  as  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  IMPERIAL  WOODPECKER,  P.  imperialis,  of  California  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  the  largest,  being  two  feet  in  length. 
The  GREEN  WOODPECKER,  P.  viridis,(LaL  green.)  is  found  on  the 
European  Continent.  P.  lorquatus,  (Lat.  collared.)  is  a  species  of 
Green,  or  blackish-green  Woodpecker,  (Plate  X.  fig.  5b.)  found  in 
California  and  the  dense  forests  bordering  on  the  Columbia  River. 
It  has  a  band  of  dull  white  running  over  the  back  of  the  neck, 


S  CANSORES.  367 

and  joining  a  patch  of  a  reddish  color  on  the  front  and  part  of 
the  breast.  The  European  species  is  thirteen  inches  long;  the 
American  eleven.  The  HAIRY  WOODPECKER,  P.  villosus,  (Lat. 
hairy,)  is  a  constant  resident  of  New  York  during  the  whole 
year.  Length  eight  and  a  half  inches. 

FOURTH  FAMILY.     CUCKOOS. 
Cuculida,  (Lat.  Cuculus,  a  cuckoo.) 

This  family  of  birds  have  a  beak  of  a  medium  length,  rather 
deeply  cleft;  both  mandibles  compressed,  and  more  or  less 
curved  downward  ;  the  nostrils  exposed  ;  the  wings,  for  the  most 
part,  short,  but  the  tail  lengthened.  Their  skin  is  remarkably 
thin  ;  the  plumage  thick  and  compact,  generally  of  subdued,  but 
chaste  and  pleasing  hues,  with  more  or  less  of  reflected  lustre  ;  the 
long  tail  is  often  graduated,  and  handsomely  barred  with  black 
and  white. 

"So  faintly,"  says  Swainson,  "is  the  scansorial  structure  in 
dicated  in  these  birds,  that  but  for  their  natural  habits,  joined  to 
the  position  of  their  toes,  we  should  not  suspect  they  were  so 
intimately  connected  with  the  more  typical  groups  of  the  tribe, 
as  they  undoubtedly  are.  They  decidedly  climb,  although  in  a 
manner  peculiar  to  themselves.  Having  frequently  seen  dif 
ferent  species  of  the  Brazilian  Cuckoos  in  their  native  forests, 
I  may  safely  affirm,  that  they  climb  in  all  other  directions  than 
that  of  the  perpendicular.  Their  flight  is  so  feeble,  from  the 
extreme  shortness  of  their  wings,  that  it  is  evidently  performed 
with  difficulty,  and  it  is  never  exercised  but  to  convey  them  from 
one  tree  to  another.  All  soft  insects  inhabiting  such  situations 
lying  in  their  route,  become  their  prey,  and  the  quantities  that 
are  thus  destroyed,  must  be  very  great." 

The  Brazilian  hunters  give  to  their  Cuckoos  the  general 
name  of  Cat's-tail,  their  long  hanging  tails  and  mode  of  climbing 
presenting  some  resemblance  to  that  quadruped.  Swainson 
thinks  the  long  tail  is  given  to  the  Cuckoo  as  a  sort  of  balance, 
just  as  a  rope-dancer,  with  a  pole  in  his  hands,  preserves  his 
footing  when  otherwise  he  would  fall.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the 
Cuckoo,  that  the  outer  hind-toe  can  be  made  to  form  a  right  angle 
with  that  which  is  next  it  in  front,  so  that  it  is  termed  versatile^— 
a  term  not,  however,  strictly  applicable,  as  the  toe  cannot  be 
brought  more  than  half-way  forward,  although  it  can  be  placed 
entirely  backward.  The  Cuckoos  are  really  half  perching  and 
half  climbing  birds,  not  only  in  their  feet,  but  in  their  manners. 
They  are  divided  into  two  sub-families;  (1.)  Cuculina,  which 


368  SCANSORES. 

include  the  genuine  Cuckoos,  having  the  bill  broader  at  the  base 
than  it  is  high.  These,  with  the  exception  of  the  birds  included 
in  the  genus  Molothrus,  are  the  only  known  parasitic  birds, — 
making  no  nests  for  their  own  use,  but  taking  possession  of  those 
of  small  insectivorous  birds,  usually  of  the  Dentirostral  tribe. 
"The  whole  care  of  hatching  and  rearing  the  young,  is  now  left 
to  the  foster  parent;  and  as  the  wants  of  so  large  an  intruder, 
additional  to  those  of  their  own  offspring,  would  be  more  than  the 
efforts  of  the  selected  nurses  could  supply,  an  instinct  is  im 
planted  in  the  young  Cuckoo,  by  which,  even  from  the  very  day 
of  its  birth,  it  is  impelled  to  eject  from  the  nest  the  rightful  ten 
ants  of  it.  This  is  a  well  known  habit  of  the  Common  Cuckoo, 
whose  notes  as  harbinger  of  spring,  are  pleasing,  but  whose 
reputation  is  bad,  on  account  of  the  ruthless  murders  which,  in 
its  early  days,  it  is  supposed  to  have  committed."  The  Toucans, 
however,  seem  to  act  as  avengers.  The  favorite  nests  of  the 
Cuckoo,  are  those  of  the  Hedge  Sparrow,  the  Pied  Wagtail,  the 
Pipit  and  the  Robin. 

(2.)  The  sub-family,  Coccyzina,  from  the  generic  name, 
Coccyzus,  (Gr.  kokkuzo,  I  sing  as  a  cuckoo,) — have  a  bill  of  a 
lengthened  and  oval  shape,  and  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  paras- 
tic.  Coccyzus  Americanus,  (Cuculus  Garolinensis — Wilson,) — 
is  well  known  by  its  notes,  which  seem  to  represent  the  word 
cow,  cow,  repeated  eight  or  ten  times  with  increasing  rapidity. 
This  is  the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  which  honorably  builds  its  own 
nest,  and  lays  four  or  five  eggs  of  a  green  color.  Sometimes  it 
is  called  the  Cow-bird.  There  are  two  other  American  species, 
viz.,  the  BLACK-BILLED  CUCKOO,  C.  erythrophihalmus,  (Gr.  red- 
eyed,)  and  Mangrove  Cuckoo,  C.  seniculus,  (Lat.  a  little  old  man.) 

What  is  the  THIRD  ORDER  OF  BIRDS?  What  characteristic  is  common  to 
them  all  ?  For  what  does  this  fit  them  ?  What  is  said  of  their  powers  of 
flight  and  their  nests  ?  Into  what  Families  is  the  order  divided  ? 

What  is  the  FIRST  FAMILY  ?  Of  what  region  are  they  all  natives  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  plumage  ?  How  do  they  associate  ?  How  are  they  easily 
recognized?  Describe  the  beak.  What  other  characteristics  are  given? 
What  is  said  of  their  flight  ?  What  of  their  powers  of  smell?  What  food 
do  they  use  ?  What  assists  them  in  obtaining  it  ?  What  more  is  said  of 
these  birds  when  sleeping  ?  How  does  Mr.  Gould  arrange  the  Toucan  ? 
State  the  differences  between  the  two  groups?  Which  is  the  largest  of  the 
Toucans  Proper?— What  species  of  the  Aracari  is  mentioned?  What  other 
species  of  Toucans  is  mentioned  ? 

What  is  the  SECOND  FAMILY?  For  what  are  the  Parrots  remarkable? 
What  is  peculiar  in  their  upper  mandible  ?  Describe  it.  Has  the  beak 
nerves  of  sensation  ?  What  is  said  of  the  tongue  ?  What  peculiarity 


R  A  SORES.  309 

attaches  to  some  of  the  Australian  species  ?  What  fact  is  mentioned  in 
relation  to  the  Australian  Lorikeet?  What  is  the  prevailing  hue  of  the 
Parrot?  Where  are  the  True  Parrots  for  the  most  part  found ?  What  is 
said  of  the  imitative  powers  of  this  group?  Which  are  the  best  known  of 
the  Green  Parrots?  What  is  said  of  them?  Which  is  superior  in  docility 
and  mimicry?  Are  the  True  Parrots  crested,  and  what  is  the  form  of  the 
tail?  What  Parrots  connect  them  with  the  Cockatoos ?  Where  are  the 
Cockatoos  found?  How  do  they  differ  from  True  Parrots?  What  is  said 
of  the  color  of  their  plumage?  What  is  said  of  the  Love-Birds?  What 
group  is  next  mentioned?  Where  are  these  found?  What  is  their  color? 
When  were  they  first  introduced  into  Europe  ?  For  what  are  they  cele 
brated?  What  Parrokeet  is  found  in  the  U.  S.?  Where  are  the  MACCAWS 
found?  What  is  said  of  their  size?  What  species  are  mentioned?  Where 
are  the  LORIES  found?  What  is  said  of  them? 


What  is  the  THIRD  FAMILY  ?  For  what  are  they  eminently  adapted  ?  How 
is  this  shown  ?  What  use  do  they  make  of  the  bill  ?  Why  is  the  Ivory- 
billed  W.  so  called?  What  organs  help  them  to  obtain  their  food?  With 
what  glands  is  the  head  furnished?  What  purpose  do  these  serve?  How 
are  they  enabled  to  secure  the  larger  larvae  ?  What  do  these  marks  of  adapt 
ation  illustrate  ?  What  is  said  of  the  diffusion  of  these  birds?  How  are  they 
colored?  Which  is  the  largest  species?  Where  found?  How  large? 
What  is  said  of  the  WRY-NECK?  Are  the  sp.  of  Wry-necks  numerous? 


What  is  the  FOURTH  FAMILY?  What  characteristics  are  mentioned? 
What  does  Swainson  remark  of  these  birds?  What  purpose  is  served  by 
their  long  tails?  What  is  said  of  the  outer  hind  toe?  What  are  the 
Cuckoos  really  said  to  be  ?  What  SUB-FAMILY  includes  the  GENUINE 
CUCKOOS?  Why  are  they  called  PARASITIC-BIRDS?  Are  there  any  other 
Parasitic-birds  ?  Which  are  the  favorite  nests  of  the  Cuckoo  ?  What  is  the 
other  SUB-FAMILY  ?  Are  they  Parasitic-birds  ?  What  American  species 
are  mentioned? 


SECTION  VIIT. 

FOURTH  ORDER.     SCRATCHERS. 

RASORES,  (Lat.  rado,  to  scratch  ;)  or   GALLING,  (Lat.  gallus,  a 

cock.) 

This  order,  which  includes  the  Gallinacea,  or  Poultry  tribes, 
consists  of  birds  having  bulky  forms  and  strong  legs,  and  espe 
cially  adapted  to  live  on  the  dry  ground.  The  Poultry  are 
chiefly  confined  to  the  continents,  few,  comparatively  being  found 
on  the  adjacent  islands. 

The  wings  of  the  Scratchers  are  muscular,  but  not  proportion 
ate  in  size  to  the  bulk  of  their  bodies,  so  that  their  power  of 
flight  is  comparatively  small.  Most  of  them  have  strong,  arched 
beaks,  long  necks,  and  large,  ample  tails ;  many  have  their 
heads  adorned  with  elegant  crests ;  the  tail  has  more  than  the 


370  RASORES. 

usual  number  of  feathers,  having  from  fourteen  to  eighteen. 
Their  food  is,  with  few  exceptions,  vegetable,  being  chiefly  de 
rived  from  the  seeds  and  grains  of  plants.  These  birds  multi 
ply  with  great  rapidity,  are  easily  domesticated,  and  as  furnish 
ing  man  with  a  large  quantity  of  wholesome  and  delicate  food, 
deserve  special  regard.  Some  of  them,  as  the  Peacock  and 
Pheasant,  are  also  interesting  for  the  beauty  and  stateliness  of 
their  forms,  and  the  diversity  of  their  plumage.  In  the  few  spe 
cies  of  this  family  which  associate  in  pairs,  such  as  the  Ptarmi 
gan  and  Partridge,  the  male  and  female  birds  are  nearly  alike, 
both  in  size  and  color. 

The  Scratchers  are  arranged  into  seven  families,  viz.  :  (1) 
Columbidce,  Pigeons  ;  (2)  Cracidcz,  Currassows  ;  (3)  Megapodi- 
dce,  Megapodes,  or  large-footed  Birds;  (4)  PhasianidcE,  Pheas 
ants;  (5)  Tetraonida,  Grouse ;  (6)  Chionida,  Sheath-bills  ;  (7) 
Tinamidce,  Tinamous. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     PIGEONS. 
Columbida,  (Lat.  Columba,  a  dove  or  pigeon.) 

The  food,  habits,  and  internal  economy  of  these  birds,  and  the 
form  of  their  bills  entitle  them,  in  the  judgment  of  Cuvier  and 
others,  to  a  place  among  the  RASORES.  They,  however,  show 
resemblances  to  the  Perchers,  which  have  led  some  naturalists  to 
place  them  in  that  order.  The  feet  of  the  Pigeons,  though  fol 
lowing  the  type  of  the  Perchers,  allow  them  to  spend  most  of 
their  time  on  the  ground,  and  many  of  them  perch  very  little. 
They  differ  from  the  Gallinaceous  birds,  in  pairing,  which  is 
contrary  to  the  habits  of  the  latter,  also  in  having  the  hind  toe 
on  the  same  level  with  the  others,  whereas  the  Gallinaceous 
birds  have  the  hind  toe  higher  up.  The  variations  of  the  Pig 
eons  from  both  the  Scratchers  and  Perchers,  have  induced  yet 
other  naturalists  to  erect  them  into  a  separate  order,  Gyratores, 
(Gr.  guros,  a  circle.)  or  CIRCLING  Birds,  a  name  referring  to  their 
mode  of  flying  in  circles. 

The  Pigeons  include  a  large  number  of  elegant  and  amiable  birds, 
spread  over  every  part  of  the  world.  One  of  their  principal  pe 
culiarities  is  the  crop,  which  ordinarily  is  thin,  but  which,  when 
the  young  are  about  to  be  hatched,  becomes  expanded  on  each 
side  of  the  gullet,  and  very  irregular  as  to  its  internal  surface. 
From  this  organ  the  parent  bird  supplies  its  young  with  food,  pre 
viously  rendered  suitable  by  the  action  of  a  milky  fluid  that  is 
secreted  in  the  crop  ;  this  fluid,  it  is  said,  coagulates  with  acids 
and  forms  curd.  This  apparatus  constitutes  among  the  Birds  the 


RASORES.  371 

nearest  approach  to  the  Mammal  tribes :  hence  the  term  "  pig- 
eon's  milk." 

The  beak  in  the  Pigeons  is  of  moderate  length,  and  swollen 
towards  the  tip,  which  is  curved  downwards;  the  wings  vary  in 
length  and  in  adaptation  to  powerful  flight ;  the  feet  have  three 
divided  toes  in  front,  and  a  single  one  behind.  The  structure 
of  the  feet  varies,  however,  in  different  genera. 

In  the  WOOD-PIGEONS,  (Columba,)  of  North  America  and  the 
Eastern  Continent,  the  outer  and  inner  toes  in  front  are  equal. 

In  the  GREEN  PIGEONS,  (Ptitinopus,  Gr.  feather- footed,)  of 
Australia  and  the  East  Indian  Islands  ;  and  the  AROMATIC  VIN- 
AGOS,  (Vinago,)  of  inter-tropical  Asia  and  Africa,  a  group  which 
includes  the  Thick-hilled  species  of  those  countries,  the  inner 
toe  is  much  shorter  than  the  outer,  so  that  they  are  more  fitted 
for  grasping  than  walking  ;  but  this  proportion  is  reversed  in  the 
PASSENGER  PIGEON,  genus  Ectopistes,  (Gr.  ektopizo,  to  migrate.) 
In  the  genus  Perislera,  (Gr.  for  dove,)  which  comprises  the 
beautiful  BRONZE- WINGED  PIGEONS,  of  Australia,  and  the  GROUND 
PIGEONS  of  this  continent,  the  tarsi  are  higher,  the  hind  toe 
shorter,  and  the  inner  toe  is  the  longest. 

The  Pigeons  generally  nestle  in  trees  and  in  the  holes  of  rocks, 
laying  but  few  eggs  at  a  time,  but  breeding  very  often,  so  that 
their  increase  is  very  rapid.  The  prevailing  hues  of  the  plum 
age  in  the  typical  genus,  Columba,  are  various  shades  of  blue 
and  gray,  merging,  sometimes,  into  purple,  and  at  others,  into 
white.  Many  of  this  family  exhibit  metallic  reflections  of  great 
beauty,  mostly  confined  to  particular  parts,  especially  the  neck. 
The  countenance  in  these  birds  is  meek  and  gentle  in  its  express- 
ion  ;  the.  eye,  large,  liquid  and  engaging.  The  voice  has  a  soft 
and  mournful  character;  it  is  known  by  the  term  cooing. 

The  ROCK-PIGEON,  C.  lima,  (Lat.  livid,)  in  its  wild  state  widely 
distributed,  is  the  original  stock  of  the  COMMON,  or  DOVE-COTE 
PIGEON,  and  most  of  the  curious  varieties  which  are  fostered  by 
"pigeon  breeders."  Among  the  varieties  are  the  TUMBLERS,  so 
called  from  their  singular  habit  of  falling  backwards  when  on 
the  wing ;  the  POUTERS,  or  CROPPERS,  so  named  from  their  in 
flated  crops,  of  which  they  seem  exceedingly  vain,  and  which 
they  are  enabled  to  fill  so  full  of  air  that  the  head  is  almost  hid 
den  behind  it;  the  CARRIERS,  or  Messenger  Pigeons,  trained  to 
carry  letters  fastened  under  their  wings  or  to  their  feet,  cele 
brated  in  the  verse  of  Anacreon,  (OoE,  eis  peristeran,  to  the  pig 
eon.)  Victors  in  the  games  of  ancient  Greece  sometimes  em 
ployed  these  birds  to  announce  their  success  ;  the  Crusaders  used 
them;  they  figure  in  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  who  sings 


«'}72  KASORES. 

of  one  that  was  attacked  by  a  falcon,  and'  rescued  by  the  hero, 
Godfrey;  but,  though  they  continued  to  be  used  down  to  modern 
times,  and  at  last,  for  such  ignoble  purposes  as  heralding  the  fel 
on's  death,  increasing  the  gains  of  stock-jobbers,  or  bearing  mes 
sages  from  the  race  course  and  prize  ring,  (see  Hogarth's 
print  in  the  Penny  Magazine,)  yet  since  the  invention  and  appli 
cation  of  the  electric  telegraph,  their  "occupation  is  "almost 
"  gone."  A  well  trained  carrier-pigeon,  it  is  said,  has  "  performed 
the  distance  of  forty  miles  in  half  an  hour;"  and  "  one  has  been 
known  to  fly  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  an  hour  !  " 
Their  more  usual  rate  of  flight  probably  does  not  exceed  forty 
miles  an  hour. 

Other  "  fancy  varieties  "  might  be  mentioned,  but  those  given 
must  suffice. 

The  astonishing  fecundity  of  the  domesticated  pigeon  is  shown 
by  the  fact,  that  hatching  as  they  do,  nine  or  ten  times  a  year,  a 
single  pair  may  produce,  in  four  years,  14,760  young! 

The  TURTLE-DOVE,  Turtur,  (Lat.  turtle-dove. )risorius,  (laugh 
ing,)  or  Columba  risorius,  is  deemed  a  fitting  emblem  of  con 
stant  and  faithful  connubial  attachment;  it  expresses  its  affection 
by  "  billing  and  cooing  in  the  gentlest  and  most  soothing  accents." 
This  bird  reaches  England  early  in  the  Spring,  and  leaves  late 
in  August ;  its  length  is  rather  more  than  twelve  inches.  The 
specific  name,  (risorius,)  is  given  to  it  from  a  "fancied  resem 
blance  to  the  human  laugh  in  its  cooings." 

The  CAROLINA  TURTLE-DOVE,  Columba  (Ectopistes)  Caroli- 
nensis,  is  twelve  inches  long,  and  ranges  and  breeds  from  Texas 
to  Massachusetts.  The  plumage  of  the  upper  parts  is  light  yel 
lowish  brown,  with  the  crown  of  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the 
neck,  bright  greenish  blue  ;  the  under  parts  are  brownish  yel 
low.  Wilson  says  :  "  This  is  a  favorite  bird  with  all  who  love 
to  wander  among  our  woods  in  the  spring,  and  listen  to  their  va 
ried  harmony.  They  will  hear  there  many  a  sprightly  per 
former  ;  but  none  so  mournful  as  this.  The  hopeless  woe  of  set 
tled  sorrow,  swelling  the  heart  of  female  innocence  itself,  could 
not  assume  tones  more  sad,  more  tender  and  affecting.  They 
are  generally  heard  in  the  deepest  shaded  part  of  the  woods,  fre 
quently  about  noon,  and  towards  the  evening.  There  is,  however, 
nothing  of  real  distress  in  all  this,  it  is  the  voice  of  LOVE,  for 
which  the  whole  family  of  doves  are  celebrated,  and  none  more 
so  than  the  species  before  us." 

The  PASSENGER  PIGEON,  or  Wild  Pigeon,  Columba  (Ectopistes} 
migratoria,  is  found  in  all  parts  of  North  America,  and  in  par 
ticular  districts  is,  at  times,  wonderfully  abundant.  It  is  usually 


RASORES.  373 

of  a  bluish-slate  color,  with  white  underneath,  though  there  are 
considerable  variations  of  color.  The  Passenger  Pigeons  have 
great  acuteness  of  vision  ;  they  are  also  noted  for  their  rapid 
flight.  These  Pigeons  have  been  killed  in  New  York  with  Caro 
lina  rice  still  in  their  crops.  As  the  digestion  of  these  birds  is 
extremely  rapid,  they  must  have  flown  between  three  and  four 
hundred  miles  in  six  hours,  giving  an  average  speed  of  a  mile  in 
a  minute.  Wilson  and  Audubon  have  both  felicitously  described 
the  arrivals  and  departures  of  the  almost  innumerable  multitudes 
of  Wild  Pigeons  which  they  saw.  Wilson  estimated  one  multi. 
tude  seen  by  him  to  contain  above  two  hundred  thousand  millions 
of  pigeons!  Audubon  judged  that  a  flock  seen  by  him  contained 
one  billion  one  hundred  and  fifteen  millions!!  The  breeding 
places  of  these  birds  are  sometimes  of  very  great  extent.  One 
of  these  near  Shelbyviile,  Kentucky,  Wilson  judged  to  have  been 
several  miles  in  extent,  and  upwards  of  forty  miles  in  length. 
These  birds  usually  raise  two  broods  in  a  year.  Their  nests 
are  composed  of  a  few  dry  twigs  crossing  each  other,  and  are 
supported  by  forks  in  the  branches  of  trees.  On  the  same  tree, 
it  is  said,  from  fifty  to  an  hundred  nests  may  often  be  seen. 

The  BRONZE- WINGED  PIGEON,  or  Ground  Dove,  Phaps  (Gr.  a 
pigeon)  chalcoptera,  (Gr.  brazen -winged,)  group  Perislerince,  is 
an  extremely  beautiful  species  found  in  Australia.  The  predomi 
nant  colors  are  gray  tinged  with  purple,  and  brown  tinged  with 
green;  the  wing  coverts  are  bluish  gray,  but  the  outer  webs 
of  every  feather  have  a  large  egg-shaped  spot,  exhibiting  vari 
ous  shades  of  metallic  brilliancy  according  to  the  direction  of 
the  light.  The  length  of  this  bird  is  eighteen  inches.  Its  cooing 
is  so  loud  that  when  heard  at  a  distance  it  has  been  compared  to 
the  lowing  of  a  cow. 

The  CROWNED  PIGEON,  Lophyrus,  (Gr.  having  a  remarkable 
crest,)  cristatus,  is  a  native  to  the  East  Indian  islands.  The  size 
of  this  bird,  (28  inches  long,)  compares  with  that  of  a  turkey, 
and  its  flesh  is  of  excellent  flavor.  The  greater  part  of  the  plu 
mage  is  of  a  fine  purple  or  bluish  ash;  other  portions  are  of  a 
dark  reddish-brick  color.  It  coos  and  shows  the  manners  of  pi^- 
eons,  but  in  structure  seems  to  approach  the  Curassows. 

The  WATTLED  GROUNL  PIGEON,  Geophilus,  (Gr.  lover  of  the 
ground,)  carunculata,  (Lat.  wattled,)  is  a  native  of  South  Africa, 
in  size  about  as  large  as  a  turtle  dove,  but  with  the  body  stouter 
and  more  rounded.  In  its  bill  and  plumage  it  conforms  to  the 
Pigeons,  but  in  the  naked  red  wattles  of  the  forehead  and  chin, 
and  in  some  other  respects,  it  appears  to  approach  the  Gallina 
ceous  Birds. 


374  RASORES. 

The  GROUND  DOVE,  Columba  passerina,  (Lat.  Sparrow-like,) 
is  an  American  species,  only  six  and  three-fourths  inches  in 
length,  ranging  from  Louisiana  to  Cape  Hatteras. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     The  CURASSOWS. 
Cracida,  (Gr.  krax,  from  krazo,  to  cry  out  like  a  crow.) 

The  hind  toe  in  these  birds  is  articulated  on  the  same  plane  as 
the  others,  touching  the  ground  on  its  length  in  walking,  so  that 
the  foot  is  constructed  after  the  model  of  the  Perchers;  hence, 
they  are  much  more  arboreal  than  the  Poultry-birds,  form 
ing  their  nests  among  the  branches  of  trees  and  feeding  upon 
their  buds  and  fruit.  The  curved  form  of  the  claws,  their  com 
pressed  sides,  and  their  sharp  points  indicate  that  these  birds  are 
not  habitually  occupied  in  walking  and  scratching  upon  the 
ground  ;  the  toes,  unlike  those  of  all  other  gallinaceous  birds,  are 
destitute  of  any  connecting  membrane;  the  tarsi  are  without 
spurs,  but  in  other  respects  the  Curassows  conform  to  the  dis 
tinctive  characters  of  the  order. 

These  birds  are  found  in  Central  and  South  America. 

The  COMMON  CRESTED  CURASSOWS,  Crax  elector,  (Gr.  alek- 
tor,  a  cock,)  are  natives  of  Mexico,  Guiana  and  Brazil.  They 
are  very  common  and  furnish  excellent  food ;  are  about  the  size 
of  a  turkey,  and  have  the  head  adorned  with  crests  of  long,  nar 
row,  erectile  feathers,  curled  at  the  tips.  They  usually  perch 
upon  trees,  are  found  in  numerous  flocks  and  easily  domesticated. 
These  birds  build  their  nests  upon  trees,  laying  but  once  a  year; 
the  eggs  are  from  five  to  eight  in  number,  and  nearly  as  large  as 
a  turkey's.  The  plumage  is  of  a  deep  black,  with  slight  glosses 
of  green  above;  the  under  parts  are  dull  white. 

The  GUANS,  Pene/ope  cristata,  do  not  differ  much  from  the 
Curassows  in  their  habits.  They  are  known  in  Brazil  by  the 
name  of  Jacu,  (pronounced  Yacou,)  derived,  it  is  said,  from  their 
note.  The  length  is  thirty  inches, 

The  HOAZINS,  Opisthocomus,  (Gr.  opisthen,  behind  ;  ko?ne,  hairs 
or  bristles,)  cristatus,  live  in  pairs  or  small  companies  of  six  or 
eight,  in  the  flooded  savannahs  of  South  America.  They  seek  for 
their  food  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  arum  which  is  found  in  such 
places.  Unlike  other  gallinaceous  birds,  their  toes  are  without, 
or  have  only  rudimentary  membranes.  In  stature  and  gait  they 
resemble  the  peacock.  The  generic  name  refers  to  the  bristles 
which*  diverge  from  the  base  of  the  bill.  The  name  Hoatzin,  or 
Hoazin,  is  given  to  these  birds  from  its  imagined  resemblance 


RASORES.  375 

when  pronounced,  to  their  shrieking  cry.     They  are  nearly  as 
large  as  the  Guans. 

THIRD  FAMILY.     MEGAPODES,  or  GREATFOOTS. 
Megapodiida,  (Gr.  /w^as,  mggas,  great ;  Trofc,  a  foot.) 

This  family  are  scattered  over  Australia  and  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago. 

Their  characters  may  be  given  thus:  the  beak  is  vaulted, 
somewhat  compressed  ;  the  wings  short  and  rounded  ;  the  tail 
short,  varying  in  the  number  of  its  feathers  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  ;  the  feet  of  disproportionate  size  and  strength,  the  tarsi 
being  stout,  elevated,  and  strongly  scaled  ;  the  toes  long,  robust, 
and  armed  with  strong,  flat,  rasorial  claws. 

The  flesh  of  these  birds  is  white,  and  much  valued  for  its 
tenderness  and  flavor.  The  eggs  are  enormously  large,  as  com 
pared  with  those  of  other  birds. 

The  BRUSH  TURKEY,  Talegalla  Latha.?ki~,  '(of  Latham,)  is  so 
called  from  being  found  principally  in  the  thick  brushwood  of 
New  South  Wales.  Mr.  Gould  has  given  an  account  of  the 
curious  nests  of  these  birds.  In  making  them,  the  bird  never 
uses  its  bill,  but  always  grasping  a  quantity  of  material  in  its 
foot,  throws  it  backward  to  the  common  centre  ;  and  thus  clears 
the  surface  of  the  ground  for  a  considerable  distance  so  com- 
pletely,  that  scarcely  a  leaf  or  blade  of  grass  is  left.  After  heat 
is  engendered  in  the  mound,  the  eggs  are  planted  at  the  distance 
of  nine  or  twelve  inches  from  each  other,  and  buried  nearly  at 
arm's  depth,  perfectly  upright,  with  the  large  end  upwards. 
They  are  covered  up  as  laid,  and  allowed  to  remain  until 
hatched.  It  is  said  nearly  a  bushel  of  eggs  is  not  unusually 
obtained,  at  one  time,  from  a  single  heap  ;  and  as  they  are  deli 
cious  eating,  they  are  eagerly  sought. 

The  MOUND-MAKING  MEGAPODE,  Megapodius  tumulus,  (Lat.  a 
mound  )  confines  itself  to  thickets  near  the  sea-shore,  and  is 
called  the  Jungle-fowl.  It  is  of  a  bright  red  brown  color,  about 
as  large  as  a  common  fowl,  and  lays  its  eggs  in  mounds,  not  at 
intervals,  like  the  Brush-Turkey,  but  at  the  bottom  of  the  mound, 
usually  five  or  six  feet  in  depth.  Sometimes  the  mounds  are 
excessively  large.  One  is  spoken  of  as  fifteen  feet  in  height, 
naving  a  circumference  of  sixty  feet  at  its  base!  From  their 
small  brain,  and  not  sitting  upon  their  eggs,  but  leaving  them  to 
the  warmth  of  the  sun's  rays,  or  the  fermentation  of  vegetable 
matter,  the  Megapodes  are  supposed  to  be  the  lowest  representa 
tives  of  their  class. 

16 


RASORES. 


FOURTH  FAMILY.     PHEASANTS. 

Phasianidtz,  (Gr.  yaaiavdg,  phasianos,  a  pheasant,  i.  e.,  a  bird 
from  the  river  Phasis,  in  Colchis.) 

Sub-family  Pavonince,  (Lat.  pavo,  a  peacock,)  sometimes 
ranked  as  a  family,  and  so  presented  on  the  Chart. 

This  extensive  family  includes  birds  of  a  large  size  and  mag 
nificent  plumage ;  the  flesh  of  all  of  them  is  in  good  esteem. 
They  have  an  arched  beak,  and  the  nostril  is  covered  with  a 
naked  and  horny  scale.  The  wings  are  characteristic  of  the 
order,  in  being  incapable  of  rapid  or  long-sustained  flight.  The 
feet  are  large  and  powerful ;  the  tarsi  naked,  covered  in  front 
with  large  plates,  or  scales,  and  have  one  or  more  curved  and 
pointed  spurs;  the  claws  are  slightly  curved,  and  obtuse  at  the 
point;  the  hind  toe  is  placed  higher  up  on  the  tarsus  than  the 
three  front  ones,  so  that,  in  walking,  its  tip  alone  reaches  the 
surface.  The  tail  consists  of  eighteen  feathers,  which,  in  all,  are 
developed  well,  and  sometimes  in  an  extraordinary  manner;  the 
tail  coverts  are  also,  at  times,  greatly  lengthened.  The  males 
generally  are  of  superior  size  and  magnificence  to  the  females, 
shining  with  rich,  but  not,  usually,  showy  hues,  reflecting  the 
refulgence  of  precious  stones  or  polished  metal.  Many,  par- 
ticularly  the  males,  are  ornamented  with  wattles,  combs,  or 
feathery  crests.  The  most  gorgeous  species  are  found  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  Eastern  and  Southern  Asia. 

Europeans  date  back  their  possession  of  the  Pheasant  twelve 
centuries  before  the  Christian  Era.  From  the  most  ancient 
time  the  Peacock  has  been  a  domesticated  bird,  as  the  references 
to  it  made  by  the  earliest  Greek  poets,  very  clearly  show. 

The  COMMON  PEACOCK,  (Pavo  cristatus,)  was  regularly  im 
ported  from  the  East  in  the  fleets  of  Solomon  ;  and  its  remarka 
ble  beauty  was  referred  to  at  a  period  still  more  ancient,  (Job 
xxxix,  13.) 

The  feathers  of  this  bird  do  not  constitute  its  tail ;  they  begin 
to  grow  far  up  on  the  back,  so  that,  when  erected  and  spread, 
i  scarcely  more  than  the  head  and  neck  of  the  bird  appear  in  front 
of  them.  The  true  tail  is  situated  beneath,  being  concealed  by 
these,  and  consists  of  eighteen  brown  feathers,  about  six  inches 
long.  Immense  flocks  of  these  birds,  identical  with  the  domestic 
races,  are  found  in  the  forests  of  India, — seeming  to  cover  them 
with  their  beautiful  plumage.  The  flesh  of  the  Peacock,  when 
not  old,  is  juicy  and  savory,  but  is  not  eaten  now  so  much  as  in 


RASORES.  .      377 

former  times,  when  it  formed  an  important  addition  to  great  ban 
quets,  being  served  up  dressed  in  its  own  brilliant  plumage. 

The  TURKEY,  (Meleagris  gallopavo  )  was  so  called  from  an 
erroneous  impression,  that  it  came  originally  from  the  country 
of  the  same  name.  It  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Europe  about  the  year  1600.  The  generic  name  is  the  Lat.  for 
Guinea-fowl ;  the  specific,  is  Lat.  fromgaUus  and  pavo,  combined. 

The  habits  of  the  Turkey,  in  a  domestic  state,  are  too  well 
known  to  need  description,  and  its  utility  on  the  score  of  food, 
most  people  are  capable  of  appreciating.  A  few  continue  in  a 
wild  condition  in  some  of  our  Western  States ;  they  are  partly 
migratory  in  their  habits,  moving  in  the  latter  part  of  October, 
towards  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi,  seldom,  however,  using 
their  wings,  except  when  attacked,  or  in  order  to  pass  over  a 
river.  The  stronger  ones  can  cross  a  river  of  a  mile  in  breadth, 
but  the  weaker  frequently  fall  into  the  river,  and  then  paddle  to 
shore  with  some  rapidity.  C.  L.  Bonaparte,  in  his  "American 
Ornithology,"  speaks  of  an  ingenious  method  in  which  the 
Turkey  escapes  the  onsets  of  large  Owls,  by  suddenly  "  drop 
ping  his  head,  squatting,  and  spreading  the  tail  over  his  back,  in 
which  case  the  Owl  glances  over  him  without  doing  any  injury. 

This  fowl  lays  in  the  spring,  usually,  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
eggs,  which  are  white,  mixed  with  yellow  or  reddish  freckles. 
Dr.  Franklin  expressed  a  wish  that  the  Turkey,  rather  than  the 
Bald  Eagle,  had  been  selected  as  our  national  emblem.  In  point 
of  character  and  usefulness,  it  certainly  much  transcends  the 
latter  bird. 

The  COMMON  PHEASANT,  Phasianus  Colcliicus,  is  now  spread 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  World.  Fable  says,  it  was 
introduced  into  Europe  "by  Jason  and  his  companions,  who 
brought  it  from  Colchis  in  the  good  ship  Argo."  In  size,  this 
bird  is  about  equal  to  the  domestic  Cock.  Its  plumage  presents 
the  finest  tints  of  beautiful  yellow  and  green,  united  with  the 
richest  ruby  and  purple,  set  off  with  spots  of  glossy  black.  The 
long  wedge-shaped  tail,  partakes  of  the  beautiful  coloring  of  the 
body,  and  the  whole  bird  has  an  air  of  great  elegance.  Several 
varieties  have  been  produced  by  climate  and  domestication,  such 
as  the  White,  the  Pied,  and  the  Ringed  Pheasant. 

The  GOLDEN  PHEASANT,  P.  pictus,  is  among  the  rare  species. 
It  is  a  native  of  China,  and  remarkably  elegant  in  its  plumage. 
The  tail  of  this  bird  is  longer  and  more  richly  tinted  tJhan  that 
of  the  European  species;  it  is  distinguished  by  a  crest,  which 
can  be  raised  at  pleasure.  Cuvier  supposes  this  Pheasant  to 
be  the  Phoenix  of  Pliny.  But  the  most  splendid  of  the  tribe,  is 


378  RASORES. 

The  ARGUS  PHEASANT,  Argus  giganteus,  (Lat.  gigantic,)  as 
large  as  a  Turkey,  found  in  Sumatra,  and  the  South-East- 
ern  parts  of  Asia.  The  "wings,  the  secondaries  cf which  are 
three  times  as  long  as  the  primary  quills,  are  painted  and  ocel- 
lated  (having  little  eyes)  in  a  manner  which  defies  description/' 
This  bird  derives  its  name  from  the  shepherd  Argus,  fabled  to 
have  an  hundred  eyes. 

THE  GUINEA  FOWLS,  or  PINTADOS,  Numida  meleagris,  were  ori 
ginally  brought  from  Africa,  and  in  the  swamps  and  pestilential 
regions  of  the  Western  portion  of  that  Continent,  they  are  found 
in  immense  flocks. 

Dr.  Livingston  says,  "  the  woods  were  literally  alive  with 
them," — that  his  "  guides  roasted  them  on  skewers  in  the  off-hand 
fashion  which  is  common  among  these  people.  They  think  it  is 
waste  of  time  to  strip  the  bird  of  its  feathers  before  roasting  it,  as 
the  fire  itself  performs  that  operation."  The  flesh  of  these  birds 
is  considered  a  great  delicacy,  as  it  is  tender  and  well  flavored. 
Even  in  their  wild  state,  they  are  not  good  flyers ;  indeed,  they 
make  more  use  of  their  legs  than  their  wings.  Their  speed  on 
the  ground  is  surprising  ;  but  when  chased  for  a  while,  they  be 
come  fatigued,  and  sit  still  until  they  are  picked  up.  Guinea- 
Hens  are  easily  domesticated,  and  have  been  widely  distributed. 
They  are  frequently  seen  in  the  poultry. yard  where  they  are 
noted  for  their  peculiar  cries  and  unusual  gait.  During  night, 
they  always  perch  in  high  situations,  or  on  trees.  In  Jamaica 
where  these  Hens  do  much  mischief  to  some  of  the  crops,  they 
have  resumed  their  wild  habits,  and  are  shot  like  other  game. 

DOMESTIC    POULTRY    BIRDS. 

Gallinacea,  (Lat.  Gallus,  a  cock  ;   GaUma,  a  hen.) 

The  Domestic  Fowls  are  too  well  known  to  require  a  length 
ened  description.  Some  of  the  varieties  are  the  following,  viz  : 

The  GAME  FOWL, — some  years  ago  much  sought  after  for  use 
in  the  cruel  sport  of  cock-fighting,  which,  in  some  places,  is  still 
continued. 

The  COCHIN  CHINA  FOWL,  (a  variety  of  the  Java  Fowl.) — 
enormously  large,  and  by  some  regarded  as  the  origin  of  the 
Barn-door  Fowl;  though  others  suppose  the  Jungle  Fowl,  of 
India,  to  be  the  parent  stock.  The  principal  advantage  con 
nected  with  raising  the  Cochin  China  breed,  seems  to  be  that  the 
chickens,  from  their  large  size,  are  ready  for  market  earlier  than 
those  of  the  ordinary  fowl. 

The  BANTAMS, — small,  but  very  courageous,  sometimes  even 


RASORES.  379 

venturing  to  attack  a  Turkey.  Some  of  them  are  feathered 
down  to  the  toes.  The  long  neck-feathers  of  this  and  the  pre 
ceding  fowl,  are  used  by  anglers  for  making  artificial  flies. 

The  SHANGHAI  FOWL, — introduced  from  Shanghai,  China,  in 
1848,  by  Capt.  Forbes.  Their  general  plumage  is  of  a  gold 
color,  variegated  with  dark  brown  and  red ;  their  movement 
appears  proud  and  showy,  but  their  legs  are  rather  too  long  for 
beauty. 

The  POLISH  FOWL, — a  small  but  beautiful  breed,  having  deep 
black  plumage,  with  a  white  tuft  on  the  crown  of  the  head. 

The  DORKING  FOWL, — a  large  and  delicate  variety.  Its  chief 
peculiarity  is  the  double  hind  toe, — it  thus  having  five  instead  of 
four  toes. 

The  MALAY  FOWL, — a  long-legged  and  timorous  bird,  which, 
for  the  first  six  months,  has  scarcely  a  feather  to  cover  its  na 
kedness  ;  its  flesh,  except  in  pure  breeds,  is  coarse  and  stringy. 

The  JUNGLE  FOWLS, — are  large  and  spirited,  with  plumage  of 
purple  and  deep  golden  green,  which,  in  the  sun,  has  a  splendid 
appearance.  The  Chinese  use  these  birds  as  Game  Fowls. 

FIFTH  FAMILY.     GROUSE. 
Tetraonida,  (Lat.  tetrao,  a  heath-cock,  or  moor  fowl.) 

This  family  are  distinguished  from  the  Pheasants  by  the  absence 
of  naked  crests  and  wattles,  that  are  so  common  among  those 
birds,  as  well  as  of  the  brilliant  colors  and  the  metallic  lustre  of 
their  plumage.  The  only  naked  skin  about  the  Grouse  is  the 
space  which  surrounds  the  eye ;  this,  when  present,  is  of  a 
scarlet  color.  The  tail  is  very  short,  and,  in  some  species, 
rudimentary.  In  the  larger  Grouse,  of  Europe  and  America, 
and  the  Pintails,  of  Africa,  this  organ  is,  however,  largely  de 
veloped.  The  birds  of  this  family  differ  from  the  Pheasants  in 
having  the  hind  toe  small  and  weak,  and  in  some  genera,  reduced 
to  a  mere  rudiment.  Some  are  found  in  the  warmer  regions, 
but  the  larger  and  most  typical  part  of  them,  in  the  cold  regions 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  on  Alpine  summits.  As  a 
protection  against  the  cold,  these  have  the  feet  more  or  less 
clothed  with  feathers. 

The  Grouse,  unlike  other  birds  of  the  order,  for  the  most  part, 
pair  at  the  breeding  season  ;  though  several  species  congregate 
in  large  flocks.  They  all  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  ground,  usu 
ally  in  large  numbers ;  in  their  general  habits,  they  are  terres 
trial,  running  with  much  ea?e  and  swiftness.  In  cold  climates, 
they  sometimes  perch  on  the  low  stunted  trees.  They  feed  on 


880  RASORES. 

the  unexpanded  leaf-buds  of  trees,  upon  grains,  grass,  seed,  and 
pulse.  The  flesh  of  all  of  these  birds  is  much  esteemed  for  its 
tenderness  and  flavor. 

The  largest  birds  of  this  family,  are  included  in  the  genus 
Tetrao. 

The  CAPERCAILLIE,  or  COCK  OF  THE  WOOD,  T.  urogallus,  (Gr. 
oura,  a  tail;  gallus,  a  cock,)  is  common  in  most  parts  of  North 
ern  Europe.  The  male  is  a  large  bird,  almost  equaling  a  Tur 
key  in  size,  but  the  female  is  considerably  smaller.  In  the 
early  spring,  the  male  bird  is  noted  for  his  "play,"  in  which  his 
movements  are  "  much  like  those  of  an  angry  Turkey-cock,  and 
he  utters  a  call  somewhat  resembling  peller,  petter,  peller  ;  these 
sounds  he  repeats  at  some  little  intervals,  but  as  he  proceeds,  they 
become  increasingly  rapid,  until  after  a  minute  or  so,  he  makes 
a  sort  of  gulp  in  his  throat,  and  ends  with  sucking  in,  as  it 
were,  his  breath."  The  nest  is  made  on  the  ground,  and  con 
tains  from  six  to  twelve  eggs.  Mr.  Yarrell  gives  the  length  of 
a  specimen  of  this  bird,  as  three  feet  four  inches.  The  general 
plumage  is  such  a  blending  of  black  and  white,  as  to  give  it  a 
gray  hue.  This  bird  feeds  upon  berries  and  young  shoots. 

The  COMMON  PARTRIDGE,  or  RUFFED  GROUSE,  T.  umbellus, 
(Lat.  a  small  tuft,)  is  found  only  on  this  Continent, — ranging  as 
far  South  as  Mexico.  Its  form  is  bulky,  ai  d  it  has  a  slight  crest. 
(Plate  X.  fig.  6a.)  The  plumage  is  mottled  with  reddish  and 
dusky  brown.  The  length  is  eighteen  inches.  The  Partridge  is 
remarkable  for  producing  a  drumming  noise,  chiefly  in  the  spring, 
but  occasionally  at  other  seasons. 

The  COCK  OF  THE  PLAINS,  or  PHEASANT-TAILED  GROUSE,  T. 
urophasianus,  (Gr.  oura,  a  tail  ;  phasianos,  a  pheasant,)  is  found 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  size  not  much  less  than  a  Tur 
key,  being  thirty  inches  in  length.  On  each  side  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck  in  front,  this  bird  has  a  large  bare  space,  capable 
of  being  inflated  into  a  hemispherical  sac. 

The  PINNATED  GROUSE,  also  known  as  the  Prairie-Hen,  or 
Heath-Hen,  T.  cupido,  is  another  species,  which  in  its  voice, 
manners  and  peculiarity  of  plumage,  is  perhaps  the  most  singu 
lar,  and  in  its  flesh,  the  most  excellent  of  the  tribe  found  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  nineteen  inches  in  length. 

The  QUAILS,  Onyx.  (Gr.  ortux,  a  quail)  in  the  Southern  and 
Western  parts  of  the  Union,  called  Partridges,  are  also  included 
in  the  present  family. 

The  COMMON  AMERICAN  QUAIL,  O.  or  Perdix,  (Lat.  partridge,) 
Virginiana,  is  found  abundantly  from  Texas  to  Massachusetts. 


R4SORES.  381 

In  Texas  it  keeps  principally  on  the  prairies.  This  bird  is 
nine  or  ten  inches  long  ;  the  bill  is  short  and  thick,  with  the 
upper  mandible  curved  from  the  base ;  the  color  a  reddish 
brown,  varied  with  black  and  white.  It  makes  its  nest  on  the 
ground,  and  lays  from  eight  to  eighteen  pure  white  eggs.  As  it 
is  timorous  and  restless  in  its  habits,  it  is  hard  to  domesticate. 
Its  whistle,  in  the  spring,  is  thought  to  resemble  the  words,  Buck 
wheat,  Bob  White.  The  Quail  is  caught  in  large  numbers  by 
traps,  horse-hair  nooses,  and  nets. 

The  CALIFORNIA  QUAIL,  or  PARTRIDGE,  O.  California,  resem 
bles  the  Common  Quail,  but  has  a  crest,  which  it  can  erect  or 
depress  at  pleasure.  (Plate  X.  fig.  6b.) 

The  PTARMIGAN,  Lagopus,  (Gr.  Hare-footed,)  albus,  inhabits 
the  Northern  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  It  has  the  legs  and 
feet  thickly  covered  with  hair-like  feathers  reaching  as  far  as  the 
claws.  (Plate  IX.  fig.  22.)  Like  the  fur  of  the  Ermine,  the 
plumage  changes  in  winter  from  an  almost  tortoise-shell  color  to 
a  pure  white.  The  length  is  about  fifteen  inches.  In  Norway, 
the  peasants  take  them  in  snares.  The  captured  birds  "are 
kept  in  a  frozen  state  until  the  dealers  come,  and  one  of  these 
will  sometimes  sell  50,000  Ptarmigans  in  a  season." 

SIXTH  FAMILY.     SHEATH-BILLS. 
Chionida,  (Gr.  %i&v,  chion,  snow.) 

The  birds  of  this  small  family  inhabit  the  high  mountains  or 
dry  plains  of  South  America,  or  the  remotest  parts  of  the  South 
ern  Ocean.  They  resemble  the  grouse,  but  have  the  nostrils 
surrounded  by  a  sort  of  sheath  ;  hence  are  called  Sheath-bins. 
The  typical  genus  is  Chionis,  a  term  suggested  by  the  snowy 
white  plumage  of  these  birds.  They  are  often  found  far  out  at 
sea,  but  chiefly  inhabit  the  rocks  washed  by  the  tide,  feeding  on 
sea-weeds  and  shells,  and  have,  therefore,  been  placed  by  some 
naturalists  among  the  Wading  Birds.  The  species  C.  necro- 
phaga,  (Gr.  nekros,  a  dead  body  ,  phago,  to  eat,)  found  in  New 
Holland,  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  partridge.  It  frequents  the 
sea-shore,  and  feeds  on  dead  animal  matter  thrown  up  by  the  tide. 
The  Small  Sheath-Bill,  C.  minor,  is  found  on  the  dreary  and  iron- 
bound  shores  around  Cape  Horn  ;  it  is  about  as  large  as  a  Lap 
wing.  This  bird  feeds  on  limpets  and  sea-weeds,  not  rejecting 
animal  substances  thrown  upon  the  shore  by  the  waves. 


382  HA  SORES. 

SEVENTH  FAMILY.     TINAMOUS. 
Tinamida,  (genus  Tinamus.) 

These  birds  include  a  very  small  number  of  species.  They 
inhabit  the  immense  grassy  plains  of  South  America,  and  are 
intermediate  in  form  between  the  Partridges  and  Bustards,  hav 
ing  the  long  neck  and  legs  of  the  latter,  and  the  nostrils  covered 
with  a  naked  scale,  like  the  Pheasants.  The  beak  varies  in 
length;  the  wings  are  short,  and  the  tail  and  hind  toe  rudimen 
tary  or  entirely  wanting.  In  South  America  they  appear  to  take 
the  place  of  the  Partridges  and  Quails.  Their  appearance  is 
such  that  they  have  been  said  to  represent  "a  Bustard  in  minia 
ture. >J  Swainson  considers  their  flesh,  "  both  in  whiteness  and 
flavor,  infinitely  superior  to  that  of  the  Partridge  and  the  Pheas 
ant."  The  size  of  the  Tinamous  varies  from  that  of  a  Pheasant 
down  to  that  of  a  Quail. 

The  GREAT  TINAMOU,  Tinamus  Braziliensis,  is  eighteen  inches 
long;  it  inhabits  extensive  forests.  The  general  plumage  is 
grayish  brown,  inclining  to  olive,  with  a  mixture  of  white  under 
neath  and  on  the  sides,  and  greenish  on  the  neck.  The  female 
lays  twelve  or  fifteen  eggs,  the  size  of  those  of  a  hen,  and  of  a 
beautiful  green  color,  in  a  nest  formed  of  moss  and  dried  leaves, 
and  placed  on  the  ground  among  the  thick  herbage  near  the 
root  of  some  large  tree. 

The  RUFESCENT  TINAMOU,  T.  rufescens,  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  genus.  It  is  fifteen  inches  and  a  half  in  length.  It  re 
sides  among  thick  herbage,  and  feeds  on  it  night  and  morning, 
when  it  regularly  utters  its  melancholy  and  feeble  cry.  The  fe 
male  deposits  seven  eggs  of  a  fine  bright  violet  color,  in  a  hol 
low  situated  beneath  tufts  of  grass. 

The  ANDALUSIAW  TURNIX,  or  HEMIPODE,  Turnix  tachydromus, 
{Gr.  swift  runner,)  is  found  in  Spain  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Africa.  It  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  lark,  of  a  yellowish  brown 
color  above,  spotted  and  barred  with  chestnut,  black,  and  white  ; 
the  under  parts  yellowish  white.  It  has  three  toes  before,  en 
tirely  divided ;  no  hind  toe  ;  hence  its  name  HEMJPODE,  (half- 
footed.) 

What  is  the  fourth  order  of  Birds?  What  useful  group  does  it  include? 
What  characteristics  are  given  to  birds  ot'  this  order?  To  what  limits  are 
the  POULTRY  Binns  chiefly  confined?  State  further  particulars  respecting 
the  birds  of  this  order.  Name  the  families  which  it  embraces.  In  what 
respects  do  Pigeons  differ  from  Gallinaceous  birds?  Have  they  been  treated 
as  a  separate  order,  and  under  what  name  ?  What  chief  peculiarity  is  men- 


RASORES.  383 

tioned  ?  What  does  this  apparatus  constitute  them  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
beak  and  feet  ?  State  the  variations  in  the  feet  of  the  different  groups. 
Where  do  they  nestle  ?  What  are  their  prevailing  hues '?  What  sp.  is  the 
origin  of  the  Common,  or  Dove-cote  Pigeon  ?  Mention  the  fancy  varieties. 
What  fact  illustrates  the  remarkable  fecundity  of  the  domestic  P.  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Turtle  Dove  ?  What  of  the  Carolina  Turtle  D.  ?  Relate  the 
particulars  given  respecting  the  Passenger  Pigeon  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Bronze-winged  P.  ?  What  of  the  Crowned  P.  V  What  other  sp.  are  men 
tioned  ? 

Give  the  general  character  of  the  CURRASSOVTS,  the  2nd  FAMILY.  Where 
are  they  found  ?  Name  the  different  sp.  and  repeat  what  is  said  of  them. 

What  is  said  of  the  3rd  FAMILY  ?  Where  are  they  found  ?  Give  their 
characters.  What  is  said  of  the  flesh  and  eggs  of  these  birds?  Recite 
what  is  said  of  the  BRUSH  TURKEY.  What  of  the  Mound-M.  Megapode  ? 


What  is  the  4th  FAMILY?  What  is  said  of  the  size,  &c.  ?  Give  the  gen 
eral  character.  Where  are  the  most  gorgeous  sp.  found  ?  When  were  the 
PHEASANT  TRIBE  introduced  into  Europe  ?  What  is  said  of  the  COMMON 
PEACOCK?  What  of  the  TURKEY?  What  of  the  COMMON  PHEASANT? 
Of  the  GOLDEN  P.  ?  Of  the  ARGUS  P.  ?  Of  the  GUINEA  FOWL  ?  Name  the 
varieties  of  poultry  birds.  Give  particulars  respecting  them. 

What  is  the  5th  FAMILY?  How  is  it  distinguished  from  the  Pheasants? 
Where  are  the  GROUSE  found  ?  What  are  their  habits  ?  What  genus  in 
cludes  the  largest  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Capercallie  ?  What  of  the  COM 
MON  PARTRIDGE,  or  RUFFLED  GROUSE  ?  What  of  the  Cock  of  the  Plains  ? 
What  of  the  PINNATED  Grouse,  or  PRAIRIE  Hen  ?  By  what  name  are  Quails 
known  in  the  S.  and  W.  States?  What  is  said  of  the  American  Quail? 
What  of  the  California  Q.  or  P.  ?  What  of  the  Ptarmigan  ? 

What  is  the  6th  FAMILY  ?  Mention  their  habitat  ?  What  suggested  the 
name  of  the  typical  genus?  On  what  do  these  birds  feed?  What  sp.  are 
mentioned  ? 


What  is  the  7th  FAMILY?  Is  it  numerous?  Where  are  these  birds 
found  ?  To  what  birds  are  they  intermediate  ?  What  is  said  of  the  beak, 
wings,  &c.  ?  What  do  they  represent  in  S.  A.  ?  What  does  Swainson  re 
mark  of  their  flesh  ?  How  does  their  size  vary  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Great  Tinamou  ?  Of  the  RUFESCENT  T.  ?  Of  the  Audalusiau  TURNIX,  or 
HEMIPODE? 


884 


CURSORES. 


SJET'  SECTION  IX. 

FIFTH  ORDER.     RUNNERS. 

CURSORES,  (Lat.  cursor,  a  runner,  from  curso,  to  run 
hither  and  thither.) 

This  order  contains  a  small  number  of  species  arranged  in  one 
family,  StrutJiionida.  These  species  differ  from  each  other  con 
siderably,  yet  they  all  agree  in  having  wings  which  are  remark 
ably  short,  while  the  hind  limbs  are  increased  in  size  and  strength 
of  muscle,  proportioned  to  the  decrease  of  those  in  front.  The 
pectoral  muscles  are  small  and  slender,  and  the  breast  bone  ex 
hibits  a  uniform  convex  surface,  like  that  of  a  shield,  but  not 
keeled,  as  in  the  Swallows  and  Humming  Birds. 

The  Runners  are  all  birds  of  large  size,  most  of  them  equal 
ing,  if  not  surpassing  the  average  height  and  bulk  of  the  Mam 
malia,  to  which  class  they  approach  nearer  than  any  of  the  other 
feathered  tribes.  They  are  found  in  the  immense  plains  of  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.  Most  of  them  are  remarkable  for  the  pe 
culiarity  of  their  incubation.  Many  females  occupy  one  nest  in 
which  a  great  number  of  eggs  are  laid,  to  be  incubated  chiefly 
by  the  male  ;  when  disturbed,  he  feigns  lameness,  as  is  common 
with  birds  that  nestle  on  the  ground.  The  hind  toe  is  wanting 
in  all  these,  except  that  singular  one,  the  Apteryx,  or  Kivi-Kivi, 
of  New  Zealand,  where  it  is  found  in  the  form  of  a  small  rudi 
ment. 

The  OSTRICH  FAMILY. 

Struthionidce,(Gr.  araovOog,  strouthos,  an  ostrich.)     Genus 
Strulhio. 

This  family  includes  the  true  Ostrich,  the  American  Ostrich, 
(Rhea,)  the  Cassowary,  the  Australian  Cassowary,  or  Emu,  and 
the  Kivi-Kivi,  or  Apteryx,  (for  which  see  chart.) 

These  birds  are  very  large,  and  the  neck  and  legs  of  great 
length.  Their  plumage  is  loose  and  flexible;  the  thighs  short 
and  muscular.  The  toes  vary,  the  Ostrich  having  but  two,  (and 
only  one  of  these  furnished  with  a  nail  somewhat  resembling  a 
hoof;)  the  Cassowary  and  Emu, three  ;  the  Apteryx,  (including 
the  rudimentary  hind  toe,)  has  four.  (See  Chart.) 

The  Ostrich,  Struthio  ca?nelus,  or  Camel  Bird,  is  so  called 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  Camel,  which  is  very  striking.  Both 
"  are  furnished  with  callous  protuberances  on  the  chest  and  ab- 


CURSORES.  385 

domen,  on  which  they  support  themselves  when  at  rest ;  they  both 
lie  down  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  feet  and  (in  some  respects) 
the  stomachs  of  both  are  similarly  constructed  ;  both  are  capable 
of  subsisting  on  a  scanty  vegetation,  of  enduring  thirst,  and  of 
traversing  arid  sands  and  desert  regions."  Anderson  says,  "their 
cry  resembles  that  of  a  lion,  so  as  even  to  deceive  the  natives; 
they  are  so  swift  and  strong  they  will  outstrip  an  English  horse 
in  speed,  with  two  men  mounted  on  their  back,  and  it  takes  a 
long  time  to  exhaust  them.  Their  food,  in  the  wild  state,  con 
sists  of  seeds,  tops  and  buds  of  various  shrubs  and  plants ;  in 
confinement,  they  swallow,  with  avidity,  stones,  pieces  of  wood, 
iron  spoons,  knives,  leather,  hair,  cordage,  glass,  minerals,  and 
all  sorts  of  indigestible  matter,  so  that  this  bird  has  been  called 
the  Iron-eating  Ostrich."  Although  capable  of  enduring  thirst 
for  a  long  time,  yet  "they  flock  daily,  about  noon,  to  the  pools, 
where  they  swallow  the  water  by  a  succession  of  gulps.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  favorable  times  to  shoot  them.  The  Ostrich, 
like  the  Capercaillie  of  Europe,  has  a  plurality  of  wives,  from 
two  to  six,  each  laying  from  four  to  six  eggs  in  the  same  nest, 
which  is  a  simple  cavity  scooped  out  in  the  sand ;  both  male  and 
female  assist  in  hatching  them.*  The  bird  sits  astride  over  them 
with  its  legs  pointed  forward.  Some  eggs  are  always  placed 
outside  the  nest  to  serve  as  food  for  the  young ;  when  hatched, 
the  chicks  are  about  the  size  of  pullets,  and  of  a  pepper  and  salt 
color,  covered  with  neither  down  nor  feathers,  but  a  kind  of 
prickly  external.  They  are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  gravel  or  sand  of  the  plains,  or  the  stunted  vegetation  among 
which  they  dwell.  The  flesh  of  the  young  is  not  unpalatable, 
but  that  of  the  old  bird  is  anything  but  agreeable,  tasting  much 
like  the  meat  of  the  Zebra."  Under  the  Mosaic  law  the  Ostrich 
was  an  unclean  animal,  and  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  eat  it. 
The  Arabs  of  the  present  day  still  adhere  to  this  prohibition. 
Some  of  the  less  fastidious  tribes  of  Southern  Africa  partake  of 
it  with  a  relish,  more  especially  when  fat.  The  brains  of  hund 
reds  of  these  animals  often  made  a  dish  at  the  luxurious  suppers 
of  the  ancient  Romans.  They  were  considered  great  delicacies, 
and  the  Emperor  Heliogabalus,  it  is  said,  was  served  with  six 
hundred  of  them  at  a  single  feast.  The  eggs  of  the  Ostrich  are 

*  There  is  no  inconsistency  in  this  statement  with  the  passage  Job,  xxxix, 
14,  which  refers  to  the  Ostrich  as  found  in  the  torrid  zone,  where  the  in 
tense  heat  renders  incubation  unnecessary,  and  the  bird  hence,  "leaves  her 
eggs  in  the  earth,  and  warmeth  them  in  the  dust,"  showing  little  of  mater 
nal  care  or  solicitude.  The  remarks  here  given  from  Anderson  apply  to  the 
bird  as  seen  in  the  cooler  regions  of  Southern  Africa. 


386  CURSORES. 

much  prized  by  travelers  as  well  as  by  natives.  They  weigh 
about  three  pounds,  and  contain  as  much  as  two  dozen  of  the 
eggs  of  our  common  barn-door  fowls.  One  might  be  considered 
a  sufficient  meal  for  any  man,  but  the  Damaras  sometimes  eat 
two  at  a  meal.  "  The  shells  are  valued  as  ornaments,  as  well  as 
drinking  vessels,  or  to  hold  liquids,  for  which  purpose  they  are 
covered  with  a  sort  of  net- work,  and  slung  across  the  saddle; 
grass,  wood,  etc.,  serving  as  substitutes  for  corks.  The  Copts 
suspend  them  in  their  churches,  passing  the  cords  of  their  lamps 
through  the  shells  to  prevent  the  rats  from  coming  down  to  drink 
the  oil ;  they  look  upon  the  shells  as  emblems  of  watchfulness. 
Dissolved  in  vinegar,  or  reduced  to  powder,  they  are  used  me 
dicinally." 

Stones  as  large  as  a  bean  or  pea,  are  said  to  be  sometimes 
found  in  the  eggs.  Barrows  speaks  of  nine  found  in  one  egg  and 
twelve  in  another,  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  about  as  large  as  a 
marrowfat  pea,  and  exceedingly  hard.  A  full  grown  Ostrich  is 
seven  or  eight,  sometimes  nine  or  even  eleven  feet  high,  and 
weighs  two  or  three  hundred  pounds,  some  sny  thirty  stone,  (420 
Ibs.)  This  bird  is  supposed  to  live  between  twenty  and  thirty 
years. 

The  general  color  of  the  female  is  a  grayish  or  ashy  brown, 
slightly  fringed  with  white.  The  lower  part  of  the  neck  and 
body  of  a  mature  male  is  of  a  deep  glossy  black,  mixed  with 
whitish  feathers.  In  both  sexes,  the  large  plumes  of  the  wings 
and  tail  are  perfectly  white  ;  the  thinner  the  quill,  the  longer,  and 
more  wavy  the  plume,  the  more  highly  it  is  prized.  Seventy  to 
ninety  feathers  go  to  the  pound  ;  but  though  half  this  number 
may  be  obtained  from  a  single  bird,  only  a  small  portion  are  of 
any  value.  The  best  plumes  are  obtained  soon  after  the  moult 
ing  season.  The  price  varies,  as  the  market  is  fluctuating  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  From  five  to  fifty  dollars  are  paid  for  a 
pound  of  the  finest  feathers.  Those  obtained  from  living  birds 
are  less  liable  to  be  attacked  and  injured  by  insects  or  worms 
than  such  as  are  taken  from  dead  ones.  The  Damaras  and  Be- 
chuanas  manufacture  handsome  parasols  from  the  black  feathers, 
which  serve  as  a  sign  of  mourning,  and  to  protect  the  complex 
ion  !  These  Ostrich  parasols  are  used  in  hunting  wild  animals, 
as  a  Spanish  bull-fighter  uses  a  red  cloth;  just  as  a  wounded 
beast  charges  a  man,  "he  thrusts  the  support  of  the  nodding 
plumes  into  the  ground,  and  slips  off,  while  the  infuriated  ani 
mal  vents  his  wrath  upon  the  feathers."  The  skin  is  also  held 
in  great  request  for  manufacturing  defensive  armor.  Ostriches 
usually  dwell  far  from  the  haunts  of  men,  but  occasionally  ap- 


CURSORES.  387 

proach  the  settlements,  trampling  down  grain  and  eating  it.  Do 
mesticated,  they  are  quiet,  dull  and  heavy  looking;  in  their  na 
tive  haunts  they  are  restless,  wary  and  difficult  of  approach. 
The  senses  of  touch,  taste,  smell,  and  hearing  are  in  these,  as 
also  in  the  other  birds  of  the  family,  strongly  developed.  The 
eye  is  well  formed  ;  the  sight  is  piercing,  so  that  the  Ostrich  has 
a  wide  range  of  vision,  and  can  discover  danger  at  a  considerable 
distance. 

THE  AMERICAN  OSTRICH,  Rhea  Americana,  (the  Nhandu  Gua- 
cu  of  the  Brazilians,)prominently  differs  from  the  Ostrich  of  the 
Old  World,  in  having  three  toes,  all  furnished  with  claws,  and  in 
its  smaller  size,  being  only  about  half  as  large  as  the  African 
bird  ;  it  is  also  thinly  covered  with  feathers.  It  has  the  same 
propensity  for  swallowing  iron,  stones,  &c.,  as  the  Ostrich  of  the 
East.  Haunting  the  banks  of  rivers,  it  runs  so  swiftly  and  cun 
ningly  as  not  only  to  evade  the  pursuit  of  dogs,  but  the  weapons 
of  the  natives.  These  birds,  like  other  ostriches,  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  sand.  "  The*  males,"  it  is  said,  "  sedulously  perform  the 
office  of  incubation."  The  natives  pursue  them  on  horseback,  and 
kill  them  by  throwing  the  "  bolas,"  or  leathern  thong,  loaded  at  the 
end  with  a  heavy  stone  or  leaden  ball.  The  Rhea  frequently 
swims  across  rivers  several  hundred  feet  in  width,  thus  exceed 
ing  the  powers  of  the  Ostrich  and  Cassowary.  It  feeds  upon 
flesh  and  fruits,  and  upon  the  small  fishes  which  are  washed 
upon  the  sand  ;  its  flesh  is  said  to  equal  that  of  geese  and  swans, 
and  it  is  easily  tamed. 

A  second  (smaller)  species,  R.  Danvinii,  has  been  discovered 
in  Patagonia,  but  it  is  rare. 

The  CASSOWARY,  Casuarius  Casoar,  (or  Emeu,)  is  a  native  of 
the  Eastern  part  of  Asia.  Its  wings  are  shorter  than  those  of  the 
Ostrich,  and  quite  useless  in  aiding  progression  ;  the  head  is 
surmounted  with  a  bony  prominence,  covered  with  a  horny  sub 
stance;  the  skin  of  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  is  naked, 
tinged  with  cerulean  blue  and  flame  color,  and  has  wattles  like 
those  of  a  turkey;  the  feathers  are  composed  of  two  long,  thread 
like  ones,  proceeding  from  the  same  root  and  having  the  appear 
ance  of  hair;  the  wing  feathers  are  round,  black  and  strong,  and 
resemble  the  quills  of  a  porcupine.  At  the  end  of  the  last  joint 
of  the  wing  is  a  sort  of  spur.  This  bird,  next  in  size  to  the  Os 
trich,  when  erect  and  five  feet  in  height,  resembles  the  latter  bird 
in  its  general  form  and  aspect,  (Plate  X.  fig.  7,)  but  differs  from 
it  in  its  digestive  organs.  The  Cassowary  lays  a  small  number 
of  green  eggs,  which  it  leaves  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the 
climate.  Its  food  "  consists  of  vegetable  substances,  and  it  will 


SS8  CURSORES.     ' 

frequently  swallow  a  large  apple  entire,  trusting  to  the  pebbles, 
&c.,  in  its  stomach  to  bruise  it."  The  name  Emu,  formerly 
given  to  this  bird,  is  now  restricted  to  the  following. 

The  Emu,  Dromaius,  (Gr.  Dromaios,  running  swiftly,)  is  a  na 
tive  of  New  Holland,  and  in  size  and  other  respects  closely  re 
sembles  the  Cassowary  ;  but  its  plumage  is  thicker  as  its  feathers 
are  more  barbed  ;  the  wings  are  small  and  hardly  to  be  distin 
guished  ;  but  as  a  runner,  it  outstrips  the  swiftest  greyhound. 
The  dogs  are  shy  of  this  bird  on  account  of  its  powerful  kicks, 
so  powerful  that  by  means  of  them  it  can  break  a  man's  leg. 

The  Kivi-Kivi,  Apteryx,  (Gr.  a,  priv.  ;  pterux,  wing,)  of  New 
Zealand,  is  a  remarkably  odd  bird,  appearing  to  hold  among  the 
feathered  tribes  of  Polynesia,  a  position  parallel  to  the  Ornithor 
hyncus,  or  New  Holland  Mole,  among  the  quadrupeds.  Its  bones 
are  not  hollow  like  those  of  other  birds,  and  it  has  no  abdominal 
air  cells.  It  has  no  wings  and  only  the  most  simple  rudiments, 
ending  in  a  sharp  hook,  which  seems  to  be  an  instrument  of  de 
fence  ;  it  is  also  tailless.  Upon  its  very  long  and  slender  beak 
it  leans  forward  as  an  old  man  would  upon  a  stick.  It  is  a  noc 
turnal  bird,  pursuing  its  prey  on  the  ground  by  the  smell  rather 
than  by  the  sight.  The  olfactory  openings  are  near  the  point  of 
the  beak  ;  and  thus  it  scents  the  worms  on  which  it  feeds,  far  be 
low  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  the  Zoological  gardens,  Lon 
don,  (Eng.,)  is  the  only  one  ever  seen  out  of  New  Zealand.  The 
native  name,  Kivi-Kivi,  is  given  to  it  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
cry.  The  apteryx  is  becoming  quite  rare  in  its  native  clime, 
and  it  is  thought  will,  in  a  few  years,  become  extinct. 

Dinornis.  This  word  represents  a  genus  of  struthious  or  Os 
trich  like  birds  formerly  existing  in  New  Zealand,  and  known 
there  by  the  name  of  MOVIE,  or  MOA  ;  but  now,  However,  extinct, 
having  been  exterminated  by  human  agency  within  a  recent 
period  ;  or  if  any  of  the  species  whose  bones  are  found  in  a  fos 
sil  state  are  still  living,  they  are  probably  of  the  smaller  forms 
and  related  to  the  Apteryx,  "  the  only  living  diminutive  repre 
sentative  of  the  stupendous  Ostrich-like  birds  which  once  trod 
the  soil  of  New  Zealand." 

Mr.  W.  Mantel,  son  of  Dr.  Mantel,  of  Eng.,  while  on  a  visit 
to  New  Zealand,  collected  between  seven  hundred  and  eight 
hundred  bones  belonging  to  birds  of  various  sizes,  which  were 
submitted  to  the  examination  of  Prof.  Owen.  The  Professor 
referred  these  to  the  genera  Dinornis,  Palapteryx,  Notornis,  and 
Aptornis.  A  part  of  the  bones  were  found  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Waingougou,  on  the  western  shore  of  North  Island. 
With  these  were  mixed  fragments  of  egg  shells.  The  eggs  to 


CTJRSORE5.  £°9 

which  the  fragments  belonged  were  supposed  to  be  about  the  siz? 
of  a  tea  cup.  In  connection  with  this  fact,  interest  attaches  to 
a  discovery  recently  made  in  Madagascar.  "In  a  report  to  the 
French  Academy  of  Science,  M.  St.  Hillaire  describes  three  fos 
sil  eggs  from  Madagascar,  and  small  bones  belonging  to  the  same 
bird.  The  Captain  of  a  merchant  vessel  trading  to  Madagascar, 
one  day  observed  a  native  using,  for  a  domestic  purpose,  a  vase 
which  much  resembled  an  egg,  and  upon  an  examination  proved 
to  be  one.  The  native  stated  that  many  such  were  to  be  found 
in  the  interior  of  the  island,  and  eventually  procured  the  eggs 
and  bones  exhibited  by  M.  St.  Hillaire.  The  largest  of  these 
eggs  is  equal  in  bulk  to  135  hen's  eggs,  and  will  hold  two  gal 
lons  of  water.  M.  St.  Hillaire  proposes  the  name  of  Epiornis, 
for  the  monster  biped  of  which  these  marvelous  eggs  and  bones 
are  the  first  evidence  brought  under  the  notice  of  naturalists." 
Casts  of  these  eggs  have  been  made  and  are  to  be  seen  in  vari 
ous  museums. 

Gnatliodon,  (Gr.  gnathon,  a  jaw  ;  odous,  a  tooth.)  is  a  genus  of 
birds  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  described  by  Sir  William  Jardine, 
from  a  specimen  which  was  presented  to  him. 

The  upper  mandible  of  the  beak  is  strongly  hooked,  as  in  the 
Dodo ;  the  under  one  is  deeply  notched  ;  hence  the  name.  The 
only  known  species,  G.  strigiroslris,  (owl-beaked,)  is  rather 
larger  than  a  partridge,  having  the  upper  parts  of  a  deep  chest 
nut  red,  and  the  under  of  a  glossy  green  black.  Mr.  Gould  sup 
poses  it  to  feed  on  fruit  or  grass. 

Didttnculus,  is  a  name  given  to  a  genus  of  birds  found  by 
Com.  Wilkes,  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  thought  to  be  the 
same  as  the  preceding. 

The  DODO,  Didus,  about  whose  proper  place  much  doubt  has 
existed,  should  perhaps  have  a  position  in  the  present  family. 
To  this  bird,  as  now  extinct,  reference  has  already  been  made, 
(see  section  on  Birds,)  but  fossil  remains  of  it  have  been  discov 
ered,  and  there  is  abundant  historical  and  other  evidence  of  its 
former  existence.  Clusius,  in  a  work  published  in  1605,  gives 
a  figure  of  a  Dodo  copied  from  a  rough  sketch  taken  by  a  Dutch 
navigator,  who  had  seen  the  bird  while  on  a  voyage  to  the  Mo 
luccas  in  1598.  Bontius,  (1658,)  translated  by  "Willoughby, 
describes  it  as  "  for  bigness  of  mean  size  between  an  ostrich  and 
a  turkey,  from  which  it  partly  differs  in  shape  and  partly  agrees 
with  them,  especially  the  African  ostriches,  if  you  consider  the 
rump,  quill  and  feathers,  so  that  it  was  like  a  pigmy  among  them, 
if  you  regard  the  shortness  of  its  legs.  It  has  a  great,  ill-favored 


£00  CURSORES. 

head,  with  a  kind  of  membrane  resembling  a  hood,  ....  great 
black  eyes,  an  extraordinary  long,  strong,  bluish-white  bill." 

In  the  British  Museum  are  the  head  and  foot  of  one  of  these 
birds ;  also  a  painting  said  to  be  a  copy  of  a  picture  taken  from 
a  living  bird  brought  from  Mauritius  or  St.  Maurice's  island, 
East  Indies. 

The  SOLITARY,  Le  Solitaire,  has  sometimes  been  confounded 
with  the  Dodo,  or  represented  as  a  species  of  that  bird.  Leguat, 
who  (1631)  resided  in  the  island  Rodriquez,  gives  a  somewhat 
fanciful  description  of  this  bird  as  existing  in  his  time  on  that 
island.  His  account  of  it  makes  it  resemble  a  turkey,  though 
taller  and  almost  without  either  wings  or  tail.  Subsequently  it 
appears  to  have  become  extinct.  Bonos  were,  in  1832,  discov 
ered  in  the  island,  believed  to  be  those  of  the  Solitary. 

What  is  the  5th  order  of  birds  ?  Does  it  contain  many  sp.  ?  In  what 
family  are  they  included?  What  is  said  of  their  differences  and  agree 
ment  ?  What  of  the  muscles  of  the  breast  and  the  breast-bone  ?  What 
of  their  size  ?  To  what  class  of  animals  do  they  approach  ?  Where  are 
they  found?  For  what  are  most  of  them  remarkable?  Have  they  any 
hind  toe  ?  Name  the  birds  included  in  the  OSTRICH  FAMILY.  What  is  said 
of  their  plumage,  &e.  ?  Why  is  the  0.  called  the  CAMEL-BIRD  ?  Point  out 
the  resemblances  between  them.  Relate  the  particulars  given  by  Ander 
son.  Were  the  ancient  Jews  allowed  to  eat  it?  How  is  it  with  the  Arabs? 
How  with  the  tribes  of  Southern  Africa?  What  use  was  made  of  the 
brains  of  these  birds  by  the  ancient  Eornans?  What  is  said  of  their  eggs? 
What  of  the  egg-shells  ?  Give  the  height  and  weight  of  a  full  grown  Os 
trich.  What  is  the  general  color  of  its  plumage  ?  What  further  is  said  of 
them?  What  is  said  of  the  A.  Ostrich?  Where  has  the  second  sp.  been 
discovered?  What  is  said  of  the  CASSOWARY?  Is  this  bird  properly  called 
the  Emeu  or  Emu?  Repeat  what  is  said  of  the  EMU.  Where  is  the  AP- 
TERYX  found  ?  What  is  its  native  name  ?  Why  was  it  given  ?  Describe 
this  bird.  Where  is  the  only  one  ever  seen  out  of  N.  Zealand  ?  Is  this  a 
numerous  sp.  ?  What  does  DINORNIS  represent  ?  What  collection  of  fos 
sil  bones  is  mentioned?  To  what  genera  did  Prof.  Owen  refer  them? 
What  is  said  of  the  fossil  eggs  discovered  in  Madagascar  ?  What  of  the 
GNATHODON?  With  what  other  generals  it  supposed  to  be  identical?  Re 
peat  what  is  said  of  the  DODO  and  LE  SOLITAIRE. 

Mention  and  trace  the  birds  of  this  order  named  upon  the  chart.  Let 
each  pupil  give  an  account  of  one  of  these  birds. 


GRALLATORES.  391 

SECTION  X. 

AQUATIC  BIRDS.     (SECOND   DIVISION.)     TWO  ORDERS. 

FIRST   ORDER.     GRALLATORES,   (Lat.  gralla,  stilts.)     WADERS 
or  STILT  BIRDS.     Gralla,  (N.  H.  S.  N.  Y.) 

The  Waders  or  Shore-Birds  appear  to  hold  an  intermediate 
rank  between  the  Gallinaceous  or  Poultry  Birds,  and  the  Nata 
torial  or  Swimming  groups,  which  are  confined  to  the  water. 
M.  Vigors  is  of  the  opinion  that  they,  of  all  birds,  enjoy  most 
equally  the  advantages  of  land  and  water.  They  are  distin 
guished  by  the  great  length  of  the  tarsi  and  legs,  which  raise  up 
their  bodies  as  upon  stilts;  (Plate  IX.  fig.  27;)  thus  elevated, 
they  frequent  the  banks  of  rivers,  lakes,  marshes  and  the  shores 
of  estuaries.  The  tibia  or  lower  portion  of  the  leg  (a)  is  bare, 
so  that  they  can  wade  to  a  considerable  depth  without  wetting 
their  plumage,  and  thus  seize  fishes  and  other  aquatic  animals 
on  which  they  feed.  In  this  they  are  aided  by  the  length  of  the 
beak  and  neck,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  6.)  Such  as  are  more  especially 
aquatic  have  webs  to  their  toes.  Their  wings  are  long  and  pow 
erful,  their  flight  strong  and  well  sustained,  enabling  them  to  mi 
grate  with  the  seasons,  which  most  of  them  do  ;  thus  becoming 
widely  distributed.  In  flying,  they  stretch  out  their  long  legs 
behind,  (Plate  X.  fig.  1,)  as  a  counterbalance  to  their  long  necks; 
and  the  tail  being  very  short,  its  office  as  a  rudder  is  transferred 
to  the  legs.  These  birds  have  the  power  of  maintaining  a  mo 
tionless  position  upon  one  leg  for  a  considerable  time.  The 
most  aquatic  of  them  place  their  nests  among  the  reeds  and 
herbage  of  marshy  places,  or  as  the  Herons,  (Ardeida,}  they 
build  in  company  on  trees;  those  that  frequent  dry  and  stony 
places,  often  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  bare  ground.  The  eggs 
are  usually  colored  and  spotted,  of  a  lengthened  form,  with  one 
end  much  pointed.  The  young  run  about  as  soon  as  hatched, 
except  in  those  species  which  live  in  pairs. 

This  order  includes  the  following  families,  viz.:  (1)  Chara- 
driadcK,  the  Plovers  ;  (2)  Ardeida,  Herons  ;  (3)  Rostrida,  Spoon- 
bills;  (4)  Tantalida,  Ibises;  (5)  jScolopaczrfa,  Snipes ;  (6)  Otidce, 
Bustards;  (7)  Rallida,  Rails, 


393  GRALLATORES. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     PLOVERS.     (French  pluvier,  from  Lat.  phi- 
vialis,  rainy.) 

Charadriadce,    (Gr.   xaQadgibg,   charadrios,  a  kind  of  bird,  from 
%aQ&aowt  to  excavate.) 

The  Plovers  are  distinguished  by  having  long  and  slender  feet, 
adapted  for  running  ;  the  toes  are  rather  short;  the  hind  one  is 
either  entirely  wanting,  or  so  short  as  not  to  reach  the  ground. 
The  wings  are  large  and  these  birds  are  swift  and  strong  in 
flight,  moving  in  circles  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  pigeons, 
and  wheeling  round  at  no  great  height,  uttering  piping  cries. 
The  head  is  thick,  with  large  dark  eyes  placed  far  back  ;  the 
beak  short  and  often  slightly  notched  ;  the  nostrils  are  pierced 
in  a  long  groove.  Resorting  to  the  sea-shore,  with  their  beaks 
they  penetrate  the  ground  for  worms,  to  obtain  which  they  are 
said  to  stamp  with  their  feet,  causing  the  worms  to  rise.  Those 
with  feebler  bills  resort  to  meadows  and  newly  ploughed  land, 
where  they  can  more  readily  obtain  their  food  ;  such  as  have 
stronger  bills  also  feed  on  grain,  herbage,  &c.  The  colors  of 
the  Plovers  are  chaste  and  beautiful,  consisting  of  various  shades 
of  brown,  mingled  with  yellow,  white  and  black,  and  often  dis 
posed  in  bands.  Many  of  them  are  active  during  the  night. 
The  Plovers  are  dispersed  over  the  entire  globe. 

The  LAPWING,  or  Pewit,  Vanellm  crislatus,  is  a  beautiful  spe 
cies  ;  in  summer  spread  over  Europe  and  particularly  plentiful 
in  Holland,  but  passing  the  winter  in  warm  latitudes.  The 
plumage  of  the  upper  parts  is  green,  with  brilliant  reflections; 
of  the  under  parts,  pure  white.  In  its  winter  dress,  the  male  has 
the  head  feathers  very  long,  loose,  barbed  and  curved  upwards, 
forming  a  sort  of  crest,  which  is  glossy  black.  When  flying, 
the  black  and  white  colors  of  this  bird  make  it  very  conspicu 
ous.  Sometimes  thousands  may  be  seen  at  once,  gleaming  in 
the  setting  sun,  or  appearing  like  a  dense,  black,  moving  mass, 
between  its  light  and  the  spectator. 

The  Lapwings  are  about  as  large  as  pigeons  ;  their  eggs  are 
laid  upon  the  bare  ground,  and  esteemed  a  luxury  for  the  table. 
The  Lapwing  takes  its  name  from  the  device  by  which  it  lures 
away  intruders  from  its  nest,  dropping  its  wings  in  flight,  and 
appearing  as  if  wounded,  to  entice  them  away,  and  thus  often 
inducing'them  to  follow  to  a  considerable  distance.  This  bird  is 
sometimes  kept  in  gardens,  and  is  useful  for  the  destruction  of 
vermin.  Another  European  species  is 

The  GREAT  PLOVER,  or  Stone  Curlew  (of  Europe,)  (Edicne- 


GRALLATOEES.  S93 

mus,  (Gr.  oidos,  a  swelling;  knemos,  knee  or  shank  bone;)  ere- 
pilans,  (Lat.  making  a  rattling  noise,)  is  about  sixteen  inches  in 
length,  and  esteemed  a  delicate  bird  for  the  table.  The  generic 
name  is  given  to  this  bird  on  account  of  the  dilated  or  swollen 
form  of  the  upper  part  of  the  tarsus,  and  the  size  of  the  knee- 
joint  in  the  young  birds.  Their  shrill  evening  cry  pierces  the 
ear,  and  may  be  heard,  in  the  night,  for  nearly  a  mile. 

The  GOLDEN  PLOVER,  Charadrius  Virginianicus,  C.  marmo- 
ratus,  (marble-colored,)  Aud.,  differs  slightly  in  size  from  the  Eu 
ropean  Golden  Plover,  C.  pluvialis,  and  in  having  the  long  axil 
lary  feathers  dull  brcwn  instead  of  pure  white.  It  ranges  from 
23oto  75o  N.  L.,  breeding  in  the  arctic  regions.  From  the  gen 
eral  greenish  appearance  of  their  plumage,  these  birds  are  called 
Greenbacks.  They  are  highly  prized  by  the  epicures  of  the  fur 
countries,  and  they  figure  largely  in  the  bills  of  fare  of  the  old 
English  nobles.  Ths  Golden  Plover  is  about  ten  inches  in  length, 
and  found  in  every  continent.  The  generic  name  denotes  a  bird 
found  in  cavities  or  hollows  like  those  worn  by  a  rapid  stream  or 
torrent. 

The  OYSTER-CATCHER  or  SEA  PIE,  Hcematopus,  (Gr.  harma, 
blood  ;  dps,  face,)  palliatus,  (mantled,)  is  named  from  the  red  ap 
pearance  of  the  bill  and  feet,  and  from  the  black  of  the  upper 
plumage,  which,  contrasting  with  the  pure  white  under  plumage, 
has  the  appearance  of  a  mantle.  It  feeds  on  oysters  and  other 
sea  bivalves.  The  bill  in  this  genus  is  long  and  wedge-shaped, 
with  the  tip  much  compressed  ;  the  feet  have  three  toes,  all  di 
rected  forward  and  bordered  with  a  narrow  membrane.  The 
Oyster-catcher  breeds  from  Texas  to  Labrador.  Its  flesh  is  tough 
and  unsavory. 

The  GRAY  PLOVER,  or  GRAY  LAPWING,  Squatarola  cinerea, 
(ash-colored,)  has  a  rather  strong  cylindrical  bill,  swollen  half 
way  from  the  tip;  the  feet  are  four-toed,  (the  hind  toe  quito 
small.)  In  the  warmer  parts  of  the  United  States,  this  bird  often 
has  two  breeds  in  a  season  ;  it  runs  well  ;  its  whistle  is  like  that 
of  the  Golden  Plover,  but  not  so  shrill.  If  killed  in  good  season 
it  is  fine  for  the  table. 

The  TURNSTONE,  Strepsilas,  (Gr.  strepko,  to  turn  ;)  interpres, 
(Lat.  interpreter.)  is  widely  distributed  in  both  continents.  It 
has  four  toes;  the  bill  is  compressed  at  the  base,  swollen  in  the 
middle,  and  blunt  at  the  tip.  The  name  Turnstone  is  given  to  it 
from  its  habit  of  turning  over  stones  to  obtain  the  small  crustace 
ans  and  molluscous  animals  which  constitute  its  food.  It  is 
known  to  sportsmen  under  the  names  of  Brant-bird  and  Beach- 
bird.  From  its  fondness  for  the  eggs  of  the  Horsefoot,  (Limulus 


394  GRALLATORES. 

polyphemus,)  it  is  also  called  the  Horsefoot  Snipe.  Length  from 
nine  to  ten  inches. 

The  DOTTEREL,  C.  morindlus,  has  had  credit  for  possessing 
great  powers  of  mimicry.  He  has  also  been  charged  with  so 
great  stupidity  that 

"Acting  every  thing,  he  doth  never  mark  the  net, 
Till  he  be  within  the  snare  which  men  for  him  have  set. " 

For  this,  however,  thera  seems  not  sufficient  reason.  When  first 
seen,  it  shows  but  little  fear  of  man  ;  but  this  might  be  ascribed 
to  its  freedom  from  persecution  in  its  native  wilds;  after  a  short 
experience  of  human  annoyance,  it  becomes  more  cautious.  Its 
"  mimicking  the  action  of  the  fowler  by  stretching  out  its  leg, 
wing,  or  head,"  may  be  little  more  than  the  actions  of  other  birds 
when  aroused  from  their  repose.  The  Dotterel  feeds  by  night  on 
insects,  slugs,  and  worms;  in  common  with  others  of  the  Plovers, 
it  rests  and  sleeps  during  the  day,  and  on  this  account,  may 
allow  of  a  close  approach,  as  is  true  of  the  Golden  PI  over.  These 
things  considered,  it  can  hardly  be  deemed  proper  to  call  it  a 
stupid  bird.  The  upper  parts  of  its  winter  plumage  are  of  a 
blackish-ash  color  with  a  tinge  of  green;  a  portion  of  the  breast 
and  under  parts  white ;  the  face  is  white,  doited  with  blue,  .fn 
their  winter  migrations,  these  birds  visit  Italy  and  Spain  ;  they 
are  particularly  abundant  in  the  Eastern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia,  where  the  larger  part  of  them  breed. 

The  SwiFT-FooT  or  COURSER,  Cursorius,  (from  Lat.  curro,  to 
run.)  is  found  in  the  hot  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  One  spe 
cies,  the  BLACK-BELLIED  COURIER,  C.  Temminckii,  inhabits  Abys 
sinia.  The  other  species,  C.  IsabeUinus,  or  CREAM -COLORED 
COURSER,  is  a  native  of  Africa,  but  has  occasionally  been  seen 
in  Europe. 

Glareola  is  a  genus  of  Plovers  confined  to  the  Old  World, 
and  including  three  species,  one  of  which,  the  PRATINCOLE,  G. 
Pratincola,  (meadow  inhabitant,)  is  spread  through  the  warm 
and  temperate  regions  of  Asia,  Africa  and  Europe.  It  has  very 
long  wings  and  a  greatly  forked  tail,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
rapidity  and  power  of  flight.  Mr.  Gould  speaks  of  it  as  "an 
elegant  and  graceful  bird."  Its  length  is  nine  inches. 

Other  species  are  the  KILLDEER  PLOVER,  Charadrius  vociferus, 
which  has  its  name  from  an  imagined  resemblance  of  its  two 
notes  to  the  word  Killdeer,  and  which  breeds  from  Texas  to 
Massachusetts. 

The  WHISTLING  PLOVER,  S.  Helvetica,  called  the    Bull  and 


GRALLATORES.  295 

Beetle-Head  Plover,  common   to  Europe  and  America,  and  re 
sembling,  in  its  autumnal  dress,  the  Lapwing  of  Europe. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     HERONS. 

Ardeida,  (Lat.  ardea,  a  heron  ;)   Gruidce,  (Lat.  grus,  a  crane.) 
N.  H.  S.  N.  Y. 

These  birds  are  decidedly  carnivorous  in  their  appetite,  feed 
ing  on  fishes,  aquatic  reptiles,  small  mammalia,  worms,  and 
insects.  The  CRANES,  in  their  terrestrial  habits  and  in  their 
food,  approach  some  of  the  Gallinaceous  or  Cursorial  birds,  join 
ing  with  an  animal  diet,  grains,  seeds,  and  herbage.  The  legs 
and  feet  of  the  Cranes  are'  long  and  slender,  as  is  also  the  neck, 
which  is  very  flexible ;  the  toes  are  four  in  number,  the  hind  toe 
usually  long  and  resting  on  the  ground  ;  the  beak  is  long,  straight, 
sharp  .pointed,  firm  in  texture  and  very  powerful.  The  wings 
in  this  family  are,  in  general,  well  developed,  and  some  of  the 
birds  are  capable  of  high  and  powerful  flight. 

The  HERONS  are  the  type  of  the  group.  They  rank  as  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  the  Waders,  not  so  much  from  the  shades 
of  their  plumage,  though  these  are  chaste  and  agreeable,  as  on 
account  of  their  tapering  and  graceful  forms,  the  curves  of  their 
slender  necks,  their  elegant  hanging  crests,  and  the  long  plumes 
that  adorn  various  parts  of  their  bodies.  They  may  be  seen 
watching  on  the  margin  of  the  water  or  within  trie  shallows;  on 
the  appearance  of  their  fishy  prey,  it  is  transfixed  by  a  sudden 
stroke  of  the  pointed  beak  and  swallowed  entire.  In  their  de 
cidedly  carnivorous  habits,  they  differ  from  the  Cranes.  They 
are  distinguished  by  their  larger  and  more  pointed  bill,  and  the 
greater  length  of  their  legs  ;  their  stomach  is  a  large  undivided 
sac,  only  in  a  small  degree  muscular.  All  the  Herons  have 
comb-like  divisions  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  middle  claw,  (Plate 
IX.  fig.  28,)  probably  designed  to  free  the  plumage  from  insect- 
parasites.  They  are  generally  solitary  in  their  habits  ;  but  they 
build  in  companies,  usually  in  trees  not  far  from  the  banks  of 
rivers.  We  give  some  specimens  in  each  division  of  the  family. 

CRANES. 

The  AMERICAN  CRANE,  Grus  Americana,  when  mature,  has 
white  plumage  with  the  quills  and  their  shafts  black  ;  when  young, 
bluish  gray,  with  the  quills  and  theirshafts  brownish  white.  This 
is  called  the  Whooping  Crane  ;  it  migrates  as  far  North  as  the 
680  Lat.  Its  length  is  fifty-four  inches. 


£93  GRALLATORES. 

The  COMMON  CRANE,  G.  cinereus,  (ashy,)  of  the  Eastern 
Continent,  is  three  feet  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length ;  in  its  gen- 
eral  plumage  ashy-gray  ;  migratory  and  gregarious  in  its  habits  ; 
in  its  contour  and  gait  somewhat  like  the  Ostrich  ;  'in  its  strong 
and  muscular  stomach,  it  differs  from  the  Herons.  The  flesh  is 
well  tasted,  and  was  formerly  highly  prized. 

The  DEMOISELLE,  Anthropoides,  (Gr.  of  human-like  form ;) 
virgo,  (Lat.  a  virgin,)  or  Ardea  Virgo,  of  Linn,  is  an  African 
bird,  but  occasionally  seen  in  Europe;  its  general  plumage  is 
slaty-gray  ;  length  about  three  feet.  One  of  these  birds  hatched 
in  the  menagerie  at  Versailles,  (France,)  and  lived  there  twenty- 
four  years.  Great  numbers  are  seen  in  Egypt  during  the  inun 
dations  of  the  Nile.  This  bird  exhibits  much  delicacy  and  ele 
gance  of  attitude,  and  a  graceful  playfulness  in  all  its  move 
ments.  Its  food  consists,  principally  of  grain  and  seeds,  though 
it  occasionally  eats  small  fishes,  mollusks,  and  insects. 

The  STANLEY  CRANE,  A.  StanJeyanus,  (A.  paradisceus,)  is  a 
beautiful  East  India  species,  named  after  Lord  Stanley,  late 
President  of  the  Zool.  Soc.,  Lond. ;  it  is  three  feet  and  a  half  in 
length,  and  in  manners  and  gestures,  like  the  Demoiselle  ;  its 
general  plumage  is  bluish  gray. 

The  CROWNED  CRANE,  A.  pavonicus,  (Lat.  of  a  peacock,)  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Balearic  Crane,  (Balearica,)  of  the  ancients. 
Its  plumage  is  of  a  bluish  slate  color;  when  full  grown  it  is 
about  four  feet  in  length.  Under  the  throat  is  a  wattle  like  that 
of  a  turkey.  This  stately  bird  is  found  in  Northern  and  West 
ern  Africa.  (Plate  X.  fig.  8a.) 

HERONS  PROPER. 

Of  these  there  are  quite  a  number  of  species.  The  use  of 
these  birds  in  hawking,  has  already  been  noticed.  The  destruc 
tion  of  their  eggs  was  in  Europe  formerly  visited  by  a  heavy 
penalty ;  they  seem  to  have  ranked  as  high  at  the  tables  of  the 
great  as  they  did  for  their  exploits  in  the  field  ;  now,  however, 
their  flesh  is  in  low  estimation. 

Audubon  includes  the  EGRETS  and  BITTERNS  with  the  Herons, 
under  one  genus,  Ardea,  and  enumerates  twelve  species  found 
in  America. 

The  COMMON  HERON,  A.  cinerea,  is  remarkably  light  in  pro 
portion  to  its  bulk,  weighing  scarcely  three  pounds  and  a  half, 
though  its  length  is  upwards  of  three  feet,  and  its  expanse  of 
wings  above  five.  This  Heron  is  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America. 


GKALLATORES.  897 

The  GREAT  BLUE  HERON,  A.  Herodias,  is  a  species  allied  to 
the  Common  Heron  of  Europe,  and  met  with  in  every  part  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  over  four  feet  in  length,  and  six  feet  in  the  ex- 
panse  of  its  wings.  The  bill  is  seven  or  eight  inches  long  and 
very  sharp  pointed.  This  bird  is  partly  nocturnal  in  its  habits  ; 
a  portion  of  its  breast  is  covered  with  a  down  which  is  said  to  be 
phosphorescent ;  it  is  to  be  found  from  Texas  to  South  Carolina  ; 
feeds  on  crabs,  eels,  and  various  other  fish. 

The  GREENISH  BLUE  HERON,  A.  virescens,  (Lat.  verging  to 
green,)  is  more  generally  known  than  most  other  American  spe 
cies,  being  widely  spread  in  spring,  summer,  and  autumn.  It 
has  the  popular  names  of  Chalk-line,  Polk,  Fly-up-the- Creek, 
&c.  The  length  is  about  seventeen  inches. 

The  BLACK  CROWNED  NIGHT  HERON,  A.  discors,  (Lat.  dis 
cordant,)  is  from  twenty-six  to  twenty-eight  inches  in  length.  In 
many  respects  it  resembles  the  Common  Heron  in  its  habits, 
breeding  like  that  bird,  in  company  with  others,  on  the  topmost 
branches  of  trees.  During  the  day  it  roosts  in  the  recesses  of 
woods  in  the  vicinity  of  swamps  and  rivers,  which  it  visits  at 
night  in  quest  of  prey.  It  feeds  on  fish,  aquatic  reptiles,  sea- 
lettuce,  (ulva  latissima.}  grasshoppers,  and  other  large  insects. 
The  popular  name  of  Quawk,  or  Qua-Bird,  is  given  to  it  on  ac 
count  of  its  deep  guttural  cry.  It  closely  resembles  the  A.  nyc- 
ticorax,  (Gr.  raven  of  the  night.)  the  Night-Raven  of  Europe. 

The  GREAT  AMERICAN  WHITE  EGRET,  A.  leuce,  (white  ;)  A. 
egrelta,  (Wilson,  Aud.  and  Bonaparte,)  is  forty  inches  in  length  ; 
of  a  snowy  white  plumage,  sometimes  tinged  with  yellow.  Its 
food  consists  of  frogs,  salamanders,  mice,  moles,  &c.  This 
bird  is  found  from  the  Equator  to  43o  N.  L.  It  is  closely  allied 
to  A.  alba,  or  Herodias  alba,  the  White  Heron  of  Europe. 

BITTERNS. 

These  are  represented  in  the  genus  Botaurus,  (Lat  boo,  to  cry 
out ;  taurus,  a  bull.)  They  are  widely  diffused  and  solitary 
birds,  haunting  woody  swamps  and  marshes  ;  hid  all  day  and 
feeding  at  night.  As  might  be  conjectured  from  their  haunts, 
they  feed  mostly  upon  aquatic  animals.  They  spread  over  both 
hemispheres,  but  are  not  found  in  Australia.  Everywhere  they 
are  noted  for  their  voracity.  The  names  Mire-Drum  and  Bull 
of  the  Bog  are  sometimes  given  to  these  birds  on  account  of  the 
drumming  or  bellowing  noise  for  which  they  are  famous.  The 
English  name  Bittern  was  formerly  spelled  Bittour,  and  like  the 


S98  GRALLATORES. 

generic  term,  is  supposed  to  refer  to  its  deep-toned,  bull-like 
voice. 

The  COMMON  BITTERN,  B.  stellaris,  (Lat.  starry,)  was  well 
known  to  the  ancients.  It  is  referred  to  by  Aristotle  under  the 
name  of  Asterias  ;  in  the  palmy  days  of  falconry  it  was  much 
sought  for.  It  is  not  daunted  when  wounded,  and  therefore  it 
was  the  duty  of  the  falconer  to  plunge  the  Bittern's  bill  into  the 
ground  to  prevent  injury  to  the  hawk  ;  both  the  falcon  and  the 
falconer  were  sometimes  endangered  by  the  sharp  beak  of  their 
victim.  In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  of  England,  its  flesh  was  in 
high  esteem ;  when  the  bird  is  well  fed  it  resembles  that  of  a 
hare,  and  is  not  rank  or  fishy  like  that  of  the  associate  birds. 
The  long  claw  of  this  bird's  hind  toe  is  prized  as  a  tooth-pick, 
and  in  the  olden  time  it  was  thought  to  have  the  property  of  pre 
serving  the  teeth.  The  Common  Bittern  is  crested  and  about 
two  feet  and  a  half  in  length,  being  smaller  than  the  Common 
Heron.  The  general  color  of  the  plumage  is  dull  pale  yellow, 
varied  with  spots  and  bars  of  black. 

The  AMERICAN  BITTERN,  B.  lentiginosus,  (Lat.  freckled,)  or 
Ardea  minor,  is  not  quite  so  large  as  the  Common  Bittern.  It  is 
familiarly  known  by  the  names  Poke,  Indian-Hen,  Indian-Pul 
let,  &c.,  and  migrates  over  most  parts  of  the  U.  S.  The  color 
is  a  rusty  yellow,  mottled  and  sprinkled  with  deep  brown. 

The  SMALL  BITTERN,  A.  exilis,  (Lat.  small  or  slender,)  is  sub- 
crested  and  only  eleven  inches  in  length  ;  of  a  chestnut  color 
above,  but  whitish  beneath.  It  ranges  from  Mexico  to  45o  N.  L. 

The  COMMON  BOAT  BILL,  Cancroma  cochlearia,  (Lat  snail- 
shells  or  spoons,)  approaches  in  form  quite  closely  to  the  Heron, 
except  in  the  bill,  which  is  not  unlike  the  bowls  of  two  spoons 
placed  one  upon  the  other,  with  the  rims  in  contact.  It  perches 
on  trees  by  the  side  of  rivers,  where  it  lives  on  fish,  and  not  on 
crabs,  as  the  name  Cancroma  indicates,  though  Linnaeus  sup 
posed  it  to  feed  on  crabs  and  so  named  it.  Latham  says  :  "We 
are  certain  fish  is  its  most  common,  if  not  only  food."  This  bird 
is  native  to  South  America. 

STORKS. 

The  Storks,  Ciconia,  are  not  so  aquatic  as  the  other  birds  of 
the  family,  but  are  among  the  largest.  They  build  their  nests 
on  turrets,  steeples,  and  chimneys, — each  pair,  after  wintering  in 
Africa,  returning  to  the  same  place  in  the  spring.  Their  bills 
are  very  long  and  straight,  resembling  a  lengthened  cone.  They 
live  in  marshes,  arid  feed  principally  on  reptiles,  frogs,  and  their 


GRALLATORES.  399 

spawn,  as  well  as  on  fishes.  Wherever  found,  the  Storks  are  a 
privileged  race,  on  account  of  the  havoc  which  they  make  among 
noxious  animals.  They  migrate  in  numerous  flocks,  and  are 
easily  tamed.  All  the  species  make  a  clattering  noise  with 
their  bills. 

The  COMMON  WHITE  STORK,  C.  alba,  (see  Chart,)  is  about 
three  feet  in  length  ;  when  well  treated,  it  approaches,  without 
fear,  the  habitations  of  men.  In  the  towns  of  Continental  Eu 
rope,  domesticated  Storks,  taken  when  young,  "may  often  be  ,- 
seen  paddling  about  the  markets,  where  they  are  kept  as  scaven 
gers  to  clear  the  place  of  the  entrails  of  fish  and  other  offal, 
t which  they  do  to  the  satisfaction  of  their  employers."  In  Hol 
land,  and  especially  in  Germany,  this  bird  is  a  welcome  guest. 
Dr.  Shaw  witnessed  the  annual  migration  of  flocks  of  these  birds 
from  Mount  Carmel ;  each  flock  that  he  saw,  "  was  half  a  mile 
in  breadth,  and  occupied  three  hours  in  passing  over." 

Among  the  ancients,  to  kill  a  Stork,  was  regarded  a  crime, 
which,  in  some  places,  was  punished  with  death;  and,  like  the 
Ibis,  this  bird  became  an  object  of  adoration.  It  is  noted  for  its 
great  affection  for  its  young,  but  more  particularly,  for  its  care 
of  its  parents  in  old  age. 

The  BLACK  STORK,  C.  nigra,  or  A.  nigra,  is,  like  the  White 
Stork,  a  migratory  bird,  spending  the  winter  in  Southern  Europe, 
and  passing  on  to  high  northern  latitudes  in  summer. 

The  ADJUTANT,  Leptoptilus,  (Gr.  leptos,  thin  ;  ptilos,  down, 
or  plumage,)  Arga/a,  is  a  remarkable  bird,  native  to  the  warmer 
parts  of  India,  and  highly  useful  there  in  devouring  noxious  ani 
mals  and  carrion,  which  it  does  with  avidity.  It  stands  from 
five  to  seven,  feet  in  height,  and  measures  from  the  tip  of  the 
bill  to  the  claws,  seven  and  a  half,  while  the  expanse  of  wings  is 
not  less  than  fourteen  feet.  The  beak  is  extremely  large,  stout, 
and  strong ;  under  it  hangs  a  downy  pouch,  or  bag,  like  a  dew 
lap,  which  is  capable  of  being  inflated.  The  upper  part  of  this 
bird  is  of  an  ashy-gray  color  ;  the  under  part  white.  The  vora 
city  of  the  Adjutant  is  not  more  extraordinary  than  its  capacity 
for  swallowing;  it  makes  but  one  mouthful  of  a  rabbit,  a  fowl, 
or  even  a  small  leg  of  mutton,  and  when  domesticated,  its  habit 
of  purloining,  makes  it  necessary  to  keep  all  kinds  of  provisions 
out  of  its  reach.  Dr.  Latham  says,  "These  birds,  in  their  wild 
state,  live  in  companies ;  and  when  seen  at  a  distance,  near  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  coming  towards  an  observer,  which  they  often 
do  with  their  wings  outspread, — may  well  be  taken  for  canoes 
upon  the  surface  of  a  smooth  sea ;  when  on  the  sand-banks,  for 

17 


400  GRALLATORES. 

men  and  women  picuing  up  shell-fish,  or  other  things  on  the 
beach." 

The  AFRICAN  GIGANTIC  STORK,  or  CRANE,  C.  marabou,  (see 
Chart,)  resembles  the  Argala,  but  is  not  so  large, — seldom  ex- 
ceeding  five  feet  in  length ;  its  pouch  is  also  much  shorter. 
Another  similar  species  is  found  in  Java.  These  species  furnish 
the  beautiful  plumes,  esteemed  superior  to  those  of  the  Ostrich, 
known  by  the  name  of  marabou  feathers. 

The  JABIRU,  C.  mycteria,  (Gr.  mukter,  a  nostril,  or  proboscis,) 
is  native  to  Senegal,  in  Africa.  In  the  enormous  size  of  the 
beak,  as  also  in  devouring  carrion,  the  Jabiru  resembles  the  Ad 
jutant;  the  greatest  part  of  the  head  and  body  of  this  bird  is  en- 
tirely  bare  ;  the  plumage  of  the  latter  white  ;  its  size  is  somewhat 
larger  than  that  of  the  Swan. 

THIRD  FAMILY.     SPOONBILLS. 
Rostrida,  (Lat.  rostrum,  a  beak.) 

The  Spoonbills  have  many  characters  in  common  with  the 
Herons,  and  are  often  included  with  them.  The  peculiar  form 
of  the  bill  has  gained  for  them  the  name  which  they  bear.  It 
is  very  long,  strong,  and  much  flattened ;  the  point  is  widened 
and  rounded  so  as  to  present  the  form  of  a  spoon.  The  face  and 
head  are  partially,  or  entirely  naked  ;  the  neck  and  feet  are 
long;  the  nostrils  basal  and  linear;  the  toes  are  four;  in  some, 
the  hind  toe  is  very  small,  and  articulated  high  up;  the  feet  are 
partially  webbed  ;  the  wings  are  ample,  moderate  in  length  ;  the 
first  quill  nearly  as  long  as  the  second,  which  is  the  longest  of 
all.  The  Spoonbills  live  in  companies,  in  wooded-marshes,  gen- 
erally  not  far  from  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  are  rarely  seen  on 
the  seashore.  Their  food  consists  of  small  fish,  spawn,  and 
minute  fluviatile  testaceous  mollusks,  reptiles,  and  aquatic  insects. 
According  to  circumstances,  they  build  their  nests  either  in  high 
trees,  in  bushes,  or  among  rushes.  The  young  bird  does  not 
take  the  confirmed  plumage  of  the  adult  until  the  third  year. 
The  crest  makes  its  appearance  at  the  end  of  the  second  year. 
(Temminck.) 

I  The  COMMON  WHITE  SPOONBILL,  Platalea,  (Lat.  Spoonbill,) 
leucorodia,  (Gr.  leukorodon,  a  white  rose,)  is  generally  distributed 
throughout  Europe,  but  is  most  numerous  in  Holland.  It  has  a 
very  full,  long  crest  of  loose  feathers  on  the  back  of  the  head. 
The  length  is  two  feet  and  a  half.  The  old  males  have  a  fine 
white  plumage,  with  a  patch  of  reddish  yellow  on  the  breast. 
This  bird  winters  in  Africa,  and  is  found  as  far  South  as  the 


GRALLATORES.  40 { 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.     Its  flesh,  when  well  fed  and  fat,  is  said 
nearly  to  resemble  in  flavor  that  of  a  goose. 

The  ROSEATE  SPOONBILL,  P.  ajaja,  is  a  beautiful,  though  sin 
gular  bird,  constantly  found  in  Texas  and  South  Florida;  it  is 
seen  as  far  eastward  as  North  Carolina.  The  beak  and  wings 
are  of  a  delicate  rose-color ;  the  lower  parts  of  a  deeper  tint ; 
the  head  is  yellowish  green;  the  neck  white.  The  length  is 
about  thirty-one  inches.  This  Spoonbill  is  usually  fond  of  being 
with  the  Herons,  whose  keen  sight  and  vigilance  apprise  it  of 
danger,  and  allow  it  to  take  flight  in  due  time ;  it  breeds  in  flocks 
on  trees,  low  bushes,  or  cactuses.  The  feathers  of  the  wings 
and  tail  are  manufactured  into  fans  by  the  Indians  and  Negroes 
of  Florida;  and  at  St.  Augustine,  form  an  article  of  trade. 
(Aud.)  The  flesh  is  oily,  and  undesirable  for  eating. 

FOURTH  FAMILY.     IBISES. 
Tantalida,  (Gr.  ravTalog,  Tantalos,  a  proper  name.) 

These  are  birds  which,  in  their  general  habits  and  conforma 
tion,  closely  resemble  the  Storks;  they  chiefly  inhabit  warm 
countries,  but  except  in  very  cold  regions,  they  are  to  be  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  bill  is  very  long,  robust  at  the  base, 
and  curved  at  the  tip  ;  the  face  is  naked  ;  the  throat  dilatable  ;  the 
legs  are  long,  and  have  four  toes ;  the  front  toes  are  webbed  at  their 
base  as  far  as  the  first  joint ;  the  hind  toe  is  very  long,  and  rests 
upon  the  ground.  The  Ibises  frequent  the  borders  of  rivers  and 
lakes,  feeding  on  insects,  worms,  mollusks,  and  occasionally  on 
vegetable  matter.  They  perform  powerful  and  elevated  flights, 
extending  their  neck  and  legs,  and  uttering  a  hoarse  croak.  The 
family  includes  between  twenty  and  thirty  species,  which  are 
distributed  over  the  globe.  Four  of  these  are  found  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States. 

The  GLOSSY  IBIS,  Tantalus  faldnettus,  (Lat.  from  falx,  a 
sickle,)  is  about  two  feet  in  length.  In  the  matured  bird,  the 
neck,  breast,  top  of  the  back,  and  all  the  lower  parts  of  the  body, 
are  of  a  bright  red  chestnut;  the  wing  coverts,  quills,  tail-feath 
ers,  and  the  rest  of  the  back,  of  a  dusky  green,  glossed  with 
bronze  and  purple;  but  the  bird  varies  much  in  its  plumage  at 
different  ages.  This  species  nestles  in  Asia,  and  is  found  on  the 
streams  and  lakes  in  flocks  of  thirty  or  forty.  They  migrate 
periodically  to  Egypt,  and  pass  in  considerable  numbers  into 
Europe.  The  G-lossy  Ibis  is  also  found,  in  the  United  States. 
Audubon  saw  flocks  of  it  in  Texas,  but  it  is  only  a  summer  resi 
dent  there,  associating  with  the  White  Ibis.  Vast  numbers  of 


402  GRALLATORES. 

it  are  seen  in  Mexico.     Cuvier  says,  this,  to  all  appearance,  is  the 
species  which  the  ancients  called  Black  This. 

The  WHITE  or  SACRED  IBIS,  Ibis  religiosa,  (see  Chart.)  is,  per. 
haps,  the  most  celebrated  species.  Arriving  in  Egypt  about  the 
time  that  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  commences,  its  numbers 
increase  or  diminish  with  the  increase  or  diminution  of  its  wa 
ters.  It  migrates  about  the  end  of  June,  at  which  time,  it  is 
first  noticed  in  Ethiopia.  This  species  does  not  collect  in  large 
flocks,  more  than  eight  or  ten  seldom  being  seen  together.  They 
are  about  as  large  as  a  hen;  the  head  and  neck  are  bare;  the 
body  white  ;  the  primaries  of  the  wings  tipped  with  shining, 
ashy  black,  among  which  the  white  forms  oblique  notches;  the 
secondaries  are  bright  black,  glossed  with  green  or  violet; 
the  quill-feathers  of  the  tail,  white.  This,  and  the  preceding 
species,  were  venerated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who  used  to 
rear  them  in  their  temples,  and  after  death,  to  embalm  them. 
Their  mummies  are  found,  to  this  day,  in  the  vast  catacombs  of 
ancient  Memphis.  Herodotus  supposed  that  the  Egyptians  wor 
shipped  the  Ibis  for  services  which  it  rendered  in  freeing  them 
from  winged  serpents.  But  this  is  contradicted  by  the  bird's 
structure  :  its  bill  is  not  fitted  either  to  divide  or  pierce  serpents, 
but  rather  for  dabbling  in  marshes  an.d  moist  grounds.  This 
species  is  found  throughout  the  extent  of  Africa. 

The  WHITE  IBIS,  of  the  American  Continent,  Ibis  alia,  is 
about  two  feet  in  length.  It  is  a  constant  resident  in  South 
Florida,  where  it  abounds,  but  also  breeds  along  the  coast  to 
Texas, — sometimes  inland  as  far  as  Natchez  and  Red  river,  and 
Eastward  to  New  Jersey. 

Audubon  says,  Sandy  Island,  near  Cape  Sable,  in  Florida,  is 
remarkable  for  the  number  of  these  birds  found  there.  He 
counted  forty-seven  nests  in  a  single  palm-tree.  "The  nests  are 
fifteen  inches  in  their  largest  diameter,  formed  of  long  twigs,  in 
termixed  with  fibrous  roots  and  green  branches  of  the  trees 
growing  on  the  island;  the  interior  of  them  is  flat,  being  ^fur. 
nished  with  leaves  of  the  cane  and  some  other  plants."  The 
bird  lays  but  three  eggs,  once  a  year.  Its  flight  is  described  as 
<'  swift  and  long  continued.  Sometimes  it  rises  to  an  immense 
height  in  the  air,  while  it  performs  beautiful  evolutions." 
feeds  on  small  crabs,  slugs,  and  snails  ;  showing  great  ingenuity 
in  procuring  cray-fish ; — breaking  up  the  upper  part  of  the  mud 
which  the  latter  throws  up  in  forming  its  hole,  and  dropping  the 
fragments  into  the  cavity.  The  cray-fish,  burdened  by  the  load 
of  earth^  makes  its  way  to  the  entrance  of  the  burrow,  when  the 


GRALLATORES.  4Q3 

Ibis  immediately  seizes  it  with  its  bill.  This  bird  is  known  in 
Louisiana  by  the  name  of  "Spanish  Curlew." 

The  SCARLET  IBIS,  Ibis  rubra,  is  a  splendid  bird,  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  seen  in  Louisiana  and  the  adjacent  States,  but  in 
the  hottest  portions  of  this  continent,  is  found  in  large  flocks.  This 
bird  flies  rapidly,  but  rarely,  except  at  morning  and  evening,  in 
search  of  food.  The  plumage  is  scarlet;  beak  naked;  part  of 
the  cheeks,  legs  and  feet,  pale  red.  Its  length  is  twenty -nine 
inches. 

The  WOOD  IBIS,  Tantalus  loculat.or,  is  an  extremely  large 
species,  being  forty-four  inches,  with  a  bill  that  is  nine  inches  in 
length.  It  is  found  in  deep  woody  swamps,  (where  it  breeds  on 
trees;)  also  in  fresh  water  lakes.  These  birds,  after  gorging 
themselves  with  their  fishy  or  reptile-food,  taken  in  shallow, 
muddy  streams,  walk  to  the  nearest  margin  and  arrange  them 
selves  in  long  rows,  with  all  their  breasts  turned  towards  the 
sun,  in  the  manner  of  Pelicans  and  Vultures,  and  thus  remain 
for  an  hour  or  more.  In  flying,  their  long  necks  and  legs  are 
stretched  out  to  their  full  extent,  the  pure  white  of  their  plumage 
contrasting  beautifully  with  the  jet  black  of  the  tips  of  the  wings. 
Although  generally  fat,  they  are  unfit  for  food,  their  flesh 
being  tough  and  oily.  They  are  resident  from  Texas  to  North 
Carolina.  Other  species  of  the  Ibis  are  found  in  India,  Mada 
gascar,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  OPEN-BEAKED  BIRDS,  Anastomus,  (Gr.  ana,  through  ; 
stoma,  mouth,)  are  included  by  Svvainson  in  this  family.  The 
generic  name  was  given  to  these  birds  by  Illiger;  that  of  Lace- 
pede,  is  Hians,  (opening  and  gaping.)  They  have  a  straight 
h°ad  and  heavy  bill,  marked  with  wrinkles  running  lengthwise. 
The  upper  mandible  is  very  straight ;  the  base  thickened  at  the 
top,  and  as  high  as  the  crown ;  the  tip  notched ;  the  margin 
dentated;  the  under  mandible  is  greatly  curved  upwards,  only 
touching  the  upper  at  the  base,  and  at  the  tip,  and  thus  leaving 
an  opening  through  or  between  the  two  portions  of  the  bill.  Not 
much  is  known  respecting  the  economy  of  these  birds,  and  hence 
it  is  not  easy  to  explain  the  purpose  of  the  unique  structure 
shown  in  the  beak.  Cuvier  places  the  genus  Tantalus  between 
these  birds  and  the  Spoonbills,  (Platalea.) 

FIFTH  FAMILY.     SNIPES. 
Scolopacidce,  (Gr.  crxokdnas,  scolopax,  a  snipe.) 

The  most  prominent  characteristic  of  this  family,  is  the  extreme 
length  and  slenderness  of  the  beak.  This  is  covered  with  a  soft 


404  GRALLATORES. 

skin,  which  is  extremely  sensitive ;  and  the  organ  is  much  used 
in  probing  the  soft  mud  or  earth  for  the  capture  of  minute  in 
sects.  The  hind  toe  is  pointed  on  the  tarsus  above  the  level  of 
the  fore  toes,  and  so  short  as  to  be  unable  to  reach  the  ground  ; 
in  some  of  the  family,  it  is  wanting.  The  Snipes  have  mode 
rately  long  feet  and  necks  ;  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed  ;  and 
their  flight  swift  and  well  sustained  ;  the  tail  is  short  and  even  ; 
the  front  toes  are  frequently  united  by  a  membrane,  more  or  less 
large.  The  plumage  is  of  subdued  and  varied  shades;  black, 
white,  and  red  being  intermingled  and  contrasted  ;  sometimes, 
the  prevalent  hue  is  a  grayish  olive.  The  flesh  of  these  birds  is 
held  in  high  esteem.  They  frequent  marshes,  the  banks  of  lakes 
and  rivers,  or  the  sea-coast,  on  which  they  run  with  great  swift 
ness.  With  considerable  powers  of  flight,  they  have  also  the 
faculty,  in  part,  both  of  swimming  and  diving.  The  females  are 
usually  larger  than  the  males.  They  lay  four  eggs,  with  but 
little  nest,  on  the  ground,  of  inland  moors  or  fens.  The  young, 
when  they  escape  from  the  shell,  are  clothed  with  down,  and 
immediately  begin  to  run  about.  The  Snipes  are  widely  distrib 
uted,  and  more  or  less  migratory  in  their  habits. 

Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  divides  them  into  six  sub-families,  viz : 
(1)  Numenina,  of  which  Numenius,  (Curlew,)  is  the  typical 
genus;  (2)  Totanina,  typ.  gen.  Totanus,  Tatler.  Sand  Lark,  or 
Willet;  (3)  Recurvirostrince,  typ.  gen.  Recurvirostra,  Avoset;) 
(4)  Tringiruf,  typ.  gen.  Tringa,  Sand-piper;  (5)  Scolopacirtce, 
Scolopax,  Common  Snipe;  (6)  St.repsilince,  Strepsilas,  (included 
by  others  in  the  Charadriada,  or  Plovers,  which  see  ;)  (7)  Phal- 
aropodince,  Phalaropus,  Phalaropes.  Of  these,  he  enumerates 
thirty-four  British  species.  De  Kay  (1843)  says,  this  family 
contains,  at  present,  upwards  of  one  hundred  species,  distributed 
over  the  globe ;  of  these,  about  twenty-eight,  (according  to  Au- 
dubon,  thirty-two,)  are  in  the  United  States. 

CURLEWS. 

The  LONG-BILLED  CURLEW,  Numenius  longirostris,  is  the 
largest  of  the  genus  found  in  North  America. — known  to  sports 
men  under  the  names  of  Big  Curlew,  and  Sickle-bill.  Its  length 
is  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-seven  inches;  the  color  is  blackish 
brown  above,  with  spots  of  a  red  hue  beneath.  The  great  length 
of  the  bill,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  6,)  (seven  to  nine  inches,)  distinguishes 
it  from  every  other  species.  The  Curlew  forms  a  small  nest  for 
its  young  on  the  ground.  The  day,  the  Curlew  spends  in  the 
sea  marshes,  but  resorts  at  night  to  the  sandy  beaches  of  the  sea 
shore.  The  number  collected  at  their  nightly  retreat,  it  is  said, 


GRALLATORES.  453 

sometimes  amounts  to  several  thousands.  The  food  of  theso 
birds  consists  chiefly  of  the  small  crabs,  called  "fiddlers;"  they 
are  also  fond  of  small  salt-water  shell  fish ;  and  thrust  out  the 
bill  to  its  full  length  into  the  wet  sand  in  search  of  sea-worms 
and  insects.  The  Long-billed  Curlew  resides  in  Texas  and  on 
the  Islands  of  South  Carolina;  but  wanders  North  along  the 
coast,  and  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  interior.  Dr.  Kirtland 
observed  it  in  Ohio ;  others  have  seen  it  in  Kentucky  and  Mis 
souri. 

Smaller  species  are  the  JACK  CURLEW,  or  Short-billed  Curlew, 
N.  Hudsonicus,  closely  allied  to  the  Whimbrel,  of  Europe ;  it 
breeds  in  the  Northern  regions.  This  species,  in  addition  to  the 
food  of  the  preceding  species,  makes  use  of  berries.  Its  length 
is  sixteen  inches. 

The  SMALL  ESQUIMAUX  CURLEW,  IV.  borealis,  is  known  under 
the  names  of  Little  Curlew,  and  Dough-Bird,  and  much  esteemed 
by  epicures.  Its  length  is  fifteen  inches.  Nuttall  says  it  ranges 
from  Paraguay  to  the  70o  N.  L. 

TATTLERS. 

The  TELL-TALE  TATTLER,  Totanus  vociferus,  receives  its  name 
from  its  frequent  cries,  uttered'  quite  as  much  for  its  own  sake, 
as  tc  give  warning  to  others.  It  ranges  widely  over  the  United 
States,  and  is  found  at  all  seasons.  In  Maine  and  New  Bruns 
wick,  it  is  called  "Humility," — a  name  that  does  not  seem  to 
agree  with  its  ''vociferous  habits."  These  birds  "congregate  in 
great  numbers  in  the  inland  marshes  of  Florida,  and  along  its 
rivers,  during  the  winter."  Though  found  near  both  salt  and 
fresh  water,  they  seem  to  prefer  the  latter,  selecting  ponds  of 
which  the  water  is  shallow,  and  the  shores  muddy,  affording 
places  where  they  can  walk  and  wade  with  ease.  In  the  West- 
ern  country,  it  is  called  the  "Great  Yellow-Shank."  The  upper 
parts  are  generally  black,  glossed  with  green,  each  feather  mar 
gined  with  white  triangular  spots;  the  throat,  breast  and  abdo 
men,  are  pure  white.  Length  about  fourteen  inches. 

The  SPOTTED  SAND-LARK,  T.  macularius,  is  a  familiar  bird,  of 
a  glossy  olive  brown  color,  with  blackish  waves, — found  through 
out  the  Union  in  small  families,  along  almost  every  stream,  and 
the  borders  of  ponds  and  lakes.  In  allusion  to  its  notes,  it  has 
the  common  name  of  Peet-weet ;  from  its  repeated  grotesque, 
jerking  motions,  it  is  called  Teeter,  and  Tiltup.  It  feeds  on 
insects  and  worms;  breeds  in  New  York  and' farther  North. 
Occasionally  it  is  found  in  Europe.  The  length  is  eight  inches. 

The  GRAVT  PLOVER,  T.  Bartramius,  is  twelve  inches  in  length, 


408  GRALLATORES. 

and  is  much  esteemed  for  game,  but  shy,  and  not  easily  obtained 
by  sportsmen.  It  is  described  as  Bartrcmi's  Tattler  and  Sand 
Piper;  among  its  common  names,  are  GRASS-PLOVER  and  FIELD- 
PLOVER.  This  bird  is  not  found  on  the  coast, — its  bill  is  very 
short,  scarcely  longer  than  the  head.  In  July  and  August,  it  is 
seen  in  large  flocks  on  its  way  South.  It  is  fond  of  grass-hoppers. 

AVOSETS. 

The  AVOSET,  Recurvirostra,  (Lat.  up-turned  bill,)  Americana, 
(see  Chart,)  is,  from  its  "  perpetual  clamor  and  flippancy  of 
tongue,  called  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cape  May,  the  Lawyer; 
the  comparison,  however,  reaches  no  further;  for  our  Lawyer  is 
simple,  timid,  and  perfectly  inoffensive."  Wilson.  The  back 
and  under  parts,  are  white  ;  the  wings  brownish  black,  with  a 
broad  band  of  white.  The  bill  is  more  than  twice  the  length  of 
the  head,  very  slender,  tapering  to  a  point,  and  somewhat  re 
curved,  or  upturned,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  4;)  the  legs  are  very  long 
and  slender.  This  bird  builds  its  nest  among  the  tallest  grass. 
The  eggs,  like  those  of  other  Waders,  are  four  in  number,  pear- 
shaped,  of  a  dull  olive  color,  with  blotches  of  black.  Like  the 
Roseate  Spoon-bill,  it  moves  its  head  "to  and  fro  sideways," 
while  it  is  passing  its  bill  through  the  soft  mud  in  search  of 
insects;  in  deeper  water,  it  immerses  the  entire  head  and  a  part 
of  the  neck,  after  the  manner  of  the  Spoon-bill  and  Red-breasted 
Snipe.  The  notes  of  this  bird  resemble  the  syllable  click. 
Length  eighteen  inches.  The  Avoset  ranges  from  Texas  north 
ward,  and  is  abundant  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Fur 
countries.  In  New  Jersey,  where  it  breeds,  it  is,  from  the  color 
of  its  legs,  called  Blue- Stocking.  The  food  varies  with  its  place 
of  resort,  consisting  of  insects,  crabs,  fishes,  marine  worms,  and 
small  mollusks. 

The  BLACK-NECKED  STILT,  Himantopus,  (Gr.  himas,  a  thong  ; 
pous,  a  foot,)  nigricollis,  (Lat.  black-necked,)  has  white  plum 
age  with  the  head,  neck,  back,  and  wings,  above,  black.  To 
this  bird  is  assigned  the  name  of  LAWYER,  (N.  H.  S.,  N.  Y.,) 
it  is  also  called 'Tilt  and  Longshanks.  (See  Chart.)  It  is  a 
rare  species;  but  ranges  from  the  Equator  to  the  41o  N.  L. 
Its  length  is  about  fourteen  inches. 

NOTE.— Dr.  DeKay  (see  N.  H.  S.  N.  Y.)  has  arranged  the  species  of  the 
two  preceding  genera  into  a  separate  family,  Rccurvirostrida. 

The  KNOT,  or  RED-BREASTED  SANDPIPER,  Tringa  cinerea, 
(Nutt.,)  T.  canul.us,  (Linn.,)  has  a  slender,  straight  bill,  rather 
longer  than  the  head  ;  the  toes  have  a  narrow  membrane.  This 


GRALLATORES.  407 

bird  varies  much  in  its  plumage,  and  has,  therefore,  received 
different  names.  It  is  common  to  Europe  and  America;  rang 
ing  in  the  latter,  from  the  tropics  to  Labrador,  and  breeding  in 
the  Fur  countries  to  a  high  latitude.  The  Knot  is  seen  on  the 
shores  of  New  York  in  May,  and  is  called  by  sportsmen,  the 
Robin  Snipe.  From  August  to  October,  it  migrates  Southward 
in  large  flocks,  when,  in  place  of  the  red  feathers,  it  has  a  white 
plumage,  spotted  with  dusky,  ash-colored  above;  it  is  then  called 
White^Robin  Snipe,  and  Gray-back.  Its  length  is  ten  inches. 

WILSON'S  SANDPIPER,  T.  pusilla,  or  the  Little  Sandpiper, 
(Plate  X.  fig.  8c,)  is  about  four  inches  long,  with  a  slender, 
dusky  green  tapering  bill,  and  short  neck ;  the  tail  is  doubly 
emarginate.  In  summer,  it  is  blackish  and  rufous ;  beneath  white ; 
in  winter,  ash ;  beneath,  whitish,  spotted  with  dusky.  It  is 
known  as  the  Peep,  so  named  from  its  usual  note ;  and  as  the 
Ox-eye,  from  the  size  and  brilliancy  of  its  eye.  This  species 
pervades  North  America  from  Mexico  to  680  N.  L.,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  abundant  of  the  group,  being  found  in  the  interior  as 
well  as  on  the  sea-coast. 

The  SANDERLING,  Calidris  arenaria,  or  T.  arenaria,  has  a 
straight  bill,  shorter  than  the  head  ;  thin  in  the  middle,  and 
widened  towards  the  tip  ;  the  tail  is  short,  the  middle  and  outer 
feathers  the  longest;  the  toes  have*  a  warty  membrane  on  each 
side.  They  are  three  in  number,  while  the  preceding  genus  has 
four.  The  female  is  larger  than  the  male,  being  about  seven 
inches  long.  The  plumage  above  is  bluish  in  summer,  but  light 
ash  in  winter  ;  in  both  sexes,  it  varies  quite  as  much  as  in  the 
Turnstones,  (Strepsilas.)  In  flying,  these  birds  have  fewer  evo 
lutions  than  the  Sandpipers.  They  afford  good  eating,  especially 
when  young.  In  autumn,  they  are  very  fat,  and  highly  relished 
by  epicures.  They  are  said  to  occur  all  over  the  globe. 

The  RUFF,  of  the  Old  World,  (female  REEVE,)  machetes,  (Gr. 
a  fighter, )pugnax,  (Lat.  combative,)  the  Combattantofihe  French, 
has  a  long  and  slender  bill ;  legs  very  long,  slender,  and  naked 
high  above  the  tarsal  joint;  three  toes  before,  and  one  (short) 
behind;  the  tail  is  rounded.  The  hues  of  the  plumage  are  so 
variable,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  find  any  two  that  perfectly 
resemble  each  other ;  but  the  prevailing  ground  color  is  brown, 
inclining  to  ash,  with  lateral,  and  under  covers,  white ;  in  the 
autumn  or  winter,  the  plumage  is  more  spotted,  particularly  in 
the  under  part,  and  a  bunch  of  feathers  or  ruff  appears  on  each 
side  of  the  head  in  the  male.  The  females,  which  are  called 
Reeves,  are  smaller  than  the  males,  and  have  no  ruff.  The 
food  of  these  birds  consists  of  worms  and  insects,  which  they  pick 


403  GRALLATORES. 

up  in  marshy  places ;  in  captivity,  they  are  fed  with  bread  and 
milk,  or  boiled  wheat.  They  have  sometimes  been  caught  in 
nets,  being  decoyed  by  stuffed  birds  of  their  species.  The  Ruff 
is  a  very  pugnacious  bird ;  it  weighs  seven  ounces,  and  is  a  foot 
in  length. 

\  PHALAROPES. 

The  RED  PHALAROPE,  Phalaropus,  (Gr.  phalaros,  bald  or 
naked  ;  pous,  foot,)  fuhcarius,  (Lat.  from  fulica,  coot.)  has  a 
long,  slender,  weak,  and  strait  bill,  both  mandibles  furrowed  to 
the  point,  and  the  end  of  the  upper  curved  over  the  lower  one  ; 
the  front  toes  are  united  up  to  the  first  joint;  the  others  with  fes 
tooned  or  iobated  membranes,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  25.)  toothed  on  the 
edges;  the  hind  toe  without  a  membrane.  The  Red  Phalarope 
is  found  in  flocks  in  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio,  and  during  autumn, 
is  often  seen  at  sea,  as  far  as  Newfoundland.  It  breeds  in  hi^h 
northern  latitudes,  as  far  as  Melville  Peninsula.  The  route  of 
this  species  towards  the  warmer  regions,  is  along  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  length  is  seven  and  a  half  inches.  These  birds  are 
said  to  breed  in  great  numbers  far  North;  their  flight  is  rapid, 
resembling  that  of  the  Red-backed  Sandpiper ;  sometimes  they 
skim  over  the  water,  when  they  increase  their,  distance  from 
each  other.  They  feed  chiefly  on  insects  and  crustaceans,  which 
live  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  HYBERBOREAN  PHALAROPE,  or  LOBEFOOT,  Lolipes  Jiyper- 
fioreus,  procures  its  food  principally  upon  the  water,  on  which 
"they  alight  like  Ducks,  float  as  light  as  Gulls,  and  move  about 
in  search  of  food  with  much  nimbleness."  Length  six  inches. 

MARLINS  or  GODWITS. 

The  MARLIN  or  GREAT  MARBLED  GODWIT,  Limosa  fedoa,  has 
a  recurved  and  tapering  bill  of  great  length,  and  long  and  slender 
legs;  the  tibia  is  bare  for  about  one-third  of  its  length;  the  toes 
are  four  in  number;  the  hind  one  small,  and  touching  the  ground 
at  the  tip, — the  plumage  above  is  dark  brown,  varied  with  red 
and  gray;  below,  pale  reddish  brown  or  buff,  with  small  dusky 
spots  on  the  neck.  The  length  is  from  about  sixteen  to  nine 
teen  inches;  the  female  is  considerably  the  larger. 

This  is  a  very  shy  and  vigilant  bird,  moving  in  large  flocks, 
with  irregular  and  rather  quick  flight,  though  Jess  rapid  than  the 
Curlews.  The  flesh  is  tender  and  much  esteemed.  It  is  some 
times  called  the  Red  Curlew,  the  Strait-billed  Curlew,  and  Dough- 
bird.  The  Marlins  move  along  the  coast  in  immense  flocks,  as 
far  as  Massachusetts,  (reaching  New  York  in  May,)  and  are 


GRALLATORES.  409 

supposed  to  cross  the  land  to  Saskatchewan,  where  they  breed. 
(Aud.)  They  return  from  the  North  in  August,  remaining  in 
New  York  until  their  removal,  in  November,  to  their  wintering 
places  South  of  the  United  States.  They  feed  on  aquatic  in- 
sects,  leeches,  small  marine  mollusks,  crabs  and  worms. 

The  RING-TAILED  MARLIN,  Limosa  Hudsonica,  called  in  Bos 
ton,  the  Goose-bird,  is  sixteen  inches  long,  and  breeds  in  high 
northern  latitudes. 

The  SNIPE,  or  WOODCOCK,  Scolopax, — common  species,  S. 
Wilsonii,  Wilson's  Snipe,  is  about  eleven  inches  long,  and  much 
sought  by  the  younger  gunners,  and  sometimes,  by  the  keenest 
sportsmen.  Its  summer  range  is  considerably  beyond  the  north- 
era  boundary  of  the  United  States.  It  resembles  the  Common 
Snipe,  of  Europe,  S.gallinago,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Eng 
lish  Snipe,  but  is,  in  fact,  a  different  species.  It  breeds  from 
Virginia  northward, — it  does  so  abundantly  in  New  York.  It 
resides  in  Kentucky  and  the  Southern  States,  during  the  winter. 
In  flying  early  in  the  spring,  it  soars  high  in  the  air,  making  a 
remarkable  booming  sound  ;  its  notes  are  said  to  differ  from  those 
of  the  Common  Snipe,  of  Europe.  It  is  fond  of  marshy,  swampy 
places,  and  selects  such  for  breeding.  On  the  back,  the  brown 
ish  black  feathers  are  edged  with  cream  color,  and  barred 
minutely  with  reddish  brown ;  the  throat  and  breast  are  buff, 
spotted  with  brown  and  gray. 

The  GREAT  SNIPE,  of  Europe,  S.  major,  has  a  tail  composed 
of  sixteen  feathers, — (the  normal  number  is  fourteen.)  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  in  noticing  the  breeding  of  this  species  in  the 
great  royal  decoy,  near  Hanover,  says  that  they  require  solitude 
and  perfect  quiet,  and  their  food  being  peculiar,  they  need  a 
great  extent  of  marshy  meadow.  They  feed  on  the  larvse  of 
Tipula,  (Father  Longlegs.)  or  kindred  flies,  and,  according  to 
the  same  author,  their  stomach  is  the  thinnest  among  the  tribe 
of  Snipes.  The  nest  of  the  Great  Snipe,  like  that  of  the  Common 
Snipe,  is  usually  placed  on  the  borders  of  a  swamp,  and  on  a 
tuft  of  grass,  or  a  bunch  of  rushes, — often  it  is  found  near  wil 
low-bushes.  The  eggs  are  three  or  four,  yellowish  olive  brown, 
with  great  spots  of  reddish  brown.  Two  other  Snipes,  accord 
ing  to  Mr.  Gould,  exceed  this  in  size,— one  found  in  the  hilly 
districts  of  India,  the  other  in  Mexico. 

The  AMERICAN  WOODCOCK,  Rusticola  minor,  was  separated 
by  Nuttall  from  the  genus  Scolopax.  It  has  a  straight  and 
knobbed  bill,  slightly  drooping  at  the  tip. 


41U 


SIXTH  FAMILY.     BUSTARDS. 
Otida,  (Gr.  CUT}?,  otis,  a  bustard.) 

The  proper  position  of  these  birds  has  been  a  disputed  point 
among  Ornithologists.  Temminck  ranks  them  with  the  RUN 
NERS,  (Cursores,)  and  includes  them  with  the  Ostrich  family. 
M.  Vigors  also  places  them  among  the  same  birds  ;  but  in  loca 
ting  them  on  the  Chart,  we  have  followed  Cuvier  and  others,  who 
have  included  them  among  the  Stilt-birds. 

The  Bustards  are  comprehended  in  one  genus,  Otis.  The 
bill  in  these  birds,  is  of  the  length  of  the  head,  or  shorter, 
straight,  conical,  and  slightly  depressed  at.  the  base;  the  point  of 
the  upper  mandible  is  a  little  auched  ;  the  feet  are  long,  and 
naked  above  the  knee,  with  three  toes  in  front,  short,  united  at 
their  base,  and  bordered  by  membranes  ;  the  wintis  are  of  mod 
erate  size,  the  third  quill  longest  in  each  wing.  The  chin  feath 
ers  and  moustaches,  (seen  in  the  male  bird  )  are  composed  of 
long  wiry-  feathers,  and  the  barbs  disunited  and  short  ;  the 
scapulars  are  of  a  buff  orange  color,  barred,  and  spotted  with 
black  ;  the  back  and  tail  coverts,  reddish  orange,  barred,  and 
variegated  with  black  ;  the  greater  coverts,  and  some  of  the 
secondaries,  are  bluish  gray  ;  the  sides  of  the  neck  white,  tinged 
with  gray  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  is  fine  reddish  orange  ; 
the  under  parts  white.  This  description  of  plumage  applies  to 
the  Great  Bustard,  O.  tarda.  The  male  bird  of  this  species,  is 
about  four  feet  long,  and  nine  feet  in  the  expansion  of  the  wings, 
being  (except  the  Lammergeyer,)  the  largest  of  the  European 
birds.  Its  weight  is,  on  an  average,  twenty-five  pounds.  The 
female  is  not  more  than  half  the  size  of  the  male.  This  bird 
is  noted  for  its  shyness,  and  its  power  of  running  ;  the  young 
birds  have  sometimes  been  run  with  greyhounds.  And  yet,  in 
its  wild  state,  unlike  the  Ostrich,  the  Great  Bustard,  upon  being 
disturbed,  rises  easily  upon  the  wing,  and  "flies  with  much 
strength  and  swiftness,  usually  to  another  haunt,  sometimes  to 
the  distance  of  six  or  seven  miles."  It  was  formerly  said,  this 
bird  "has  a  pouch  in  the  fore  part  of  the  neck,  capable  of  con 
taining  nearly  two  quarts,"  —  but  Mr.  Yarrell,  in  dissecting  a 
male  Bustard,  "  failed  to  detect  this  organ."  This  Bustard  is 
common  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  but  is  becoming  very  rare  in 
England.  It  feeds  upon  corn,  seeds  of  herbs,  colewort,  dande. 
lion  leaves,  &c.,  and  also  upon  insects  and  worms.  Turnip-tops 
are  said  to  be  peculiarly  agreeable.  The  eggs  of  the  Bustard 
are  two  in  number,  generally,  sometimes  three,  laid  upon  the 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSIT 

GRALLATORES.\ 


bare  ground,  a  little  hollowed  out  for  the  purpose,  either  among 
clover,  or,  more  frequently,  in  cornfields.  The  flesh  is  highly 
esteemed  for  food  ;  it  is  dark  in  color,  and  short  in  fibre,  but 
sweet  and  well-flavored. 

The  LITTLE  BUSTARD,  O.  tetrax,  is  another  smaller  species, 
found  in  Europe  and  Africa. 

The  BLACK-HEADED  BUSTARD,  O.nigriceps,  is  a  native  of  Asia, 
verging  towards  five  feet  in  length,  and  having  a  crested  head. 
It  is  found  in  large  flocks  in  the  open  country  of  the  Mahrattas, 
as  well  as  in  the  highlands  of  the  Himalaya.  Its  flesh  is  con 
sidered  a  very  great  delicacy. 

The  AFRICAN  BUSTARD,  O.  Denhami,  is  a  magnificent  species, 
which  was  discovered  by  Mr.Denham  in  Africa,  near  the  larger 
towns.  It  frequented  moist  places  where  the  herbage  was  pure 
and  fresh,  and  almost  always  appeared  singly.  This  bird  was 
ever  found  in  company  with  the  Gazelles;  "whenever  a  Bus- 
tard  was  observed,  it  was  certain  that  the  Gazelles  were  not  far 
distant."  The  eye  is  said  to  be  large  and  brilliant;  the  Arabs 
"are  accustomed  to  compare  the  eyes  of  their  most  beautiful 
women  to  those  of  the  OUBARA,"  —  the  general  name  for  the  Bus 
tards  in  Africa. 

The  KORI  BUSTARD,  O.  Kori,  is  a  species  discovered  by  Mr. 
Burchell  in  South  Africa,  —  the  most  gigantic  of  the  family,  — 
standing  upwards  of  five  feet  high.  Mr.  B.  says,  "its  body  was 
so  thickly  protected  by  feathers,  that  our  largest  sized  shot  made 
no  impression,  and,  taught  by  experience,  the  hunters  never  fire 
at  it  except  with  a  bullet." 

The  AGAMI,  or  GOLD-BREASTED  TRUMPETER,  PsopJiia^  (Gr. 
psopheo,  to  make  a  noise,)  crepitans,  is  an  interesting  bird,  de 
riving  its  name  from  the  peculiar  noise  which  it  makes  without 
opening  its  bill.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  Pheasant  or  large 
Fowl,  being  twenty-two  inches  in  length  ;  has  long  legs,  and  a 
long  neck,,  but  a  very  short  tail,  consisting  of  twelve  black  feath 
ers,  over  which  the  rump-plumes  hang  droopingly.  It  inhabits 
the  forests  of  South  America,  where  it  is  found  in  numerous 
flocks;  it  is  a  swift  runner,  and  when  pursued,  trusts  more  to 
its  legs  than  its  wings.  When  domesticated,  it  shows  great  fond 
ness  and  fidelity  ;  and  is  so  regardful  of  its  owner's  interests, 
that  it  attacks  the  dogs  and  other  animals  that  venture  near  him. 
Sometimes  it  is  used  to  protect  domestic  poultry  from  the  onsets 
of  birds  of  prey. 


GRALLATORES. 


SEVENTH  FAMILY.     RAILS. 
Rallida,  (Genus,  rallus,  a  rail.) 

The  RAILS  are  separated  from  the  other  families  of  this  order 
by  the  shape  of  the  body,  (Plate  X.  fig.  8b,)  which  is  compressed 
arid  flattened  at  the  sides,  in  consequence  of  the  narrowness^of 
the  sternum.  The  compressed  and  keel-like  form  assists  their 
motion  in  the  water,  and  as  M.  Vigors  remarks,  "  is  intended  to 
counterbalance  the  deficiency  in  the  formation  of  the  foot,  which 
separates  them  from  the  truer  and  more  perfectly  formed  water- 
birds."  It  is  certain  that  the  greater  portion  of  these  birds  are 
excellent  swimmers  ;  and  in  such  habits,  as  well  as  in  the  short 
ness  of  their  tarsi,  they  are  found  to  deviate  from  all  the  remain 
ing  groups  of  the  present  order. 

The  Rails  have  been  designated  by  that  name  on  account  of 
their  peculiarly  harsh  notes.  They  differ  from  the  Sand-pipers 
and  Plovers  in  the  great  size  of  the  leg,  and  the  length  of  the 
toes.  Svvainson  speaks  of  the  structure  of  their  bodies  as  spe 
cially  adapted  to  the  tangled  recesses  in  which  they  live,  consist 
ing  of  reeds  and  aquatic  vegetables,  which  clothe  the  sides  of 
rivers  and  morasses.  Their  flesh  is  delicate,  and  from  living 
chiefly  upon  aquatic  seeds  and  vegetable  aliment,  they  may  be 
regarded  as  aquatic  Gallinacece.  Many  of  them  build  nests  of 
accumulated  materials,  and  lay  a  great  number  of  eggs.  The 
length  of  the  toes  enables  these  birds  to  walk,  without  sinking, 
on  aquatic  herbage,  or  in  the  soft  mud  of  morasses.  Although 
their  feet  are  not  webbed,  they  swim  and  dive  with  a  facility  un 
surpassed  by  that  of  any  of  the  ducks.  The  sternum  is  narrow  ; 
wings  short  and  sustained  by  feeble  muscles  ;  hence,  the  flight  is 
but  for  short  distances,  and  is  slow  and  heavy  ;  while  on  the 
ground,  whether  among  the  reeds  or  tall  grass  of  the  meadow, 
they  thread  their  way  with  surprising  ease  and  celerity. 

Among  the  well  known  species  is  the  COMMON  GALLINULE,  or 
WATER-HEN,  Gallinula  chloropus,  (Gr.  chloros,  green  ;  pous,  a 
foot.)  This  bird  swims  in  the  open  water  of  rivers  and  ponds, 
and  with  much  grace  and  swiftness,  constantly  nodding  its  head  ; 
it  also  dives  with  great  skill  and  rapidity.  It  is  shy  and  easily 
alarmed,  in  which  case  it  dives  under  floating  herbage,  and  re 
mains  with  its  beak  above  water  until  the  danger  is  over.  On 
account  of  this  habit,  it  is  impossible  to  take  it  unless  accompa 
nied  by  a  dog.  The  nest  of  the  Water-hen  is  built  among 
sedges  and  reeds  near  the  water,  and  contains  from  five  to  nine 
eggs,  of  a  cream  color  spotted  with  brown.  These  birds  show 


GRALLATORES.  413 

great  sagacity  in  protecting  their  young,  as  the  latter  do  in  obey 
ing  the  monitory  signals' of  their  watchful  parents.  The  young 
have  their  legs  and  feet  of  their  full  size  even  while  the  feathers 
are  only  beginning  to  appear,  showing  how  the  organs  of  flight 
are  subordinate  to  those  of  walking  and  swimming.  The  female 
has,  contrary  to  the  usual  rule,  a  richer  plumage  than  the  male. 
The  pike  is  the  chief  enemy  of  the  Water-hens,  and  destroys 
many  by  darting  at  them  from  under  the  cover  of  water-lilies  or 
other  plants. 

Other  species  are  (1)  the  SALT  WATER  MEADOW  HEN,  RaUus 
crepitans,  fourteen  inches  long,  sometimes  called  the  Clapper 
Rail,  or  Mud  Hen,  which  is  seen  in  New  York  the  last  of  April, 
leaves  for  the  South  in  October,  and  during  the  season  is  very 
abundant.  It  lays  from  eight  to  fifteen  whitish  eggs  with  reddish 
spots,  which  are  highly  valued  and  much  sought  for ;  (2)  the  FRESH 
WATER  MEADOW  HEN,  or  Great  Red-Breasted  Rail,  R.  elegans, 
a  rare  species  eighteen  inches  in  length  ;  (3)  the  MUD  HEN,  or  Vir 
ginia  Rail,  R.  Virginianus,  (Plate  X.  fig.  8b.)  length  ten  inches; 
(4)  the  SORA  RAIL,  Ortygometra,  (Gr.  migrating  with  the  quails,) 
Carolina,  the  same  as  the  English  Rail,  or  Coot,  O.  krex,  (Gr. 
krex,  a  name  derived  from  its  cry,)  and  the  species  of  the  South 
ern  States  ;  numerous  in  New  Jersey,  and  ranging  to  the  62o  N. 
L. ;  length  nine  inches ;  (5)  the  NEW  YORK  RAIL,  O.  Noveboracen- 
sis ;  length  five  and  one-half  inches  ;  a  shy  bird,  and  not  seen 
in  flocks  like  the  preceding  species  ;  feeding  on  seeds  and  aquatic 
insects;  breeding  extensively  throughout  the  United  States;  (6) 
the  FLORIDA  GALLINULE,  Gallinula galeata,  (Lat.  helmeted,)  four 
teen  inches  in  length,  closely  allied  to  the  European  species,  G. 
chloropus,  (referred  to  above,)  and  ranging  from  Mexico  to  Mas 
sachusetts. 

SUB-FAMILY.     FLAMINGOES. 
Phoenicoptin&i  (Gr.  (poivixdnTegog,   phoinikopteros,  red-winged.) 

These  birds  are  included  in  one  genus,  P/wenicopterus.  Their 
proper  position  has  been  a  matter  of  considerable  doubt.  Swain- 
son  places  them  with  the  Ducks,  among  the  Swimmers,  though 
he  remarks :  "  The  Flamingo,  which  has  the  longest  legs  in  the 
Natatorial  order,  is  so  good  a  walker  that  it  only  swims  occa 
sionally."  We  give  them  a  place  among  the  "Grallatores,  to 
which  order  they  have  more  commonly  been  assigned,  but  im 
mediately  before  the  Swimmers.  The  genus  Plwenicopterus  has 
the  bill  strong,  higher  than  it  is  large,  toothed  and  conical  to 
wards  the  point ;  the  upper  mandible  is  suddenly  bent,  curved 


414  GRALLATORES. 

at  its  point  on  the  lower  mandible,  which  is  larger  than  the  up- 
per  ;  the  legs  are  of  excessive  length  ;  the  feet  also  very  long, 
three  toes  in  front,  hind  one  very  short  and  articulated  high  up 
on  the  tarsus ;  the  wings  moderate  ;  first  and  second  quills 
longest. 

The  EUROPEAN  FLAMINGO,  P.  ruber,  is  found  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  Europe,  but  is  common  in  Asia,  and  the  coasts  of  Af 
rica.  The  beak  is  evidently  adapted  to  its  long  and  flexible  neck. 
When  this  bird  wishes  to  feed,  it  merely  stoops  its  head  to  the 
water ;  the  upper  mandible  is  then  lowest,  and  as  is  the  case 
with  the  Duck,  the  edges  of  the  beak  filter  what  is  received. 
Pestilent  marshy  places,  which  urge  man  to  a  distance,  are 
boldly  and  safely  frequented  by  this  bird.  Its  plumage  is  a  deep 
brilliant  scarlet,  except  the  quill  feathers,  which  are  black.  Ar 
ranged  in  a  line,  these  birds  appear  like  a  file  of  soldiers  ;  but 
the  miasma  of  the  regions  in  which  they  dwell,  is  more  deadly 
than  the  rifle,  and  its  breath  more  surely  fatal  than  the  ball  of 
the  cannon.  The  nest  of  the  Flamingo  is  a  conical  structure  of 
mud,  with  an  opening  on  the  summit,  in  which  are  placed  two 
or  three  dusky  white  eggs,  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  a 
goose.  The  nest  is  so  high  as  to  permit  the  bird  to  sit,  or  rather 
stand,  her  long  legs  hanging  down  on  each  side  at  full  length. 
The  height  of  this  bird  is  five  or  six  feet,  (see  fig.  on  Chart.) 
The  flesh  is  said  to  be  pretty  good  meat ;  the  young  are  thought 
by  some  equal  to  a  partridge.  Juvenal,  in  his  Satires,  notes  the 
Flamingo,  (Phoenicopterus  ingens.)  as  among  the  luxuries  of  the 
table;  the  brains  and  the  tongue  formed  one  of  the  favorite 
dishes  of  Heliogabalus.  By  some,  however,  the  flesh  is  thrown 
away  as  fishy,  while  the  feathers  are  used  to  ornament  other 
birds  served  up  at  special  entertainments. 

The  American  species,  P.  ruber,  or  P,  cliilensis,  scarcely  dif 
fers  from  the  European.  It  is  remarked  that  "the  development 
of  the  gizzard  in  this  genus  makes  it  very  probable  that  vegeta 
ble  substances  form  part  of  the  diet  of  the  Flamingo ;  but  it  is 
not  likely  that  large  fish,  or  indeed  water  animals  of  any  great 
size,  are  ordinarily  devoured  by  these  birds.  The  bill  is  a  col 
ander,  admirably  contrived  for  separating  the  nutritious  portions 
whether  animal  or  vegetable,  from  the  mud  and  other  useless 
parts."  The  Red  Flamingo  is  found  in  the  warmer  regions  of 
North  America.  C.  L.  Bonaparte  says  it  is  very  rare  and  acci. 
dental  in  the  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia.  In  South  America 
and  the  West  India  Islands  it  is  also  found.  It  is  particularly 
abundant  in  the  Bahamas,  where  it  breeds. 


GRALLATORES.  415 

What  is  the  1st  order  of  AQUATIC  BIRDS?  To  what  birds  are  they  inter 
mediate  ?  Mention  their  distinguishing  characteristics.  What  is  peculiar 
in  their  flying  ?  What  power  do  they  possess  ?  Where  and  how  do  they 
build  their  nests,  &c.  ?  What  FAMILY  does  the  order  include  ?  How  are 
the  PLOVERS  distinguished  ?  What  use  do  they  make  of  their  beaks  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  plumage  and  diffusion?  Repeat  what  is  said  of  the  LAP 
WING  or  Pee-wit.  What  is  the  generic  name  of  the  Great  P.  and  why 
given?  Is  it  an  American  sp.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Golden  P.  of  A.? 
How  does  it  differ  from  the  Golden  P.  of  Europe  ?  What  is  it  sometimes 
called?  What  is  the  generic  name  of  the  Oyster-catcher  and  why  given? 
What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  of  the  Gray  P.  ?  Of  the  Turnstone  ?  Of  the 
Dotterel  ?  Of  the  Swift-foot  ?  Of  the*  Pratincole  ?  What  other  sp.  are 
mentioned  ? 

What  is  the  2nd  FAMILY  ?  What  GROUPS  of  BIRDS  does  this  include  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  CRAKES?  Of  the  Spoon-bills?  Of  the  Herons?  Repeat 
what  is  said  of  the  A.  Crane.  What  of  the  Common  C.  of  Europe?  Where 
is  the  DEMOISELLE  found?  What  is  said  of  its  plumage,  size,  &c.  ?  How 
long  did  one  of  these  birds  live  in  Versailles,  (Fr.  ?)  What  is  said  of  the 
Crowned  Crane ?  Are  the  TRUE  HERONS  numerous?  What  use  was  for 
merly  made  of  them,  and  how  were  they  esteemed  for  food?  In  what  ge 
nus  does  Aud.  include  the  Egrets  and  Bitterns  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Com 
mon  Heron  ?  What  of  the  Great  Blue  Heron  ?  Of  the  Greenish  B.  H.  ? 
Of  the  Black-Crowned  Night  H.  ?  Of  the  Great  American  White  Egret  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  diffusion,  &c.  of  Bitterns?  For  what  are  they  noted? 
What  popular  names  have  been  given  them  and  why  ?  To  what  does  the 
English  name  Bittern  refer?  Was  the  Common  B.  formerly  sought  in  fal 
conry?  In  what  estimation  has  ita  flesh  been  held?  What  use  was  made 
of  its  hind  claw?  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  Common  Heron? 
What  is  said  of  the  American  Bittern  ?  Of  the  Small  B.  ?  Why  is  the 
Common  Boat  Bill  so  named?  On  what  does  it  feed  ?  How  do  Storks  com 
pare  with  the  other  birds  of  this  family?  Where  do  they  build  their  nests? 
What  is  the  shape  of  their  bills?  Why  are  they  a  privileged  race?  What 
is  the  length  of  the  Common  White  S.  ?  What  is  said  of  its  familiarity 
and  of  its  appearance  in  European  towns?  What  did  Dr.  Shaw  witness? 
For  what  has  the  S.  ever  been  noted?  How  regarded  among  the  ancients? 
What  is  said  of  the  Black  Stork?  Where  is  the  Adjutant  found?  Describe 
this  bird.  What  is  said  of  its  voracity?  What  does  Dr.  Latham  say  of 
these  birds  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Marabou  Crane  or  Giant  Stork  of  Af 
rica?  Where  is  a  similar  species  found?  What  name  is  given  to  the  beau 
tiful  plumes  of  these  birds  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Jabiru  ? 


What  is  the  3d  FAMILY  ?  With  what  family  are  these  birds  often  in 
cluded  ?  Give  their  characters  and  habits.  What  is  said  of  the  Common 
White  Spoonbill?  What  of  the  Roseate  S.  ?  What  is  the  generic  name 
of  the  OPEN-BEAKED  BIRDS?  Describe  the  beak.  Where  does  Cuvier 
place  them? 


What  is  the  4th  FAMILY?  To  what  birds  are  those  of  this  family  allied? 
What  countries  do  they  chiefly  inhabit?  What  characters  are  given?  On 
what  do  they  feed  ?  How  many  species  does  this  family  include  ?  How 
many  in  the  U.  S.  ?  Where  is  the  Glossy  Ibis  found  ?  With  what  sp.  known 
to  the  ancients  is  it  identical?  At  what  time  does  the  sacred  Ibis  appear 


416  NATATORES. 

in  Egypt?  What  is  said  of  its  size  and  plumage?  How  was  this  and  the 
preceding  sp.  regarded  by  the  ancient  Egyptians?  What  is  the  length  of 
the  American  White  Ibis  ?  What  Island  is  noted  as  a  resort  for  these 
birds  ?  How  many  of  their  nests  did  Aud.  count  in  a  single  tree  ?  What 
else  is  said  of  the  White  I.  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  Scarlet  I.  Of  the 
Wood  I.  Where  are  other  species  found? 


What  is  the  5th  FAMILY  ?  What  is  the  most  prominent  character  of  this 
family?  What  use  is  made  of  this  organ?  What  other  characters  are 
mentioned?  What  is  the  color  of  their  plumage?  To  what  places  do 
they  resort?  What  is  said  of  their  distribution?  How  does  Mr.  G.  R. 
Gray  divide  them  ?  Which  is  the  largest  of  the  Curlews  ?  What  is  the 
generic  name?  What  other  sp.  are  mentioned?  What  is  the  generic 
name  of  the  Tattler?  Why  is  the  Tell-Tale  Tattler  so  called?  What  is  said 
of  it?  What  of  the  Spotted  Sand  L.?  Of  the  Gray  Plover  ?  Of  the  Avo- 
set  ?  Of  the  Blue-necked  Stilt  ?  Of  the  Knot  ?  Of  Wilson's  Sand-Piper  ? 
Of  the  Sanderling?  Of  the  Ruff? 

Mention  the  6th  FAMILY.  In  what  genus  are  they  comprehended?  What 
is  said  of  the  bills,  &c.  ?  How  large  is  the  Great  Bustard?  Does  any  other 
European  bird  exceed  it  in  size  ?  For  what  is  it  noted  ?  Has  it  a  gular 
pouch?  What  else  is  said  of  it.  What  sp.  of  Bustards  are  mentioned? 
What  is  said  of  the  Agama,  or  Gold-breasted  Trumpeter? 

What  is  the  7th  FAMILY  ?  How  are  they  separated  from  the  other  fami 
lies  of  this  order  ?  How  are  they  aided  by  their  keel-like  form  ?  In  what 
respects  do  they  deviate  from  the  other  groups  of  wading  birds?  Why  are 
they  called  Rails?  What  does  Swainsgn  say  of  their  structure?  What  is 
said  of  their  flesh,  nests,  toes,  &c.  ?  What  of  their  motion  in  the  air  and 
on  the  ground?  Which  are  the  different  sp.  and  what  is  said  of  them? 
What  SUB-FAMILY  is  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  respecting  their  proper  po 
sition?  Give  the  characters  of  the  gen.  Phoenicopterus.  Where  is  the 
European  Flamingo  found?  What  places  does  it  frequent?  What  is  said 
of  it?  Does  the  American  sp.  differ  much  from  the  E.  ?  Upon  what  does 
it  feed?  Do  vegetable  substances  form  any  part  of  its  diet?  What  may 
its  bill  be  called,  and  why  ?  Where  is  the  Red  Flamingo  found? 

SECTION  XL 

SECOND  ORDER.     WEB-FOOTED  BIRDS. 

NATATORES,  (Lat.  Swimmers.)     ANSERES,  (Lat.  anser,  a  goose.) 

Linn. 

We  come  now  to  the  last  order  of  birds,  viz.  :  those  which  are 
web-footed.  These  are  numerous  and  widely  distributed.  Mov 
ing  in  an  element  which  is  everywhere  essentially  the  same,  we 
find,  as  we  might  naturally  expect,  that  these  birds  are  repre 
sented,  not  only  by  peculiar  genera  in  every  part  of  the  world, 
but  that  particular  species,  as  of  the  Ducks,  the  Terns,  and  the 
Petrels,  encircle  the  globe. 


NATA  TORES.  417 

The  foot  of  the  Grebes  is  not  webbed,  but  has  each  toe  sepa 
rate  and  flattened,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  26.)  somewhat  like  that  of  the 
Coot  in  the  last  order,  with  this  exception,  the  Swimmers  are  all 
marked  by  having  the  toes  united  by  a  membrane,  giving  to  the 
foot  the  form  of  a  powerful  oar,  as  in  the  common  Duck  or 
Goose,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  24.)  In  those  species  which  are  eminently 
aquatic,  the  feet  are  placed  far  back  on  the  body,  (see  Auk  on 
the  Chart,)  which  renders  their  gait  clumsy  and  shuffling  on  land, 
but  gives  to  the  backward  stroke  of  the  foot  in  the  water  an  im 
petus  that  helps  them  in  swimming  ;  the  tarsus  is  also  flattened 
sidewise,  diminishing  the  resistance  to  progression  in  the  water. 

The  form  of  the  body  is  flattened  horizontally,  (not  laterally, 
as  in  the  Waders,)  the  better  to  float  on  the  surface.  The  plu 
mage  is  remarkably  thick  and  close,  particularly  on  the  under 
parts  of  the  most  aquatic  kinds  ;  besides  which  the  skin  is  cov 
ered  with  a  dense  coat  of  soft  down.  The  outer  surface  is  usu 
ally  polished  and  satin-like,  probably  from  the  oily  secretion, 
which  the  bird  frequently  applies  to  it.  The  larger  part  of  the 
Swimmers  have  a  copious  and  peculiarly  oily  secretion  of  fat. 

As  Cuvier  remarks,  these  are  the  only  birds  in  which  the  neck 
is  longer  than  the  legs,  which  is  sometimes  the  case  to  a  consid 
erable  extent,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them  to  search  for 
food  in  the  depths  below,  while  they  swim  on  the  surface.  The 
tail  is  generally  short,  and  so  are  the  wings;  hence,  flight  is  in 
most  feeble,  and  in  some  altogether  denied  :  and  yet  it  must  be 
noted,  that  in  the  order  Natatores  are  found  examples  of  the  long 
est  wings,  and  the  highest  powers  of  flight  of  the  entire  class  of 
Birds,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Frigate  Pelican.  The  Petrels  and 
Terns  have  also  great  length  of  wing. 

The  web-footed  fowl  resort  to  fens,  morasses,  broad  rivers, 
inland  lakes,  rocky  coves,  &c.,  and  they  are  found  also  on  the 
ocean's  wide  expanse.  The  marine  kinds  are  more  numerous  in 
the  colder  seas  of  the  North,  than  in  those  of  tropical  regions. 

This  order  includes  the  following  families :  (1)  Anatid&i 
Ducks  ;  (2)  Colymbida,  Divers ;  (3)  Akida,  Auks ;  (4)  Procel- 
larida,  Petrels ;  (5)  Larida,  Gulls  j  (6)  Pelecanida,  Pelicans. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     DUCKS. 
Anatida,  (Lat.  anas,  a  duck.) 

This  numerous  family  have  the  beak  thick  and  broad  ;  high 
at  the  base,  and  covered  throughout  almost  its  whole  extent  with 
a  soft  skin,  the  tip  alone  being  horny ;  the  edges  are  cut  into  thin 
parallel  ridges,  or  small  teeth  ;  the  tongue  is  large  and  fleshy, 


418  NATATORES. 

with  its  edges  toothed  ;  the  wings  are  of  moderate  length.  The 
males  have,  for  the  most  part,  the  wind-pipe  enlarged  into  a  bony 
chamber,  varying  in  form  and  size;  sometimes  this  tube  is  much 
prolonged,  and  bent  back  in  folds  within  the  swollen  keel  of  the 
breast  bone,  peculiarities  of  organization  probably  connected  with 
the  loudness  of  the  voice.  The  gizzard,  especially  in  the  land 
species,  is  large  and  muscular. 

The  Ducks  mostly  build  their  nests  upon  the  ground,  but  some 
on  trees,  and  lay  numerous  unspotted  eggs.  The  young  are  at 
first  covered  with  soft  down,  and  can  run  and  swim  as  soon  as 
they  leave  the  shell.  The  laminated  structure  at  the  edges  of 
the  mandibles,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  5,)  has  often  been  referred  to  as 
showing  special  adaptation  to  the  habit  of  feeding  in  birds  of  this 
family,  enabling  them  to  take  with  facility  minute  animals  which 
swarm  in  rivers,  and  those  equally  numerous  found  on  the  sides 
of  rivers  and  inland  streams.  By  means  of  their  broad  beak, 
they  capture  at  one  effort,  considerable  numbers,  and  as  they  are 
drawn  forth,  covered  with  mud,  this  offensive  part  is  thrown  out 
between  the  interstices,  or  tooth  edges  of  the  mandibles,  (Plate 
IX.  fig.  5,)  which,  however,  are  not  sufficiently  wide  to  allow  of 
the  passage  of  the  insect  food  at  the  same  time,  so  that  the  beak 
operates  as  a  sifter,  expelling  the  refuse,  but  retaining  the  food. 
It  is  probable  that  the  large  and  fleshy  tongue  is  an  assistant  in 
this  separating  process. 

GEESE  seem  to  form  the  connecting  link  between  the  Swim 
ming  and  Wading  Birds,  retaining  as  they  do  the  manners  of  the 
Waders,  but  walking  much  more  than  they  swim.  Their  food 
consists  more  of  grains  and  insects  than  of  fishes;  their  legs  are 
long,  and  they  have  a  considerable  space  above  the  tarsal  joint. 
These  birds,  in  common  with  the  SWANS,  have  rather  long  necks. 

The  TRUE  DUCKS  include  a  large  variety  of  species  and  are 
found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world. 

TheSnovELER,  or  SPOON-BILL,  A.  clypeata,  (Lat.  furnished  with 
a  shield.)  is  in  length  from  seventeen  to  twenty  inches ;  it  is 
named  from  its  broad,  shovel-like  bill.  Usually  it  breeds  far 
North,  but  to  this  there  are  exceptions.  Some  think  its  flesh  ex 
ceeds  that  of  the  Wild  Duck. 

The  MALLARD,  or  WILD  DUCK,  A.  boschas,  (Gr.  losTias^  a  mal 
lard,  from  boske,  a  pasture,)  is  the  parent  of  our  domestic  broods. 
The  ordinary  length  is  about  two  feet,  but  one  variety  is  said  to 
measure  thirty  inches.  Its  flesh  is  much  esteemed.  Richard 
son  says  "  the  Widgeon  or  Wild  Duck  is  a  strange  eater  of 
grass  ;  "  to  this  the  specific  term  refers. 

The  SOFT-BILLED  SHOVELER,   Malacorliyncus,  (Gr.  malakos, 


NATATORES. 


419 


soft ;  rhunkos,  a  bill,)  found  in  Australia,  has  a  very  peculiar 
bill,  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible  having  on  it  a  thin  mem- 
brane  or  skin,  which  hangs  down  like  a  wattle  on  each  side. 

The  TAME  DUCK,  (from  A.  boschas,)  is  nearly  omnivorous  in 
its  indiscriminate  appetite  and  its  voracity.  In  the  natural  state 
the  Duck  is  a  little  more  particular  in  its  diet. 

The  GREEN  WINGED  TEAL,  A.  Carolinensis,  is  during  the 
autumn  and  winter,  common  in  all  our  fresh  water  lakes  and 
ponds  ;  its  flesh  is  very  well  tasted.  Length  fourteen  inches. 

The  PIN-TAIL  DUCK,  A.  acuta,  (Lat.  sharp,)  affords  similar 
food  to  the  preceding.  It  is  about  two  feet  long.  This  Duck  is 
particularly  abundant  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario;  ranging, 
however,  during  winter  and  spring,  across  this  Continent;  and 
breeding  in  high  northern  latitudes. 

The  BLACK  DUCK,  A.  obscura,  (Lat.  obscure  or  dark,)  breeds 
from  Texas  to  Labrador.  Its  length  is  about  two  feet.  Few 
Ducks  are  more  highly  prized  than  this  species. 

The  AMERICAN  WIDGEON  or  BALD-PATE,  A.  Americana,  is 
very  generally  distributed.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  aquatic  vegeta 
bles,  and  is  esteemed  for  its  delicate  flavor.  Length  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  inches.  The  Widgeon  of  the  Eastern  Conti 
nent,  A.  Penelope,  is  also  found  in  this  hemisphere. 

SUB-FAMILY  FuHgilina,  (from  Lat./wZ/go,  soot.)     SEA-DUCKS. 

The  Sea-Ducks  include  four  genera,  with  a  variety  of  species. 
They  principally  frequent  the  sea  ;  but  many  of  them  are  to  be 
found  in  the  fresh  water  lakes  and  rivers,  where  the  water  is 
deep.  Their  plumage  is  very  close  and  thick,  in  comparison 
with  that  of  the  True  Ducks,  (Anas,)  and  the  covering  of  the 
female  differs  much  in  hue  from  that  of  the  male.  The  Sea- 
Ducks  are  not  good  walkers,  though  they  can  run  or  shuffle 
along  rapidly.  They  swim  remarkably  well,  but  low  in  the 
water,  and  excel  in  diving,  on  which  they  rely  when  in  danger, 
more  than  on  their  power  of  wing.  Usually,  they  fly  low,  labori 
ously,  and  with  a  whistling  sound.  They  are  mostly  found  at 
the  north ;  but  some  species  are  spread  over  the  entire  globe. 
Large  flocks  migrate  periodically,  chiefly  on  the  line  of  the  sea- 
coast,flying  and  feeding  generally  by  night.  They  often  make 
their  nests  near  fresh  water;  both  parents,  in  several  of  the  spe 
cies,  strip  off  their  down  as  a  covering  for  their  numerous  eggs. 

The  genus  Somateria,  (Gr.  soma,  body  ;  eria,  wool,  or  teiro, 
to  wear  away,)  includes  Ducks  which  are  peculiarly  marine; 
according  to  Sir  John  Richardson,  never  found  in  fresh  water. 


420  NATATORES. 

Their  food  consists  principally  of  mollusks  found  in  the  Arctic 
Sea. 

The  EIDER  DUCK,  S.  mollissima,  (Lat.  very  soft,)  is  remarka 
ble  for  its  exquisite  and  elastic  down,  so  valuable  in  commerce, 
and  so  essential  in  preserving  the  proper  balance  of  animal  heat 
in  the  icy  regions  in  which  it  dwells.  The  beak  is  prolonged 
on  the  forehead  into  two  narrow  flat  plates,  which  are  separated 
by  an  angular  projection  of  the  frontal  plumage.  This  species 
is,  in  severe  winters,  seen  as  far  South  as  the  Capes  of  the 
Delaware.  Northern  explorers  have  repeatedly  attested  its 
value.  Dr.  Kane  writes  thus  of  its  appearance.  "The  Eider 
Duck  is  an  awkward  animal  on  the  wing,  and  hardly  graceful 
in  the  water.  The  position  of  the  legs,  set  very  far  back,  throws 
the  body,  Penguin-like,  nearly  upright;  and  they  move  about 
erect,  but  easily,  and  with  animation."  His  party  gathered  two 
hundred  eggs  from  a  gleaned  field,  one  morning  before  break- 
fast.  A  whaler  which  they  met,  had  four  hundred  and  fifty 
dozen  eggs  on  board :  formerly,  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  million 
of  eggs  were,  during  a  single  season,  taken  from  Melville  Island. 

The  Duck  and  Drake  build  the  nest  in  company,  and  line  it 
with  down.  This  is  of  two  kinds, — the  dead  down  and  the  live 
down ;  the  former  is  taken  from  a  dead  bird,  and  is  of  inferior 
quality;  the  latter  is  that  which  the  Duck  strips  from  herself  to 
cherish  her  eggs ;  its  lightness  and  elasticity  are  such,  that  it  is 
said,  two  or  three  pounds  of  it  squeezed  into  a  ball,  will  swell 
out  to  such  an  extent  as  to  fill  a  case  large  enough  for  a  foot 
covering  of  a  bed.  The  skin  of  the  Eider  Duck,  with  the 
feathers  on,  forms  an  article  of  commerce,  particularly  among 
the  Chinese.  The  length  is  twenty-five  inches. 

The  KING  DUCKS,  S.  spectabilis,  (Lat.  deserving  notice,)  are 
also  found  in  the  Arctic  regions,  but  in  their  migration  do  not 
pass  so  far  South  as  the  Eider  Duck.  According  to  Sir  John 
Ross,  they  afford  a  valuable  and  salutary  supply  of  fresh  pro 
vision  to  the  crews  of  vessels  employed  in  the  Northern  Seas, 
and  their  down  is  equal  to  that  of  the  Eider  Duck. 

The  SURF  DUCK,  Oidemia,  (Gr.  from  oideo,  to  swell,)  seek  their 
food  at  sea  chiefly,  and  have  their  name  from  frequenting  its 
shores.  The  prevailing  color  is  black  in  the  male  and  brown  in 
the  female.  The  generic  name  was  suggested  by  the  swollen 
appearance  of  the  beak.  The  species  O.  fusca,  (Lat.  tawny,) 
has  a  very  thick  and  close  plumage,  and  is  called  the  VELVET 
DUCK.  The  down  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Eider  Duck.  They 
are  very  numerous  at  Hudson's  and  Baffin's  Bay,  The  length 
is  twenty-four  inches. 


NATATORES.  421 

The  CANVASS-BACK  DUCKS,  Futigula,  (Lat.fullgula,  a  fen-duck,) 
valisneria.(  botanical  name  of  the  tope-Grass,  of  which  this  species 
are  vrry  fond,) — breeds  from  50o  N.  L.  to  the  extreme  northern 
limit  of  the  Fur  countries.  About  the  middle  of  October  it  arrives 
on  the  sea-coasts  of  the  United  States.  This  Duck  is  shy,  but  much 
esteemed,  as  few  birds  grace  the  table  better.  It  haunts  the  sea, 
its  bays  and  estuaries.  The  length  is  twenty-four  inches.  In 
swimming,  the  tail  is  erected,  and  from  the  shortness  of  the  neck, 
is  nearly  as  high  as  the  bird's  head,  so  that,  at  a  little  distance^  the 
bird  seems  to  have  two  heads. 

The  SPIRIT  DUCK,  Clangufa,  (Lat.  clango,  to  clang;)  atteola, 
(partly  white ;)  is  abundant  during  the  summer,  on  the  rivers  and 
fresh  water  lakes  of  the  Fur  countries;  in  autumn  and  winter, 
common  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  most  expert  diver ;  the 
artful  way  in  which  it  conceals  itself  after  it  has  vanished  under 
water,  has  given  it  the  name  of  Spirit  Duck  or  Conjurer.  Its 
flesh  is  not  in  high  repute.  In  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  it 
becomes  so  fat,  it  is  called  "Butter-Box"  or  "Butter-Ball." 
Length  fourteen  inches. 

The  LONG-TAILED  DUCK,  Heralda  glacialis,  (icy,) — the  Old 
Wife  and  Swallow-tailed  Duck,  of  Hudson  Bay  residents, — is 
noted  for  its  very  long  tail  of  fourteen  feathers.  It  swims  and 
dives  with  all  the  expertness  of  the  Spirit  Ducks.  The  young 
Ducks  are  juicy  and  tender;  the  old  ones  not  much  valued  for 
the  table.  This  species  is  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  both 
Continents.  Length  twenty  to  twenty-one  inches. 

GEESE. 

The  SNOW  GOOSE  or  WHITE  BRANT,  Anser  Hyperloreus, 
breeds  in  high  northern  latitudes.  It  is  from  twenty-seven  to 
thirty-one  inches  in  length.  Its  feathers  are  valuable,  and 
Richardson  says,  its  flesh  is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  Canada 
Goose  in  juiciness  and  flavor. 

The  BRANT,  A.  bernida,  is  deemed  one  of  the  most  savory 
birds;  its  length  is  about  two  feet;  it  breeds  near  the  Arctic 
Ocean ;  is  found  on  both  Continents. 

The  BERNICLE,  or  BARNACLE  GOOSE,  Bernida  leucopsis,  (Gr. 
white-faced;)  is  found  in  the  northern  regions  of  both  hemispheres. 

The  GRAY-LAG  GOOSE,  A.fcrus,  (Lat.  wild,)  in  length  two  feet 
and  nine  inches,  is  the  origin  of  the  COMMON  DOMESTIC  GOOSE. 
The  latter  is  too  familiar  to  require  description.  It  has  been 
known  to  live  over  eighty  years. 

The  WILD  GOOSE  or  CRAVAT  GOOSE,  A.  Canadensis,  is  from 
forty  to  forty-two  inches  in  length.  In  its  contour,  especially 


422  NATATORES. 

about  the  neck,  it  seems  to  approach  the  Swans ;  the  patch  of 
white  feathers  on  the  neck  contrasting  with  those  of  dark  shade, 
has  the  appearance  of  a  cravat.  It  breeds  most  abundantly  in 
Labrador  and  high  northern  latitudes.  In  the  Fur  countries  its 
arrival  is  anxiously  looked  for,  and  hailed  with  great  joy.  At 
Hudson's  Bay,  three  thousand  or  more  are  sometimes  killed  and 
barreled  up  in  a  year. 

The  EGYPTIAN  GOOSE,  Chenalopex,  (Gr.  a  goose  or  duck, 
Pliny,)  jEgyptiacus,  is  a  beautiful  species,  which  passes  over 
occasionally  from  Africa  into  Europe  ;  it  is  particularly  numer 
ous  in  the  island  of  Sicily.  The  upper  part  of  the  plumage  is 
reddish  brown ;  the  under  parts  are  buff,  mingled  with  blackish 
lines.  This  Goose  is  figured  on  the  monuments  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  was  regarded  by  them  with  veneration ! 

The  GOOSANDERS  or  MERGANSERS,  form  a  sub-family, — Mer- 
ganina,  including,  according  to  Prince  Bonaparte,  two  genera, 
Mergus,  (Lat.  a  diver,  from  mergo,  to  dip.)  the  Smew,  and  Mer 
ganser,  (Lat.  from  mergo,  to  dip,  and  anser,  a  goose,)  the  Goos 
ander. 

The  SMEW  or  WHITE  NUN,  Mergus  alhellus,  (Lat.  from  albus, 
white,)  is  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  Continents;  it  is 
migratory  in  autumn,  but  especially  in  winter.  Its  food  consists 
of  small  crustaceans,  water  insects,  mollusks,  and  small  fish. 
The  nest  is  placed  on  the  borders  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  con 
tains  twelve  whitish  eggs.  The  Smew  (when  old)  has  upon 
the  head  a  tufted  crest  of  pure  white;  the  edges  of  both  mandi 
bles  of  the  beak,  have  saw-like  teeth  directed  backwards;  the 
point  of  the  upper  mandible  is  curved,  and  with  the  horny  nail, 
forms  a  hook.  (Plate  IX.  fig.  5.)  The  length  of  the  Smew  is  fif 
teen  or  sixteen  inches. 

The  GOOSANDER  or  JACKDAW,  Mergus  merganser  (or  Castor,) 
having  also  a  saw-like  and  hooked  bill,  (Plate  IX.  fig.  5,)  builds 
its  nest  among  rolled  pebbles  on  the  banks  of  waters,  or  in  bushes 
and  hollow  trees,  and  lays  twelve  or  fourteen  whitish  eggs. 
The  flesh  of  this  and  the  preceding  species,  is  rank,  and  by  no 
means  in  request  for  the  table.  Its  native  abode  corresponds 
with  that  of  the  Smew ;  it  migrates  southward  on  the  approach 
of  winter.  The  very  old  male  has  a  large  and  thick  tuft  on  the 
head;  the  plumage  of  the  upper  parts  is  deep  black;  the  under 
parts,  which  in  the  Smew  are  white,  are  in  the  Goosander  tinged 
with  yellowish  rose-color,  (changing  to  white  in  stuffed  speci 
mens.)  The  length  is  twenty-six  or  twenty-eight  inches. 


NATATOBES.  423 


SECOND  FAMILY.     DIVERS.     (Short- winged.) 
ColymUda,  (Gr.  Mvuflos,  kolumlos,  a  diver.) 

These  birds  are  more  entirely  aquatic  than  the  Ducks,  and 
remarkable  for  their  powers  of  diving,  and  the  great  length  of 
time  which  they  can  remain  immersed.  They  have  narrow, 
straight,  and  sharp-pointed  beaks;  the  head  is  small;  the  legs, 
placed  near  the  extremity  of  the  body,  are  flattened  side  wise,  so 
as  to  present  a  thin  edge  before  and  behind  ;  the  toes  are  armed 
with  broad,  flat  nails.  In  one  genus,  Colymbus,  including  the 
Loons, — the  toes  are  united  by  a  membrane,  and  there  is  a 
short  tail ;  the  two  other  genera,  (including  the  Grebes.)  have 
the  toes  divided  midway  to  the  base,  and  bordered  with  white 
oval  membranes,  and  have  no  traces  of  a  tail.  Owing  to  the 
position  of  their  feet,  these  birds  are  poor  walkers,  though  ex 
tremely  powerful  and  fleet  swimmers  and  divers.  They  have 
short  wings,  and  their  ability  to  fly  is  consequently  quite  limited  ; 
but  under  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  wings  are  expanded  and 
employed  as  fins.  The  thread-like,  or  downy  plumage,  is  re 
markably  thick,  and  has  a  silvery  gloss.  The  Divers'  food 
varies  with  the  situations  which  they  frequent.  It  consists  of 
fishes  with  their  fry  and  spawn;  crustaceans,  water  insects,  &c., 
and  occasionally  vegetable  substances.  The  Grebes  are  widely 
scattered  over  fresh  waters  ;  the  Loons  are  confined  to  the  oceans 
and  coasts  of  temperate  and  arctic  regions.  These  birds  dive 
so  instantaneously,  that  it  is  difficult  to  shoot  them, — disappear 
ing,  as  they  do,  at  the  first  flash  of  the  gun,  and  not  returning 
to  the  surface  within  some  two  hundred  yards,  and  then  merely 
to  raise  the  head  ibr  a  moment  and  again  disappear.  The  stomach 
of  the  Grebes,  is  generally  found  to  contain  a  mass  of  their  own 
feathers.  These  are  probably  conveyed  thither  in  the  bird's  pro 
cess  of  oiling  its  plumage,  or,  as  has  been  said,  "making  its 
toilet."  The  largest,  and  finest  species  of  Loon,  is  the  GREAT 
LOON  or  DIVER,  Colymbus  glacialis,  (Plate  X,  fig.  9.)  This  bird 
is  thirty -two  inches  long, — the  neck  and  head  are  black,  glossed 
with  purple  or  green  ;  their  upper  parts  black,  marked  with  white 
spots,  set  in  rows;  the  under  parts  pure  white.  The  cry  of  the 
Great  Diver  is  melancholy  in  its  tone,  resembling  the  howling 
of  a  wolf,  and  is  said  to  portend  rain.  The  flesh  is  dark,  tough, 
and  unpalatable.  The  eggs  are  two  or  three  in  number,  of  a 
deep  olive  color,  spotted  with  brown,  and  about  as  large  as  those 
of  a  Goose. 

The  RED-THROATED  LOON  or  SCAPE-GRACE,  Colymbus  scpten- 
13 


NATATORES. 

trionalis,  (Lat.  northern,)  is  another  species,  breeding  from  New 
foundland  northwardly.     Length  twenty-five  inches. 

The  GREBES,  (Podiceps.)  have  been  variously  placed  by  dif 
ferent  naturalists.  De  Kay  includes  them  with  the  COOTS,  in  a 
separate  order,  Lobipedes,  (Lobe-footed,)  and  ranks  them  imme 
diately  before  the  Swimmers.  We  have  followed  Cuvier  and 
others,  in  placing  them  with  the  Swimmers,  and  in  the  present 
family.  Among  the  species  are  the  HORNED  GREBE,  P.  cornu- 
tus,  (Lat.  horned,)  in  length  fifteen  inches;  common  to  Europe 
and  America,  and  known  by  the  names  Dipper,  Water-Witch, 
&c. ;  the  CRESTED  GREBE,  P.  cristatus,  in  length  nineteen  inches; 
commonly  found  in  secluded  ponds  and  lakes  in  the  interior,  but 
also  seen  on  the  sea-coast.  It  ranges  from  Mexico  to  680  N.  L.  ; — 
is  found  also  in  Europe ;  the  RED-NECKED  GREBE,  P.  rubricoltis, 
(Lat.  red-necked.)  not  quite  so  long  as  the  preceding,  and  scarcely 
seen  South  of  New  York. 

THIRD  FAMILY.     AUKS. 
Alcida,  (Lat.  alca,  alk  or  auk.) 

The  birds  of  this  family,  have  a  structure  which  pre-emi 
nently  adapts  them  to  an  aquatic  life,  and  are,  in  their  resorts  and 
habits,  exclusively  maritime.  The  beak  in  these  birds  varies 
in  length,  and  is  more  or  less  compressed ;  both  mandibles  are 
much  curved  and  notched  ;  the  nostrils  are  almost  entirely  closed 
by  a  naked  membrane  ;  the  feet  small  and  entirely  webbed  ;  the 
legs  short  and  placed  far  back,  so  that,  in  sitting,  these  birds  assume 
an  erect  position  ;  the  tail  has  sixteen  small  feathers.  In  moving 
under  water,  the  Auks  make  no  use  of  their  feet,  but  hold  them 
out  behind,  as  the  Waders  do  theirs  in  flying,  and  use  their  short 
wings  in  the  manner  of  fins,  so  that  they  may  be  said  to  fly  be 
neath  the  surface.  "Their  movements,  under  water,  precisely 
resemble  those  of  the  Dyticida,  or  Common  Water-Beetles;  the 
principal  motion  being  more  or  less  vertical,  instead  of  horizontal 
as  in  the  Grebes  and  Loons ;  they  are,  therefore,  together  with 
the  distinct  group  of  Penguins,  the  most  characteristic  divers  of  the 
class."  Their  food,  obtained  by  diving,  (an  operation  in.  which 
they  are  assisted  by  their  wings  as  well  as  their  feet,)  consists 
of  small  fishes,  crustaceans,  and  other  marine  animals.  The 
Auks  are  frequently  seen  in  immense  numbers  on  rocky  islets, 
and  precipitate  cliffs  that  overhang  the  sea,  on  the  shelves  and 
edges  of  which  they  lay  their  eggs,  one  only  being  deposited  by 
each  bird.  The  female,  while  sitting  in  an  erect,  position,  keeps 
the  egg  between  her  feet  for  the  purpose  of  incub  ition.  Many 


NATATORES.  425 

families  gain  their  subsistence  by  procuring  the  eggs  and  young 
of  these  and  similar  birds.  The  storm-lashed  and  iron-bound 
coasts  of  Northern  Europe  and  America,  and  the  frozen  islands 
of  the  Arctic  Seas  are  the  dreary  homes  of  the  Auks;  some  of 
them  roam  hundreds  of  miles  out  to  sea. 

The  Penguins  occupy,  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  the  place 
filled  by  the  Auks  or  Puffins  in  the  Northern.  Their  wings  are 
very  small, — mere  rudiments,  covered  with  an  integument,  re 
sembling  scales,  and  entirely  powerless  as  organs  of  flight;  but 
they  not  only  aid  the  bird  in  its  divings  and  evolutions  under 
water,  but  also  as  a  sort  of  front  extremities  when  progressing  on 
land.  Being  without  the  power  of  flight,  and  unable  to  run,  this 
bird  may  be  easily  overtaken  on  land;  but  when  it  reaches  the 
water,  it  has  no  difficulty  in  distancing  it?  pursuers,  swimming 
like  a  fish,  and  springing  several  feet  over  any  obstacles  which 
it  meets  in  its  course.  The  Penguins  are  peculiarly  remarka 
ble  for  having  a  kind  of  ball  and  socket  union  in  the  vertebrae, 
corresponding,  in  some  degree,  to  what  is  seen  in  the  reptiles. 

The  GREAT  AUK,  Alca  impennis,  (Lat.  wingless,)  is  almost 
wingless,  i.  e.  its  wings  are  very  small,  entirely  incapable  of 
raising  it  in  the  air,  but  serving  admirably  as  paddles  to  the  bird 
when  diving  under  water.  The  Lump-fish  is  said  to  be  a  spe 
cial  favorite  of  the  Great  Auk.  Audubon  says,  "  the  egg  is 
very  large,  measuring  five  inches  in  length  and  three  in  its  great 
est  breadth  ;  the  shell  is  thick  and  rather  rough  to  the  touch ; 
color  yellowish  white,  with  irregular  lines  and  blotches  of  brownish 
black,"  which  have  been  supposed  to  bear  some  resemblance  to 
Chinese  characters.  Newfoundland  is  one  of  the  breeding  places 
of  these  Swimmers,  and  the  Esquimaux  who  frequent  that  island 
are  said  to  make  clothing  of  their  skins.  The  Great  Auks  are 
widely  diffused  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  but  in  high  northern 
latitudes  they  "swarm."  They  may  be  seen  on  floating  ice,  but 
do  not  wander  beyond  soundings.  The  winter  plumage,  which 
begins  to  appear  in  autumn,  "leaves  the  cheeks,  throat,  fore  part 
and  sides  of  the  neck,  white.  In  spring,  the  summer  change 
begins  to  take  place,  and  confines  the  white  on  the  head  to  a  large 
patch  which  extends  in  front  and  around  the  eyes  ;  the  rest  of 
the  head,  the  neck  and  upper  plumage  is  deep  black."  The 
length  of  the  Great  Auk  is  about  three  feet. 

The  RAZOR-BILL,  or  BLACK-BILLED  AUK,  A.  torda,  has  wings 
so  far  developed  as  to  answer  for  the  purpose  of  flight,  though 
the  bird  uses  them  with  great  effect  as  oars,  when  swimming 
under  water.  Its  length  is  about  seventeen  inches.  These 
Auks  breed  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  along  the  coast  of 


426  NATATORES. 

Labrador.  Thousands  of  them  are  killed  on  that  coast  for  the 
sake  of  the  breast  feathers,  which  are  very  warm  and  elastic. 
The  eggs  are  about  as  large  as  a  turkey's,  being  great  in  proper- 
tion  to  the  size  of  the  bird.  Of  these,  incredible  numbers  are 
collected  at  Labrador  and  in  its  vicinity.  The  Razor-Bill  is 
seen  on  the  coast  of  New  York  State  every  autumn  and  winter ; 
it  is  common  in  Europe. 

The  COMMON  PUFFIN,  or  COULTER-NEB,  Fratercula  Arctica,  or 
Mormon  f rater cula,  (Mormon  Arcticus,  DeKay.)  has  a  beak  mon 
strously  large,  rivaling  in  its  development  those  of  the  Toucans 
and  Hornbills,  and  from  its  enormous  size  and  the  sharpness  of 
the  edge,  rendering  this  bird  a  formidable  antagonist.  This  or 
gan  is  shorter  than  the  head,  higher  than  its  length,  somewhat 
triangular  in  outline,  and  has  its  sides  cutinto  furrows,  (Plate  IX. 
fig.  11.)  The  generic  names  applied  to  the  Common  Puffin,  re 
fer,  in  their  signification,  to  its  singularly  grotesque  appearance, 
with  its  short,  thick-set  form,  its  erect  attitude,  and  above  all,  its 
extraordinary  and  brightly  colored  beak.  It  makes  a  burrow  for 
itself  on  the  lofty  cliffs,  but  sometimes  avoids  this  labor  by  occu 
pying  that  of  a  rabbit  which  stands  in  awe  of  the  formidable 
bill,  and  readily  gives  up  his  habitation.  From  the  lofty  cliff, 
the  Puffin  plunges  fearlessly  into  the  sea,  and  returns  with  its 
beak  full  of  fish,  which  are  secured  by  their  heads,  and  lie  in  a 
row  along  the  Puffin's  bill.  The  length  of  this  bird  is  from 
twelve  to  thirteen  inches. 

The  LITTLE  GUILLEMOT,  Uria  alle-,  or  Mergulus  alle,  is  from 
six  to  ten  inches  in  length,  sometimes,  but  rarely,  seen  on  the 
coast  of  New  York,  its  range  being  from  39°  N.  L.  to  the  north 
pole.  It  is  also  called  Sea-Dove,  Sea-Pigeon.  Pigeon  Diver,  or 
Ice-Bird.  During  the  breeding  season,  it  collects  in  vast  num 
bers  along  the  north  and  east  coast  of  Baffin's  Bay.  Dr.  Kane 
says  it  was  not  uncommon  to  kill  more  than  a  hundred  in  the 
course  of  a  couple  of  hours.  The  long-sought  and  lamented 
Sir  John  Franklin  killed  and  salted  down  so  many  of  these  birds 
as  to  augment  his  resources  by  nearly  a  two  years'  supply  of 
food.  "  No  other  bird  migrates  in  such  numbers,  or  contributes 
so  largely  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table."  (Grinn.  A  ret.  Exped.) 
The  size  of  this  bird  compares  well  with  that  of  a  partridge  ; 
the  feet  are  short,  plunged  into  the  feathers  far  back  beyond  the 
equilibrium  of  the  body  ;  it  has  three  toes,  all  front  and  entirely 
webbed.  While  taking  their  food,  consisting  of  small  fish,  crus 
taceans  and  medusae,  they  can  be  approached  so  near  as  to  be 
knocked  down  with  poles  and  boat  hooks.  The  whalers  some 
times  shoot  them  with  dried  peas.  Upon  the  bare  rock  they 


NATATORES.  427 

lay,  in  company,  each  a  single  egg  of  a  pale  green,  blotched 
with  dark  brown  spots.  So  close  are  they  together,  that  the  birds, 
when  sitting  nearly  upright,  almost  touch  each  other,  covering 
the  ledges  ot  the  rocks  upon  which  their  young  are  hatched,  and 
from  whence  they  take  to  the  water  in  five  or  six  weeks. 

The  PENGUINS,  Aptenodytes,  (Gr.  a,  priv.,  ptenos,  winged  ; 
dutes,  a  diver,)  seem  to  be  among  the  Natatores  what  the  Os 
triches  are  among  the  strictly  terrestrial  birds.  Swainson  re 
marks  that  "the  hind  toe  in  the  Penguins  and  Cormorants  is 
placed  almost  as  far  forward  as  in  the  Swifts.  In  the  Penguin 
the  tarsus  is  so  short  as  almost  to  be  confounded  with  the  sole  of 
the  foot,  and  is  probably  rested  on  the  ground  when  the  bird 
walks,  just  as  in  the  bear  and  other  plantigrade  quadrupeds. 
The  whole  foot  is  remarkably  flattened,  as  if  to  enable  the  bird 
to  cover  a  greater  breadth  of  ground."  (Classification  of  birds, 
Vol.  I.) 

The  bones  are  described  as  very  hard,  compact  and  heavy, 
having  no  aperture  for  the  admission  of  air;  but  they  contain, 
especially  the  bones  of  the  extremities,  a  thin  oily  marrow.  The 
sensations  of  these  birds  are  by  no  means  acute.  One  writer 
relates  that  he  stumbled  over  a  sleeping  one  and  kicked  it  some 
yards  without  disturbing  its  rest.  Another  states  that  he  left  a 
number  of  these  birds  apparently  lifeless,  while  he  went  in  pur 
suit  of  others ;  but  they  afterwards  got  up  and  marched  off  with 
their  usual  gravity. 

The  habits  of  the  Penguins  are  highly  interesting,  and  have 
frequently  been  described.  Their  camps,  towns,  and  rookeries, 
so  called,  are  largely  descanted  upon  by  southern  voyagers. 
Those  at  the  Falkland  Islands  have  attracted  particular  atten 
tion.*  The  rookeries  are  said  to  be  designed  with  the  utmost 
order  and  regularity,  though  they  are  the  resort  of  different  species. 
But  in  the  midst  of  this  apparent  order,  there  seems  to  be  a  want 
of  good  government,  the  stronger  species  stealing  the  eggs  of  the 
weaker,  if  they  be  left  unguarded.  The  King  or  Patagonian 
Penguin,  A.  Patachonica,  (Plate  X.  fig.  9b,)  is  said  to  be  the  great- 

*  The  rookeries  at  the  Falkland  Islands  above  referred  to,  sink  into  insig 
nificance  when  compared  with  a  settlement  of  the  King  Penguins  recorded 
by  Mr.  Gr.  Bennett,  who  saw  at  the  north  end  of  Macquarrie  Island,  in  the 
South  Pacific  ocean,  a  colony  of  these  birds  which  covered  an  extent  of 
thirty  or  forty  acres.  He  describes  the  number  of  Penguins  collected  to 
gether  in  this  spot  as  immense,  but  observes  that  "it  would  be  impossible 
to  guess  at  it  with  any  near  approach  to  truth,  as  during  the  whole  of  the 
day  and  night,  30,000  or  40,000  are  continually  landing,  and  an  equal  num 
ber  going  to  sea." 


NATATORES. 

est  thief  of  all.  Three  species  are  found  in  the  Falkland  Is- 
lands.  Two  of  these,  the  King  Penguin  and  the  MACARONI,  A. 
chrysocome,  (Golden-haired  or  feathered,)  deposit  their  eggs  in 
these  rookeries.  The  Jackass  Penguin,  A.  demersa,  (Lat.  from 
demerge,  to  plunge  in,)  which  is  the  third  species,  has  its  English 
name  from  the  horrible  brayings  which  it  sets  up  at  night.  This 
makes  its  nest  in  burrows  on  downs  or  sandy  plains,  and  does 
not  appear  to  take  invasion  so  quietly  as  the  other  species. 

H.  T.  Cheever,  in  his  "Island  World  of  the  Pacific,"  when 
referring  to  his  landing  on  the  Falkland  Islands,  says:  "  What 
was  our  surprise  to  find  what  we  had  thought  a  facing  of  white 
stones,  to  be  innumerable  Penguins,  standing  erect  and  in  the 
rank  and  file  of  battle  array,  upon  the  declivity  of  the  rocks, 
and  occupying  at  least  two  acres,  in  dense  columns,  away,  back 
to  the  moss  and  grass.  On  every  out-jutting  angle  or  hollow, 
there  was  a  dusky  nest  with  a  bird  sitting  upon  it,  and  so  unac 
quainted  with  man  that  we  could  climb  up  and  lay  hands  upon 
them  before  they  would  move."  He  continues:  "To  those  who 
have  never  seen  a  picture  of  a  Penguin,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  convey  an  idea,  by  description,  of  this  odd  amphibious  crea 
ture.  It  has  the  head,  bill,  and  two  web- feet  of  a  bird,  and 
stands  erect  on  land,  sometimes  two  and  a  half  and  three  feet  in 
height.  They  have  no  wings  nor  proper  feathers,  but  two  fins 
or  flippers,  like  the  seal.  Their  motion  on  land  is  by  successive 
hops  in  the  most  awkward  manner  conceivable.  When  going 
down  a  declivity,  the  center  of  gravity  is  often  thrown  too  far 
forward,  and  away  they  tumble,  and  scramble,  and  roll  over, 
until  they  get  to  the  sea,  in  which  they  dive  and  swim  with  great 
swiftness.  They  are  often  seen  singly,  or  two  and  three  together, 
far  out  at  sea.  Their  cry  or  bark  is  like  the  inarticulate  human 
voice  ;  and  sounding,  as  it  often  does,  from  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  like  the  cry  of  a  man  in  distress,  it  startles  and  appals 
one." 

The  largest  species  of  the  Patagonian  Penguins  is  said  to  be  four 
feet  and  a  quarter  in  length,  and  to  weigh  forty  pounds.  When  sit 
ting  or  attempting  to  walk,  they  have  been  compared  to  a  dog 
that  has  been  taught  to  sit  up  and  move  in  a  minuet.  Their 
short  legs  drive  the  body  in  progression  from  side  to  side,  and 
were  they  not  assisted  by  their  flipper-like  wings,  they  could 
scarcely  move  faster  than  a  tortoise.  This  awkward  make  of 
the  legs,  which  so  disqualifies  them  for  living  on  the  land,  ad 
mirably  adapts  them  for  life  on  the  water,  inasmuch  as  they  serve 
for  propellers,  and  being  placed  so  far  behind  the  moving  body, 
and  worked  the  more  swiftly  for  being  short,  they  push  forward 


NATATORES.  429 

with  great  velocity ;  with  their  heads  erect,  and  their  fin-like 
wings  hanging  down  as  half  arms,  they  "look  like  so  many  chil 
dren  with  white  aprons  on."  Hence  they  are  said  to  "  unite  in 
themselves  the  qualities  of  men,  fowls,  and  fishes !  Like  men, 
they  are  upright ;  like  fowls,  they  are  feathered  ;  and  like  fish, 
they  have  fin-like  instruments  that  beat  the  water  before  them 
and  serve  for  all  the  purposes  of  swimming  rather  than  flying." 
They  are  covered  more  warmly  with  feathers  than  any  other 
bird,  so  that  the  sea  seems  entirely  their  element. 

FOURTH  FAMILY.     PETRELS  or  FULMARS. 
Procellarida,  (Lat.  from  procella,  a  storm.) 

The  form  of  the  beak  in  the  birds  of  this  family  is  very  re 
markable  ;  it  appears  to  be  constituted  of  several  separate  pieces 
soldered  together.  The  .upper  mandible  has  the  basal  part  sep 
arated  from  the  tip  by  a  deep,  oblique  furrow,  and  has  on  its 
summit  a  tube,  (or  two  tubes  united  into  one,)  containing  the  nos 
trils  ;  the  point  of  this  mandible  takes  the  form  of  a  curved  and 
pointed  claw  or  nail ;  the  lower  mandible  is  likewise  seamed  in 
a  similar  manner,  and  its  tip  is  hooked  downwards.  (Plate  IX. 
fig  10.) 

The  front  toes  are  united  by  a  membrane  ;  the  hind  toe  is  re 
duced  to  a  mere  claw,  which  is  elevated  upon  the  tarsus  and 
sometimes  wanting.  The  wings  are  usually  long,  and  the  flight 
powerful. 

The  Petrels  are  eminently  birds  of  the  ocean,  rarely  approach 
ing  the  land,  except  in  the  breeding  period.  Some  of  them  ap 
pear  to  be  almost  always  on  the  wing,  following  the  course  of 
ships  for  days  together  without  alighting.  Their  food  consists 
of  small  mollusks  and  crustaceans,  and  the  oily  particles  which 
float  upon  the  surface  of  the  sea.  In  high  latitudes,  some  of 
them  feed  with  much  voracity  on  the  fat  of  slaughtered  whales. 
Hence  their  flesh  becomes  apparently  saturated  with  oil ;  and 
when  alarmed,  many  of  them  occasionally  eject  fetid  oil  from 
their  nostrils,  as  a  defence.  This  family  includes  a  number  of 
species,  about  eight  of  which  are  found  in  America. 

The  COMMON  FULMAR,  Procellaria  glacialis,  (Lat.  icy,)  or 
Fulmarus  glacialis,  is  considered  the  type  of  the  true  Petrels, 
having  a  stout,  thick  bill,  with  the  upper  mandible  considerably 
hooked  at  the  tip.  and  sulcated  or  furrowed ;  the  lower  mandi 
ble  is  straight  and  slightly  truncated  ;  th£  nostrils  are  united  in 
a  single  tube  ;  the  legs  of  only  moderate  length.  This  bird  is 
a,  native  of  the  Polar  regions,  but  is  found,  though  in  less  num- 


430  NATATORES. 

bers,  in  the  Northern  Seas  of  Europe  and  America.  It  is  not 
uncommon  off  the  coast  from  New  York  to  Nova  Scotia.  The 
rocky  St.  Kilda,  one  of  the  western  islands  of  Scotland,  is  the 
only  place  of  annual  resort  for  this  bird  in  the  British  dominions. 
(Shelby.)  It  is  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  length  ;  breeds 
in  high  latitudes,  never  coming  to  the  coast  except  for  the  pur 
poses  of  nesting,  or  when  driven  thither  by  gales.  The  bill,  iris 
and  feet  are  yellow  ;  the  head,  neck,  and  lower  parts  pure  white  ; 
the  back  and  wings,  of  a  grayish  blue.  Scoresby  says:  "  The 
Fulmar  is  the  constant  companion  of  the  whale-fisher.  It  joins 
his  ship  immediately  on  passing  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  accom 
panies  it  through  the  trackless  ocean  to  the  highest  accessible 
latitudes,  ever  keeping  an  eager  watch  for  any  thing  thrown 
overboard;  the  smallest  particle  of  fatty  substance  can  scarcely 
escape  it.  It  never  dives  but  when  incited  to  it  by  the  appear- 
ence  of  a  morsel  of  fat  under  water."  Though  like  Mother 
Carey's  Chicken,  it  follows  in  the  wake  of  ships,  its  food  is  of  a 
somewhat  higher  grade,  being  restricted  to  the  garbage  of  the 
vessel,  blubber,  &c.  This  bird  is  the  Mollemoke  of  Dr.  Kane. 
The  SLENDER-BILLED  FULMAR,  P.  tenuirostris,  is  a  species 
named  by  Audubon.  Its  length  is  eighteen  inches  and  a  half. 
It  is  common  near  Columbia  river;  is  easily  taken  with  a  hook 
baited  with  pork,  and  during  a  gale  is  so  tame  as  almost  to  allow 
itself  to  be  taken  with  the  hand. 

The  Southern  Seas  are  visited  by  several  species  of  Petrels. 
The  largest,  the  NELLY  or  BREAK-BONES,  P.  gigantea,  is  a  com 
mon  bird,  both  in  the  inland  channels  and  on  the  open  sea.  "In 
its  habit  and  manner  of  flight,"  says  Darwin  in  his  Voyage  of 
Adventure,  "there  is  a  very  close  resemblance  to  the  Albatross, 
and,  as  with  the  latter  bird,  a  person  may  watch  it  for  hours  to 
gether  without  seeing  on  what  it  feeds,  so  it  is  with  this  Petrel. 
The  Break-Bone  is,  however,  a  rapacious  bird,  for  it  was  ob 
served  by  some  of  the  officers  of  fort  San  Antonio,  chasing  a 
diver.  The  bird  tried  to  escape  both  by  diving  and  flying,  but 
it  was  continually  struck  down,  and  at  last  killed  by  a  blow  on 
its  head.  At  Port  St.  Julian,  also,  these  Great  Petrels  were  seen 
killing  and  devouring  young  gulls."  These  large  Petrels  are 
called  by  the  sailors,  Mother  Carey's  Geese. 

The  SHEARWATER,  Puffinus,  differs  from  the  true  Petrels  by 
having  a  longer  bill,  and  the  tubular  nostrils  open,  not  by  a  com 
mon  aperture,  but  by  two  distinct  orifices. 

The  WANDERING  or  LARGE  SHEARWATER,  P.  cinereus,  (ashy- 
colored,)  is  twenty  inches  in  length,  and  of  a  sooty  brown  color. 
It  is  frequently  seen  off  the  shore  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 


NATATORES.  43 } 

to  that  of  Mexico.  According  to  Mr.  Darwin,  it  is  common  to  Cape 
Horn  and  the  coast  of  Peru,  as  well  as  Europe.  The  flight  of 
these  Wanderers  of  the  ocean  is  very  rapid  and  long  protracted. 
In  calm  weather  they  are  fond  of  alighting  on  the  water,  in  com 
pany  with  the  Fulmars,  and  when  at  play  among  themselves, 
swim  with  great  buoyancy  and  have  a  graceful  appearance. 

The  PUFFIN,  or  SHEARWATER,  P.  anglorum,  is  a  species  that 
once  largely  inhabited  a  small  islet  near  the  southern  part  of  the 
Isle  of  Man,  but  has  of  late  deserted  it.  It  is  now  abundant  on 
the  coast  of  South  Wales.  It  has  been  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Newfoundland.  In  the  Orkney  Islands  it  is  called  the  LYRE, 
and  is  much  valued,  both  on  account  of  its  serving  as  food,  and 
for  its  feathers.  This  bird  is  described  as  standing  nearly  erect 
and  flying  with  great  rapidity.  "  It  feeds  on  marine  animal  sub- 
stances  of  all  kinds,  and  when  taken  squirts  out  an  oily  fluid  from 
its  nostrils,  in  the  manner  of  the  Petrels."  It  breeds  in  burrows, 
laying  one  egg,  which  is  white  and  about  as  large  as  that  of  the 
domestic  fowl.  The  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  of  a  lustrous 
black ;  the  under  parts  pure  white  ;  the  sides  of  the  neck  speck 
led  with  black  and  white  ;  length  thirteen  inches. 

The  LITTLE  SHEARWATER,  P.  obscurus,  is  of  a  brown  color 
above  ;  beneath,  white  ;  in  length,  ten  or  eleven  inches.  It  is 
common  to  Europe  and  America;  ranges  northwardly  from  the 
coast  of  Mexico  to  that  of  New  York. 

The  genus  Thalassidroma,  (Gr.  Thalassa,  the  sea  ;  dromos, 
a  race,)  including  the  smallest  of  the  web- footed  birds,  has  been 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Petrel  group.  They  are  of  noc 
turnal  or  crepuscular  habits,  and  seldom  seen  except  in  lowering 
or  stormy  weather,  when  they  frequently  follow  in  the  track  of 
ships.  At  other  times  and  during  clear  weather,  they  are  con- 
cealed  in  the  holes  of  rocks  and  in  burrows,  and  only  come  forth 
at  night  in  search  of  food.  Their  flight  equals  in  swiftness  that 
of  the  Swallow  tribe,  which  they  resemble  in  size,  color,  and 
general  appearance.  They  breed  in  the  crevices  of  rocks  or  in 
burrows,  like  the  rest  of  the  family,  laying  but  one  egg,  which 
is  white  and  comparatively  large. 

The  STORMY  or  LEAST  PETREL,  T.  pelagica,  (belonging  to  the 
sea,)  or  P.  pelagica,  is  known  to  sailors  under  the  name  of 
Mother  Carey's  Chicken,  and  by  them  regarded  as  the  precursor 
of  a  storm.  This  is  the  smallest  of  the  Web-footed  Birds,  being 
only  about  six  inches  long.  In  the  length  of  its  wings  and 
its  swift  flight,  it  is  like  the  Chimney  Swallow ;  in  its  plumage  it 
is  black  with  purple  reflections,  except  the  rump  and  a  portion 
of  the  tail,  which  are  white.  It  is  met  with  on  every  part  of 


432  NATATORES. 

the  ocean,  diving  or  swimming  over  the  surface  of  the  heavy 
rolling  waves  of  the  most  tempestuous  sea,  quite  at  ease  and  in 
security.  Long  before  seamen  can  discover  any  appearance  of 
a  storm,  these  birds,  as  if  foreseeing  and  fearing  its  approach, 
flock  together  in  large  numbers,  making  a  clamorous,  piercing 
cry,  thus  warning  the  mariner  of  his  danger.  So  oily  is  the 
Stormy  Petrel  said  to  be  in  its  texture,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Faroe  islands  draw  a  wick  through  its  body  and  use  it  as  a  lamp. 
A  most  singular  peculiarity  of  this  bird  is  its  faculty  of  standing 
and  even  running  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  which  it  does 
with  the  greatest  facility.  According  to  BufFon,  it  is  from  this 
practice  that  these  birds  are  called  Petrels,  the  name  being  de 
rived  from  the  Apostle  Peter,  who,  as  Sacred  Scripture  informs 
us,  walked  upon  the  water.  This  species  is  not  observed  to 
breed  on  the  American  coast,  though  it  is  not  uncommon  on  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland. 

WILSON'S  PETREL,  or  MOTHER  CAREY'S  CHICKEN,  T.  Wilsonii, 
is  a  little  over  seven  inches  in  length  ;  in  the  color  of  its  plu 
mage  of  a  dark  grayish  brown,  with  some  portions  of  white. 
It  is  less  lively  than  the  common  Stormy  Petrel. 

The  FORK-TAILED  PETREL,  T.  Lcachii,  is  eight  inches  in 
length  ;  of  similar  plumage  with  Wilson's  Petrel,  but  less  active 
and  does  not  breed  so  extensively  on  the  American  coast. 

The  genus  Diomedea,  (a  proper  name.)  comprises,  among 
other  species,  the  ALBATROSS  OF  CHINA,  D.  fidiginosa,  (Lat. 
sooty  ;)  the  YELLOW  AND  BLACK-BEAKKD  ALBATROSS,  D.  chlo- 
rorhyncos,  (Gr.  yellow-beaked;)  (this  has  been  taken  on  the  Pa 
cific  not  far  from  Columbia  river;)  and  the  COMMON  ALBATROSS, 
D.  exidans,  (Lat.  wandering.)  The  beak  in  these  birds  is  very 
strong,  hard,  long,  and  straight  nearly  to  the  end,  where  it  sud 
denly  curves.  The  upper  mandible  appears  to  be  composed  of 
many  articulated  pieces,  furrowed  on  the  sides  and  crooked  at 
the  point ;  the  lower  mandible  is  smooth  and  cut  short ;  the 
wings  are  very  long  and  narrow  with  the  primary  quill  short  and 
the  secondaries  long;  the  feet  short;  the  three  toes  long  and 
completely  webbed. 

Albatross  is  a  word  said  to  be  corrupted  "  from  the  Portuguese 
•  Alcatraz,  which  was  applied  by  the  early  navigators  of  that  na 
tion  to  cormorants  and  other  large  sea-birds." 

The  COMMON  ALBATROSS,  D.  exulans,  (Lat.  wandering,)  is  the 
largest  sea-bird  known.  The  top  of  the  head  is  a  muddy  gray, 
but  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  white,  except  a  few  of  the  wing- 
feathers,  and  several  transverse  black  bands  on  the  back.  The 
range  of  these  birds  is  very  extensive.  They  are  not  confined 


NATATORES.  433 

to  the  Southern  Ocean,  as  has  been  supposed,  but  are  equally 
numerous  in  northern  latitudes,  (excepting,  perhaps,  the  tropics.) 
From  its  often  breeding  with  the  Penguin,  it  has  been  supposed 
to  have  a  peculiar  affection  for  that  amphibious  creature,  and  a 
pleasure  in  its  company.  Their  nests  are  seen  together  on  unin 
habited  islands,  where  the  ground  slants  to  the  sea.  As  if  for 
mutual  protection,  the  Albatross  raises  its  nest  on  a  hillock  of 
heath,  sticks,  and  long  grass,  about  two  feet  high,  and  lays  one 
eg** ;  around  this,  the  Penguins,  in  a  circle,  make  their  lower 
settlement  in  burrowed  holes  in  the  ground, — commonly,  it  is 
said,  eight  Penguins  to  one  Albatross. 

"The  Albatross,"  says  Cheever,  "is  the  most  beautiful  and 
lovable  object  of  the  animate  world  which  the  adventurer  meets 
with  in  all  the  South  Pacific;  when  on  the  wing,  it  is  the  very 
ideal  of  beauty  and  grace.  The  capture  of  a  whale  a  thousand 
miles  from  land,  will  bring  them  trooping  from  afar,  as  a  carcass 
in  Mexico  or  Louisiana,  will  the  Turkey-Buzzards.  I  have 
watched  them  singly,  keeping  company  with  our  ship,  and  have 
seen  them  gathered  by  hundreds  when  the  cutting-in  of  a  whale 
along  side,  allured  them  from  a  circuit  of  five  hundred  miles. 
They  sit  upon  the  water  light  and  graceful  as  Swans,  and  feed 
on  small  marine  animals,  mucilaginous  zoophytes,  the  spawn  of 
fish,  and  blubber.  Not  unfrequently,  they  measure  eleven  feet 
from  tip  to  tip  of  the  outspread  wings,  and  weigh  from  seventeen 
to  eighteen  pounds."  Another  voyager,  (Ives,)  mentions  one 
shot  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  "which  measured  seventeen  feet 
and  a  half  from  wing  to  wing." 

In  the  Arctic  Exploring  Voyage,  Dr.  McCormick  met  with  one 
weighing  twenty  pounds,  and  having  twelve  feet  stretch  of  wings. 
The  Albatross  does  not  seem  to  be  a  quarrelsome  bird,  but  when 
attacked  by  its  enemy,  the  Skua  Gull,  it  seeks  safety  in  flight. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  does  so  by  dipping  its  body  in  the  water, 
its  formidable  bill  appearing  to  repel  its  assailants.  When  it 
wishes  to  rise  on  the  wing,  4i  it  has  to  tread  water  a  long  way, 
like  a  running  Ostrich,  before  it  can  attain  its  due  momentum 
and  soar  aloft;  and  when  captured,  and  set  at  liberty  in  the  ship, 
it  can  never,  of  itself,  rise  from  the  even  surface  of  the  deck,  but 
we  must  toss  the  noble  bird  overboard,  or  lift  him  quite  clear  of 
the  ship's  rail,  before  he  can  raise  his  glorious  pinions,  and  mount 
aloft  in  the  air." 

Billets  of  wood  with  inscriptions  upon  them,  are  often  attached 
to  these  birds  before  setting  them  loose ;  in  repeated  instances, 
such  birds  have  been  captured  in  different  and  distant  latitudes 
by  other  ships,  and  curious  information  has  thus  been  communi- 


434  NATATORES. 

cated.  "They  are  caught  by  baiting  a  hook  with  pork  or  blubber, 
and  fastening  a  piece  of  wood  near  the  bait,  so  that  it  may  be 
kept  floating,  and  letting  it  tow  astern.  Superstitious  sailors 
sometimes  ascribe  the  high  winds  and  bad  weather  to  their  having 
killed  an  Albatross." 

FIFTH  FAMILY.     GULLS. 
Larida,  (Gr.  Ao^oj,  laros,  a  mew  or  gull.)    .. 

These  web-footed  and  well  known  sea-birds,  are  numerously 
dispersed  over  every  quarter  of  the  world,  and,  in  some  parts,  are 
met  with  at  certain  seasons,  in  prodigious  multitudes.  They 
assemble  together  in  rather  promiscuous  arid  straggling  flocks, 
and  greatly  enliven  the  beach  and  rocky  cliffs,  by  their  irregular 
movements,  while  their  shrill  cries  are  often  deadened  by  the 
noise  of  the  waves,  or  nearly  drowned  in  the  roaring  of  the  surge. 
Occasionally,  taking  a  wide  range  over  the  ocean,  they  are  seen 
by  navigators  many  leagues  distant  from  the  land.  They  are  all 
greedy  and  gluttonous,  devouring,  almost  indiscriminately,  what 
ever  comes  in  their  way,  whether  of  fresh  or  putrid  substances, 
until  they  are  obliged  to  disgorge  the  contents  of  theMr  overloaded 
stomachs;  still,  they  can  endure  protracted  .hunger.  The  large 
kind  of  Gulls  are  most  common  in  the  cold  climates  of  the  North, 
where  they  breed  and  raise  their  young,  feeding  chiefly  upon  the 
remains  of  dead  whales,  which  they  find  floating  on  the  sea, 
among  the  ice,  or  driven  on  shore  by  the  winds  and  waves. 
The  True  or  Typical  Gulls,  (Larus  )  are  much  more  decidedly 
land  birds  than  any  other  of  the  order.  Those  of  the  sub-genus 
Xema  or  Laughing  Gulls,  in  particular,  roam  much  inland  ;  feed 
on  insects  and  worms ;  build  among  herbage  in  low  nests  near 
the  sea;  lay  eggs  of  an  olive  color,  marked  with  large  brown 
spots;  and  undergo  seasonable  changes  of  plumage;  all  of 
which  may  be  said  of  the  Plovers.  To  the  Wading  Birds,  the 
Plovers  especially,  the  Gulls,  (Larus,)  approach  in  their  general 
form,  in  attitude,  in  the  long  and  slender  tarsus,  with  the  hind 
toe  small  and  set  high  up,  (as  in  the  Lapwing,  Vanellus,)  in  the 
naked  space  above  the  heel,  and  even  in  the  form  of  the  beak, 
straight,  slender,  and  swelling  towards  the  tip — and  also  in  the 
internal  structure. 

We  quote  from  Swainson  some  remarks,  pointing  out  clearly 
the  differences  in  the  three  sections  into  which  the  Gulls  have 
been  arranged,  viz:  FORK-TAILED  GULLS,  ( Rynchops ;)  the 
THREE-TOED  GULLS,  (Larus,)  and  the  FOUR-TOED  GULLS, 
(Leslris.) 


NATATORES.  435 

"  The  TERNS,  or  Sea-Swallows,  (Sterna,)  constitute  the  fissiros- 
tral  type  ;  they  have  remarkably  long  wings,  and  slender  bills  ; 
the  tail  is  forked;  and  the  plumage,  generally,  is  of  a  delicate 
pearl-white,  with  more  or  less  black  upon  the  head  ;  the  species 
are  numerous,  and  occur  in  both  hemispheres.  The  extraordi 
nary  .genus,  Rhynchops,,  or  Skimmer,  although  possessing  much 
of  the  general  habits  of  the  Terns,  is  eminently  distinguished  by 
the  singular  form  of  its  bill,  the  upper  mandible  of  which  is  con 
siderably  shorter  than  the  under,  and  appears  as  if  one-third  of 
the  length  had  been  broken  off;  three  species  have  been  de 
scribed,  to  which  we  add  a  fourth  ;  they  skirn  over  the  surface 
of  the  ocean  with  great  swiftness,  and  scoop  up  small  marine 
insects  and  other  animals.  The  True  or  Typical  Gull,  (Larus,) 
are  a  numerous  race,  dispersed  over  every  clime,  and  so  closely 
resembling  each  other  in  plumage,  that  many  of  the  species  are 
even  now  but  imperfectly  understood;  they  are  much  like  the 
Terns  in  general  appearance,  but  the  bill  is  stronger,  and  the 
upper  mandible  is  much  more  curved  towards  the  end  ;  many 
are  of  larger  size  ;  and  all,  rapacious  devourers  of  fish,  and  of 
every  marine  animal,  dead  or  alive,  which  is  cast  upon  the  shore  ; 
they  particularly  abound  in  northern  latitudes,  but  seem  to 
range  over  the  wide  world  of  waters.  The  Parasitic  Gulls, 
(Lestris,)  are  the  raptorial  representative  in  this  family,  and  are 
almost  confined  to  cold  regions  ;  they  are  known  by  their  stronger 
conformation,  their  different  shaped  bill,  and  the  rough  scales 
upon  their  feet ;  these  birds,  like  the  frigate  cormorants,  derive 
their  chief  supply  of  food  by  robbing  their  more  feeble  congen 
ers  ;  they  pursue  the  largest  Gulls,  and  make  them  disgorge  or 
relinquish  their  hard-earned  prey.  The  Black-toed  and  the 
Arctic  Gulls  belong  to  this  group,  and  both  are  occasionally  seen 
on  the  northern  shores  of  Britain." 

FORK-TAILED  GULLS. 

The  BLACK  SKIMMER,  Rhynchops,  (Gr.  rhunchos,  beak ;  ops, 
face;)  nigra,  (Lat.  black.)  This  singularly  endowed  bird  (re 
ferred  to  above)  is  dispersed  in  large  flocks  from  Texas  to  New 
Jersey.  It  reaches  the  coast  of  New  York  State  in  May  ;  breeds  on 
sand  beaches  or  islands;  at  night,  ascending  streams,  sometimes 
to  the  distance  of  one  hundred  miles.  The  length  of  the  male 
bird  is  twenty  inches.  The  bill,  for  half  its  length,  is  a  rich 
carmine,  inclining  to  vermilion  ;  and  the  feet  are  of  the  same  color ; 
the  claws,  black.  The  upper  parts  are  a  deep  brownish  black  ; 
the  secondary  quills,  and  four  or  five  of  the  primaries,  tipped 
with  white  ;  the  tail-feathers  of  the  male,  are  black,  broadly 


430  NATATORES. 

margined  with  white,  (in  the  female  they  are  white  ;)  the  under 
parts  are  white,  with  a  roseate  tinge.  This  bird  is  known  under 
the  names  Shearwater,  Razor-bill,  Cutwater,  Skimmer,  Floodgull, 
and  Shippang.  Its  eggs  are  three  or  four,  white,  blotched  with 
shades  of  brown,  laid  in  a  slight  hollow  in  the  sand.  Audubon 
says,  "  The  flight  of  the  Black  Skimmer  is  perhaps  more  elegant 
than  that  of  any  water-bird  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  The 
great  length  of  Jts  narrow  wings,  its  partially  elongated  forked 
tail,  its  thin  body  and  extremely  compressed  bill,  all  appear  con 
trived  to  assure  it  that  buoyancy  which  one  cannot  but  admire 
when  he  sees  it  on  the  wing.  It  is  able  to  maintain  itself  in  the 
heaviest  gale ;  and  I  believe  no  instance  has  been  recorded  of 
any  bird  of  this  species  having  been  forced  inland  by  the  most 
violent  storm."  These  birds  show  much  sagacity  in  finding  their 
place  of  rendezvous  in  the-  morning,  after  having  been  scattered 
during  the  night  in  all  directions  in  quest  of  food  ;  and  evince 
great  enmity  to  Crows  and  Turkey  Buzzards,  driving  them  as 
marauders  from  their  breeding  grounds.  All  possess  great 
power  and  endurance  in  flight;  their  long  forked  tails  and 
pointed  wings,  indicating  both  strength  and  swiftness. 

Of  the  TERNS,  twelve  or  more  species  might  be  enumerated. 
But  we  can  only  refer  in  particular  to — the  COMMON  TERN,  Sterna 
Jiirundo,  (Lat.  swallow,)  found  in  abundance  on  the  southern 
shores  of  Europe,  and  in  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  This 
species,  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  in  length  ;  is  sometimes 
called  the  Big  Tern, — in  Massachusetts,  the  Mackerel  Tern.  It 
ranges  on  this  Continent  from  the  tropics  to  the  Arctic  circle. 

The  CAYENNE  TERN,  S.  Cayana,  is  larger  than  the  Common 
Tern,  in  its  size  and  its  robust  tarsi,  resembling  the  smaller  Gulls. 
It  breeds  from  Florida  southwardly,  but  is  met  with  from  the 
intertropical  regions  to  55 o  N.  L.  Length  from  sixteen  to 
nineteen  inches. 

— The  NODDY  TERN,  S.  stolida,  (Lat.  dull,)  receives  its  common 
name  from  the  breeding  places  of  this  species,  one  of  the  Tor- 
tuff  as  Keys,  called  Noddy  Key.  The  Sooty  Terns,  S.fuliginosa, 
breed  on  an  island  a  few  miles  distant.  The  Noddy  ranging 
from  Florida  southwardly,  has  been  frequently  celebrated  by 
travelers  who  have  crossed  the  equator.  Its  color  is  sooty  brown  ; 
the  bill,  black ;  the  crown,  white ;  the  tail,  wedge-shaped  and 
long.  The  Noddies  form  regular  nests  of  twigs  and  dry  grass, 
which  they  place  on  the  bushes  or  low  trees,  but  never  on  the 
ground.  The  female  lays  three  eggs,  of  a  reddish  yellow  color, 
spotted  with  dull  red  and  purple.  "When  seized  in  the  hand, 
the  Noddy  utters  a  rough  cry,  not  unlike  that  of  a  young  Amer- 


NATATORES.  4JJ7 

lean  Crow  taken  from  the  nest.  On  such  occasions,  it  does  not 
disgorge  its  food,  like  the  Cayenne  Tern  and  other  species, 
although  it  bites  severely,  with  quickly  repeated  movements  of 
the  bill,  which,  on  missing  the  object  aimed  at,  snaps  like  that  of 
our  larger  Fly-Catchers."  Length  about  sixteen  inches. 

— The  SILVERY  or  LITTLE  TERN,  S.  argentea,  (Lat.  silvery,)  is 
closely  allied  to  the  S.  minuta,  (Lat.  small  or  minute,)  of  Europe. 
The  upper  parts  and  tail,  are  a  deep  pearl  gray;  all  beneath, 
silvery  white.  It  is  larger  than  the  corresponding  European 
species,  and  the  entire  upper  parts,  (with  the  tail,)  are  of  a  lighter 
shade.  Length  from  nine  to  ten  inches.  The  eggs  are  light 
yellowish  white,  with  angular  dark  brown  spots.  The  Silvery 
Tern  breeds  from  Texas  to  Labrador. 

THREE-TOED  GULLS. 

The  GULLS,  Larus,  are  represented  by  thirteen  or  more  species 
on  this  continent.  In  these  the  hind  toe  is  very  small,  and  artic 
ulated  high  up  on  the  tarsus ;  in  one  species  entirely  wanting. 

The  GREAT  BLACK-BACKED  GULL,  L.  marinus,  is  the  largest 
Gull  that  is  seen  on  the  American  coast,  and  described  as  ex 
ceedingly  bold,  voracious,  and  predatory  in  its  habits.  Its  length 
is  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty  inches ;  the  expanse  of  wings  about 
five  feet  and  a  half.  It  breeds  on  the  coast,  from  Labrador 
northwardly ;  ranging  in  the  winter,  to  New  York,  and  migra 
ting  as  far  South  as  Florida.  It  is  also  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  North  of  Europe,  where  it  finds  a  home.  Its  nest  is  made 
of  grass,  rushes,  and  other  materials,  and  contains  three  or  four 
eggs,  of  an  olive  green,  marked  with  very  dark  brown.  Audu- 
bon  remarks,  "This  bird  must  be  of  extraordinary  longevity,  as 
I  have  seen  one  that  was  kept  in  captivity  more  than  thirty 
years."  The  back  and  wings  are  a  deep  bluish  black  ;  the 
quills,  with  black  shafts,  tipped  with  white;  in  the  summer,  the 
head  and  neck  are  pure  white ;  in  winter,  the  same  parts  are 
white,  with  brownish  streaks. 

The  COMMON  AMERICAN  GULL.  L.  zonorliyncus,  (Gr.  zone  or 
ring-billed,)  has  a  mantle  of  bluish  gray ;  the  head,  tail,  and 
under  parts,  white  ;  the  outer  quills  are  black,  tipped  with  white. 
In  the  quills,  however,  the  plumage  changes  with  the  age  and 
season.  It  is  popularly  called  the  BROWN  WINTER  GULL, — a  name 
referring  to  the  plumage  of  the  young,  rather  than  of  the  adult. 
The  ring  on  the  bill  is  not  always  found.  The  length  of  this  spe 
cies  is  nineteen  inches.  It  is  allied  to  the  L.  canus,  (Lat.  gray,) 
or  Gray  Gull,  of  Europe,  breeds  from  Maine  northwardly, — and 


438  NATATORES. 

during  the  winter,  is  seen  as  far  South  as  Mexico;  sometimes  it 
appears  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  FOUR-TOED  PARASITIC  GULLS.     JAGERS,  or  SKUAS. 

These  birds  all  breed  in  high  northern  latitudes,  spreading 
themselves  into  the  interior  on  lakes  and  rivers ;  but  in  the  winter 
are  seen  in  temperate  regions,  and  on  this  Continent  as  far  South 
as  Mexico.  The  bill  is  of  moderate  length,  cylindrical,  and 
hooked  at  the  tip;  the  hook  and  tip,  of  separate  pieces;  the  hind 
toe  is  small,  and  on  a  level  with  the  others;  the  tail  is  even  or 
rounded  ;  the  central  pair  of  feathers  very  much  lengthened. 
Of  the  several  species,  we  can  refer  particularly  only  to 

The  ARCTIC  JAGER,  Lestris,  (Gr.  a  pillager,)  parasiticus,  which 
is  seen  in  great  numbers  in  the  northern  regions.  Like  the  other 
Skuas,  it  obtains  the  greater  part  of  its  subsistence  by  pursuing  and 
buffeting  the  peaceable  Gulls,  and  compelling  them  to  give  up  the 
produce  of  their  toils.  But  the  Jagers  also  feed  on  fish,  insects, 
and  worms.  Temminck  particularly  mentions  the  Janthina,  or 
Oceanic  Snail,  as  forming  a  portion  of  their  sustenance.  "  In 
truth,  no  animal  substances  seem  to  come  amiss  to  them."  The 
nests  of  these  birds  are  composed  of  dry  grass  and  mosses,  and 
placed  on  unfrequented  heaths,  at  some  distance  from  the  shore; 
the  eggs  are  two,  of  a  dark  olive  green,  with  irregular  blotches 
of  dark  brown.  Captains  Parry  and  Ross  speak  of  this  bird  as 
abundant  at  Baffin's  Bay  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Polar  Sea. 
It  is  said,  that  it  "is  frequently  met  with  inland,  seeking  its  food 
along  the  water  courses  which  occupy  the  bottom  of  ravines ; 
differing  in  this  respect  from  the  Pomarine  Jager,  L.  pomarinus, 
which  is  exclusively  a  Sea-bird."  The  length  of  the  Arctic 
Jager  is  twenty-three  inches.  The  plumage  is  "close,  elastic, 
soft,  and  blended ; "  on  the  upper  parts  blackish  gray  ;  the  neck 
and  lower  parts,  white,  the  former  tinged  with  yellow. 

SIXTH  FAMILY.     PELICANS. 
Pelecanida,  (Gr.  TW-taxd*',  pelecan,  a  pelican.) 

The  Pelican  family  are  characterised  by  having  the  hind  toe 
united  with  the  others  in  a  single  membrane,  so  that  the  whole 
four  toes  are  webbed.  The  bill  is,  generally,  longer  than  the 
head,  strong,  and  sometimes  compressed ;  the  mandibles  are 
dentate,  (toothed  ;)  the  nostrils  mere  slits,  the  aperture  to  which 
is  scarcely  perceivable.  With  the  exception  of  the  Phaeton  or 
Tropic-bird, — which,  in  many  respects,  agrees  with  the  Gulls, — 
there  is  more  or  less  of  naked  skin  about  the  face  and  throat ; 


NATATORES.  439 

the  skin  of  the  throat  is  capable  of  being  dilated  ;  the  wings  are 
long  and  powerful ;  the  feet  short  and  robust ;  the  tail  consists 
of  twelve,  fourteen,  twenty  or  twenty-four  feathers. 

Though  their  completely  webbed  feet  seem  to  be  perfect  oars, 
peculiarly  adapting  these  birds  to  an  aquatic  life,  yet  a  very  large 
part  of  them  do  not  swim  or  dive  at  all,  but  perch  on  trees. 
They  all  fly  well,  and  some,  from  the  broad  expanse  of  their 
wings,  have  uncommon  powers  of  flight.  Soaring  far  out  over 
the  ocean,  when  a  fish  first  arrests  their  attention,  they  plunge 
down  upon  it,  and  instantly  rise  again  into  the  air. 

The  birds  of  this  family  nestle  and  roost  either  on  rocks  or 
lofty  trees ;  the  eggs  are  encased  with  a  soft,  absorbent,  chalky 
substance  laid  over  the  hard  shell ;  the  young  are,  at  first,  cov 
ered  with  long  and  flossy  blackish  down.  They  remain  a  great 
while  in  the  nest,  and  when  they  leave  it,  are  generally  equal 
or  superior  to  the  adults  in  weight.  The  species  are  not  very 
numerous,  but  are  found  in  the  seas  and  around  the  coasts  of 
most  parts  of  the  globe.  The  plumage  is  usually  black,  (often 
glossed  with  metallic  reflections,)  and  white. 

This  family  may  be  arranged  into  the  Pelicans  proper,  (Toti- 
palmes,  of  Cuvier,)  the  Cormorants,  the  Darters,  the  Frigate 
Birds,  the  Gannets,  and  the  Phaetons. 

PELICANS  PROPER. 

The  True  Pelicans,  Pelecanus,  are  large  and  heavy  birds, 
with  very  long,  rather  narrow,  and  rounded  wings;  the  tail  is 
short,  broad,  rounded,  with  twenty  to  twenty-four  feathers,  which 
are  broad,  and  abruptly  pointed.  A  pouch  which  hangs  under 
the  lower  mandible,  is  capable  of  containing  a  large  quantity  of 
water.  It  has  been  said  by  some  writers,  that  this  pouch  "ena 
bles  these  birds  to  dispose  of  a  superabundance  of  fish,  which 
they  take,  either  for  their  own  use,  or  the  nourishment  of  their 
young,"  and  this  has  been  the  generally  received  idea.  Audu- 
bon,  however,  who  often  noticed  flocks  of  these  birds,  says  "the 
idea  that  the  Pelicans  keep  fish  or  water  in  their  pouches  to  con 
vey  them  to  their  young,  is  quite  erroneous."  He  states,  as  the 
result  of  his  observations,  that  the  water  is  immediately  forced 
out  between  the  partially  closed  mandibles;  and  the  fish,  "unless 
larger  than  those  on  which  they  usually  feed,"  are  instantly 
swallowed,  though  afterwards  disgorged  for  the  benefit  of  the 
young.  The  Pelicans  have  long  been  celebrated  as  symbols  of 
maternal  love.  Books  of  emblems  have  depicted  this  bird  as 
tearing  open  the  breast  to  nourish  its  young  with  its  blood,  but 
this  representation  is  not  well  founded.  The  fact  appears  to  be, 


440  NATATORES. 

that  the  bird,  in  the  process  of  feeding  its  young,  crushes  the  fish 
between  its  mandibles,  and  thus  stains  its  white  breast  with 
drops  of  blood.  The  Pelicans  are  rarely  seen  more  than  sixty 
miles  from  land.  They  are  gregarious,  and  nUYnerous  in  Asia 
and  Africa,  as  well  as  in  Europe  and  America. 

The  COMMON  WHITE  PELICAN,  P.  onocrotalus,  (Gr.  vnokrota- 
los,  a  pelican,)  is  an  European  species,  with  which  that  of  P. 
Americanus,  or  the  American  White  Pelican,  very  nearly 
agrees.  The  American,  however,  differs  from  the  European 
bird  in  having  a  "  long,  thin,  bony  process  in  the  upper  mandi 
ble."  "  The  male  of  the  American  species  is  sixty-one  and  three- 
fourths  inches  long;  bill  thirteen  and  three-fourths  inches  ;  ex 
panse  of  wings  one  hundred  and  three  inches."  In  this  species, 
the  feet  and  pouch  are  pale  yellow,  as  are  the  long  feathers  on  the 
breast,  and  the  tuft  on  the  back  of  the  head. 

The  BROWN  PELICAN,  P.fuscus,  (Lat.  brown.)  is,  when  ma 
ture,  fifty-two  inches  in  length ;  the  expanse  of  wings  is  eighty 
inches.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  American  coast  as  far  north 
ward  as  North  Carolina  ;  breeds  on  trees,  and  also  on  the  ground  ; 
the  pouch  is  usually  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  depth,  and  will 
hold  a  gallon  of  water.  This  membrane  is  sometimes  dried,  and 
used  for  keeping  snuff,  gun-powder,  and  shot.  The  quantity  offish 
which  the  Brown  Pelicans  consume,  is  extremely  large.  They 
often  times  become  so  overburdened  with  food,  that  flight  is  diffi 
cult.  Audubon  examined  one  which  had  in  the  stomach  up 
wards  of  a  hundred  small  fishes;  sometimes  "he  found  in  that 
organ  a  great  number  of  live,  blue  colored  worms,  measuring 
about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and  about  the  thickness 
of  a  Crow-quill."  The  bodies  of  these  birds  are  greatly  inflated 
by  air-ceils ;  their  bones  are  very  light ;  and  they  are  hard  to 
kill.  The  Black-headed  Gull,  which  is  abundant  along  the 
coast  of  Florida  in  spring  and  summer,  closely  watches  the 
motions  of  these  Pelicans,  in  order  to  seize  the  small  fishes  which 
in  letting  off  the  water  from  the  bill,  they  sometimes  allow  to 
escape ;  for  that  purpose,  the  Gull  alights  on  the  Pelican's  bill, 
or  on  his  head,  and  seizes  the  prey  when  apparently  just  on  the 
eve  of  deliverance, — the  Pelican,  meanwhile,  exhibiting  no 
symptoms  of  annoyance  or  anger. 

The  CORMORANTS  are  included  in  the  genus  Plialacrocorax, 
(Gr.  plialakros,  bald ;  korax,  raven.)  They  are  widely  spread 
over  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  every  where  remarkable  for 
their  voraciousness.  The  bill  in  these  birds  is  about  as  long  as 
the  head,  rather  slender,  nearly  straight,  and  compressed  towards 
the  end,  the  upper  mandible  ending  in  a  powerful  hook  ;  the  sac 


NATATORES.  441 

under  the  throat  is  small,  by  no  means  comparing  in  size  with 
that  of  the  Pelicans  proper;  the  nostrils  are  obliterated,  but  in 
youth  open,  (Aud. ;)  the  wings  of  moderate  size  and  broad  ;  the 
tail  of  moderate  length,  very  narrow  and  much  rounded,  having 
twelve  or  more  strong  shafted  feathers.  These  birds  differ  from 
others  of  the  family  in  being  excellent  divers.  Their  plumage 
is  soft  and  generally  blended,  compact  on  the  back  and  wings ; 
usually  of  dark,  but  often  rich  colors,  varying  with  age  and  the 
season  of  the  year.  They  are  capable  of  domestication  and  are 
trained  to  catch  and  bring  in  fish.  The  Chinese  who  use  them 
for  this  purpose,  put  a'ring  around  the  neck  as  a  hindrance  to 
their  devouring  the  fish.  To  increase  the  power  of  swallowing, 
it  should  be  noted  that  the  Cormorant  has  an  additional  bone  pe 
culiar  to  itself,  on  the  back  part  of  the  head,  called  the  xyphoid 
(sword-like)  bone,  which,  moving  with  facility  in  each  direc 
tion,  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  attached  to  it,  enlarges  the 
opening  of  the  gullet  for  the  more  easy  passage  of  any  unusu 
ally  large  fish. 

The  COMMON  CORMORANT,  P.  carlo,  (Lat.  charcoal,)  is  spread 
over  a  considerable  portion  of  Europe,  especially  the  north.  It 
is  a  common  bird  in  England;  in  this  country  ranges  in  the  win 
ter  and  is  plentiful  as  far  south  as  New  York  ;  breeds  in  New 
foundland,  Labrador  and  Baffin's  Bay.  It  swims  very  low  in 
the  water ;  even  in  the  sea  its  body  is  deeply  immersed,  so  that 
little  more  than  the  head  and  neck  can  be  seen  above  the  sur 
face  ;  and  most  expertly  does  it  dive  after  its  fishy  prey.  It 
perches  on  trees,  where  it  is  occasionally  known  to  build  its  nest, 
but  it  mostly  selects  rocky  shores  and  islands,  preferring,  accord 
ing  to  Selby,  the  summits,  and  not,  like  the  Green  Cormorant, 
the  clefts  or  ledges.  The  nest  is  said  to  be  composed  entirely  of 
a  mass  of  sea-weed,  frequently  heaped  up  to  the  height  of  two 
feet,  in  which  are  deposited  from  three  to  five  eggs,  of  a  pale 
bluish-white,  with  a  rough  surface.  Ravens  and  Peregrine 
Falcons  have  been  observed  to  have  nests  on  the  same  rocks 
with  those  of  the  Cormorant,  and  in  some  instances,  close  to  them. 
This  bird  is  sometimes  three  feet  and  four  inches  in  length. 

The  GREEN  CORMORANT  or  SHAG,  P.  cristatus,  (Lat.  crested,) 
does  not  perch  on  trees  like  the  others.  As  illustrating  the  depth 
to  which  this  bird  dives,  Mr.  Yarrell  says :  "  The  Shag  has  been 
caught  in  a  crab-pot  fixed  at  twenty  fathoms,  or  a  hundred  feet 
from  the  surface."  The  specific  name  is  given  to  it  from  the 
crest  or  tuft  of  wide  outspread  feathers  which  appears  in  the 
spring  on  the  back  part  of  the  head,  and  is  capable  of  erection. 
The  Shag  is  without  the  white  feathers  on  the  neck  and  thighs 


442  NATATORES 

which  are  seen  in  the  Common  or  Great  Cormorant.    The  length 
is  two  feet,  one  or  two  inches. 

The  VIOLET  GREEN  CORMORANT,  P.  resplendens,  (Lat.  glit 
tering,)  is  the  most  beautiful  species  which  has  been  found  within 
the  limits  of  the  United  States.  The  gloss  of  its  silky  plumage 
suggested  the  specific  name.  This  bird  has  been  found  in  abund 
ance  near  the  Columbia  river.  The  length  of  the  female  is  two 
feet  three  inches. 


THE  DARTERS,  OR  SNAKE-BIRDS. 

These  birds,  which  are  included  in  the  genus  Plotus,  have 
bills  longer  than  the  head,  slender,  pointed,  and  finely  serrated  at 
the  extremity ;  the  tarsus  is  partly  feathered  above  ;  the  neck  is 
much  lengthened;  the  tail  long,  spreading  and  much  rounded. 
The  necks  of  these  birds,  often  rapidly  moved  and  bent,  sug 
gested  the  name  of  Darter,  or  Snake  Bird.  (Fig.  on  Chart.) 

The  AMERICAN  ANHINGA,  or  SNAKE  BIRD,  P.  Anhinga,  is  a 
common  and  constant  resident  from  Florida  to  Georgia,  and  it 
passes  up  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  Natchez.  In  the  southern 
parts  of  Florida  it  is  called  the  "  Grecian  Lady."  This  bird  is 
seen  only  occasionally  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea,  de 
cidedly  preferring  rivers,  small  bays,  or  lagoons  in  the  interior 
where  the  land  is  level  and  lies  low.  It  is  quite  remarkable  in 
its  appearance  and  manners,  often  standing  erect  with  the  wings 
and  tail  spread  out  in  the  sunshine,  and  throwing  its  long  slen 
der  neck  and  head,  in  every  direction,  by  sudden  jerks  and 
bendings.  Though  adapted  for  protracted  and  powerful  flight, 
as  is  shown  by  its  form,  long  wings  and  large  fan-like  tail,  this 
bird  spends  more  than  half  its  time  by  day  in  the  water.  On 
the  approach  of  any  danger,  it  sinks  its  body  and  swims  with  its 
head  and  neck  only  above  the  surface,  when  these  parts,  "  from 
their  form  and  peculiar  sinuous  motion,  somewhat  resemble  the 
head  and  part  of  the  body  of  a  snake."  The  nest  of  the  Snake 
Bird  is  found  in  different  situations,  sometimes  in  low  bushes 
not  more  than  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the  water ;  at  others,  on 
large  and  tall  cypresses,  overhanging  the  borders  of  rivers  or 
other  streams.  The  nest  is  of  a  circular  form  and  two  feet  in 
diameter;  the  eggs  of  a  sky-blue  color. 


NATATORES.  443 


FRIGATE  BIRDS. 

These  birds,  though  in  some  respects  nearly  resembling  the 
Cormorants,  yet  at  the  same  time,  differ  from  them  in  the  very 
broad  expanse  of  the  wing,  by  which  they  are  rendered  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Swimming  Birds.  They  also  differ  from  the 
Cormorants  in  their  feet,  the  webs  of  which  are  deeply  notched, 
and  in  the  form  of  the  tail  and  beak.  The  tail  is  very  long, 
deeply  forked,  and  of  twelve  feathers;  the  bill  is  longer  than 
the  head,  strong,  and  broader  than  high,  except  towards  its 
curved  extremity.  The  Frigate  or  man-of-war  birds,  seem  par 
ticularly  fond  of  the  Flying  fish,  darting  at  it  themselves  when 
near  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  obtaining  it  from  other  birds 
which  they  force  to  drop  their  prey.  Often  they  sadly  persecute 
the  Boobies.  Indeed,  these  birds  are  eminently  raptorial.  Ray 
speaks  of  their  eagle  eyes,  vulturine  claws,  and  kite-like  glid 
ings.  Their  immense  extent  of  wing  and  dashing  habits  have 
obtained  for  them  the  name  of  the  swiftest  ships  of  war  that 
sweep  the  seas. 

The  Frigate  or  Man-of-War  Birds,  are  included  in  one  genus 
and  species,  Tachypetes,  (Gr.  tachus,  swift;  petdo,  to  fly,)  or 
Fregata  aquilus,  (Lat.  from  aquila,  an  eagle.)  Their  length 
is  three  feet  five  inches;  the  expanse  of  wings  is  eight  feet  ; 
some  accounts  make  it  fourteen  feet!  Audubon  says:  "The 
Frigate  Pelican  is  possessed  of  a  power  of  flight  which  I  con 
ceive  superior  to  that  of  perhaps  any  other  bird."  This  bird  is 
very  common  on  the  intertropical  American  coasts,  and  in  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  but  always  within  reach  of  land. 
It  resides  constantly  on  and  about  the  Florida  Keys,  where  it 
breeds  in  vast  numbers,  on  trees.  Sometimes  the  nest  is  built 
on  elevated  rocky  cliffs. 

GANNETS,  OR  BOOBIES. 

These  have  bills  differing  somewhat  from  those  of  the  Frig, 
ate  Bird,  being  long  and  resembling  a  lengthened  cone  which 
is  very  large  at  the  base  and  compressed  towards  the  slightly 
curved  point ;  the  edges  of  the  mandibles  are  serrated ;  the 
hind  toe  is  articulated  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  tarsus,  and 
all  the  four  toes  are  united  by  a  membrane  ;  the  wings  are  long  ; 
the  power  of  flight  is  however  not  equal  to  that  of  the  Frigate 
Bird  ;  the  tail  is  wedge-formed. 

The  COMMON  GANNET  of  Europe,  Sulaalla,  (Lat.  white.)  is 
sometimes  called  the  SOLAN  GOOSE.  Its  length  is  about  thirty- 


444  NATATORES. 

four  inches.  The  head  and  neck  are  of  a  buff  color,  all  the 
rest  of  the  plumage  white,  except  the  wing  primaries,  which  are 
black.  This  species  is  also  included  among  the  birds  of  Ma 
deira  and  South  Africa. 

The  AMERICAN  GANNET,  S.  Americana,  is  thirty-seven  inches 
in  length.  Near  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible  is  "  a  sharp  pro 
cess  and  suture,"  which  this  bird  can  move  in  a  small  degree  in 
swallowing  a  fish.  This  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  European  Gannet,  but  is  now  considered  a  distinct 
species. 

The  Booby  Gannet,  S.fusca,  (Lai.  tawny,)  has  the  head,  neck, 
and  all  the  upper  parts  dusky  brown  ;  the  under  parts  white  ; 
the  face,  bill  and  feet  yellow.  Its  length  is  thirty-one  inches. 

The  term   Booby  is  more  particularly  applied  to  this  species 
on  account  of  the  stupidity  which  it  shows  when  assailed,  calmly 
waiting  to  be  knocked  on  the  head,  as  these  birds  often  do  when 
sitting  on  shore,  or  when  perching  on  the  yard  of  a  ship  till  the 
sailor  climbs  to  their  resting  place,   and  takes  them  off  with  the 
hand.     Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  said  and  written  about 
the  stupidity  of  this  bird,  its  dullness  may  be  questioned  ;  it  may 
not,  like  other  birds,  associate  danger,  certainly  not  at  first,  with 
the  appearance  of  man  ;  its  wings  are  so  long,  and  its  legs  so 
short,  that  when  once  at   rest,  it  has  difficulty  in  setting  the  for 
mer  in  motion,  and  when  surprised  has  no  resource  but  its  beak, 
which  is  seldom    feared  by  the  aggressor.      Audubon  says  :  "  I 
am  unable  to  find  a  good  reason  for  those  who  have  chosen  to 
call  these  birds  boobies."     It  has  been  affirmed  by  many  writers 
and  eye-witnesses  that  this  bird  suffers  greatly  from  the  persecu 
tions  of  the  Frigate-bird,  and  the  Lestris  or  Skua  Gull,  which  force 
it  to  disgorge  its  food.  All  the  old  voyagers  abound  in  entertaining 
stories  relating  to  this  subject,  and  it  is  hardly  credible  that  a/7  were 
mistaken.     Audubon,   however,   says,  "this   /  have  never  wit 
nessed."     The   nest  of  the  Booby  is  placed  on  the  top  of  a  bush 
at  a  height  of  four  to  ten  feet ;  sometimes  on  ledges  of  rocks  cov 
ered  with  herbage.     It  lays  one  egg,  of  a  dull  white  color,  about 
as   large  as  that  of  a    common  hen.      This  bird   ranges   from 
Georgia  southwardly,  but  is  occasionally  seen  farther  north.     It 
is  found  in  large  numbers  on  Noddy  island,  one  of  the  Tortugas, 
in  company  with  the  Noddies. 

TROPIC  BIRDS,  OR  PHAETONS. 

These  birds,  (Phaeton.)  are  distinguished  by  two  long  slender 
tail  feathers,  and  well  known  to  navigators  as  the  harbingers  of 


NATA  TORES.  44  J 

the  tropics.  They  are  characterized  by  extraordinary  length 
of  wing  and  feeble  feet ;  they  are  hence  well  formed  for  flight, 
and  disport  in  the  air  far  out  at  sea ;  on  land  they  are  seen  perch 
ing  on  rocks  and  trees. 

The  COMMON  TROPIC  BIRD,  P.  athereus,  is  somewhat  larger 
than  a  partridge.  The  bill  is  red,  with  an  angle  under  the 
lower  mandible,  as  in  the  Gulls.  The  eyes  are  surrounded  with 
black,  which  ends  in  a  point  towards  the  back  of  the  head  ;  three 
or  four  of  the  largest  quill  feathers,  towards  their  ends,  are  black 
tipped  with  white ;  all  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  white,  except 
the  back,  which  is  variegated  with  curved  lines  of  black  ;  the 
legs  and  feet  are  of  a  vermilion  red.  These  birds  are  seldom  seen 
but  a  few  degrees  north  or  south  of  either  tropic.  They  glide 
along,  most  frequently  without  any  motion  of  the  wing,  but  at 
times,  this  smooth  progression  is  interrupted  by  sudden  jerks. 
When  they  perceive  a  ship,  they  never  fail  to  sail  around  it  as 
if  to  reconnoitre.  They  ordinarily  return  every  evening  to  land 
to  roost  in  the  midst  of  the  rocks  where  they  place  their  nests. 
The  long  feathers  of  the  tail  are  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
South  Sea  Islands  as  ornaments  of  dress. 

What  is  the  2nd  order  of  AQUATIC  BIRDS?  What  is  said  of  their  distri 
bution  ?  What  of  the  Grebe's  foot  ?  What  is  said  of  the  feet  of  the  other 
SWIMMERS  ?  What  of  their  motion  on  land  and  in  the  water  ?  What  is 
remarked  of  their  plumage  ?  What  peculiarity  of  these  birds  is  noticed 
by  Cuvier?  Have  any  of  them  very  high  powers  of  flight?  What  is  said 
of  their  flesh?  What  are  their  resorts?  How  many  families  does  this  or 
der  include  ? 

Give  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  1st  FAMILY.  What  is  said  of  their 
nests  and  young  ?  Upon  what  do  they  feed  ?  How  does  their  beak  aid 
them  in  obtaining  their  food  ?  Are  they  assisted  by  any  other  organ  ? 
What  birds  form  the  connecting  link  between  the  SWIMMERS  and  WADERS? 
Do  the  TRUE  DUCKS  include  many  species?  What  is  said  of  the  Shoveler 
or  Spoon-bill  ?  What  sp.  are  referred  to  and  what  is  said  of  each  ?  What 
SUB-FAMILY  is  mentioned  ?  How  many  genera  does  it  include  ?  Where  are 
the  Sea  Ducks  mostly  found?  What  is  said  of  their  migration  ?  Where 
do  they  make  their  nests?  How  do  they  cover  their  eggs?  Which  gen.  in 
cludes  peculiarly  Marine  Ducks?  For  what  is  the  Eider  D.  remarkable? 
What  is  peculiar  in  its  beak?  What  does  Dr.  Kane  say  of  its  appearance, 
&c.  ?  What  facts  show  the  great  numbers  of  these  birds  at  the  north? 
What  is  said  of  their  nests  ?  How  many  kinds  of  down  and  how  do  they 
differ?  Illustrate  the  elasticity  of  the  live  down.  Where  are  the  King- 
Ducks  found  ?  What  is  said  of  their  flesh  and  down?  What  is  said  of  the 
Surf  D.  ?  What  sp.  is  mentioned?  Why  is  it  called  the  Velvet  D.  and 
what  is  said  of  its  down  ?  Where  is  it  very  numerous  ?  Where  are  the 
breeding  places  of  the  Canvas-backs?  When  are  they  "seen  on  the  coast 
of  the  U.  S.  ?  What  else  is  said  of  them  ?  What  of  the  Spirit  D.  ?  Of 
ike  Long-tailed  D.  ?  Mention  the  different  sp.  of  GEESE.  Which  of  these 


446  NATATORES. 

is  the  origin  of  the  Common  Domestic  Goose  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Egyp 
tian  Goose?  What  SUB-FAMILY  is  named?  How  many  gen.  has  it?  What 
is  said  of  the  Smew  ?  What  of  the  Merganser  ? 

What  is  the  2nd  FAMILY?  Are  they  more  or  less  aquatic  than  the  Ducks? 
What  is  said  of  the  beak,  &c.  ?  What  of  the  Loons  and  Grebes  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  ability  to  walk  and  fly  ?  What  of  their  power  as  swim 
mers  and  divers  ?  How  do  they  use  their  wings  under  water  ?  What  is 
said  of  their  plumage  and  food?  Which  are  Ocean  birds  ?  Which  Fresh 
water  ?  What  of  the  diving  of  the  Grebes  ?  Of  their  stomach  ?  Which 
is  the  largest  of  the  Loons  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  Which  are  the  other  sp.  ? 
What  is  said  of  them  ? 

Which  is  the  3rd  FAMILY?  What  is  said  of  their  structure  and  habits? 
What  characteristics  are  given?  In  moving  under  water  do  they  "use 
their  feet?  What  insects  do  they  resemble  in  such  motion?  Of  what  does 
their  food  consist,  and  how  do  they  obtain  it  ?  Where  are  they  seen  in 
immense  numbers?  What  is  said  of  their  eggs?  In  which  hemisphere 
are  the  AUKS  found  ?  What  birds  fill  their  places  in  the  Southern  H.  ? 
What  is  said  of  their  wings?  Of  their  movements  in  water?  For  what 
are  the  PENGUINS  peculiarly  remarkable  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Great  Auk  ? 
Of  the  Razor  or  Black-billed  A.?  Of  the  Common  PUFFIN?  Of  the  Lit 
tle  Guillemot  ?  What  relation  do  the  Penguins  sustain  to  the  Swimming 
Birds  ?  What  does  Swainson  remark  ?  What  is  said  of  the  bones  of  the 
Penguins?  What  of  their  sensations?  What  of  their  habits?  Which  of 
their  rookeries  have  attracted  particular  attention  ?  Are  they  arranged 
with  order?  What  is  said  of  their  extent?  Describe  the  characteristics 
and  habits  of  the  Penguins,  as  given  by  Cheever. 


Which  is  the  4th  FAMILY?  Give  its  characters.  What  are  its  habits? 
How  many  sp.  in  America?  Which  is  the  type  of  the  TRUE  PETRELS?  In 
what  localities  is  it  found  ?  To  what  class  of  persons  is  it  a  constant  com 
panion  ?  What  is  this  bird  called  by  Dr.  Kane  ?  What  other  sp.  are  men 
tioned  ?  Do  they  frequent  the  Southern  Sea  ?  Which  is  the  largest  ?  What 
docs  Darwin  say  of  it  ?  What  names  do  sailors  give  these  large  P.  ?  How 
does  the  Shearwater  differ  from  the  True  Petrel?  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Large  S.  ?  Of  the  Manx  Puffin  ?  Of  the  Little  S.  ?  What  genus  has  been 
separated  from  the  rest  of  this  group  ?  What  is  their  size  ?  Mention  their 
habits?  Which  is  the  smallest  of  the  Web-footed  Birds?  What  do  sailors 
call  it  ?  What  is  said  of  its  plumage  ?  What  interesting  particulars  are 
given  ?  What  is  said  of  Wilson's  Petrel  ?  Of  the  Forked-Tailed  P.  ?  What 
sp.  of  the  Albatross  is  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  origin  of  the  name? 
What  is  the  size  of  the  Common  Albatross  ?  Describe  its  plumage.  What 
is  its  range  ?  For  what  bird  has  it  been  supposed  to  have  peculiar  affec 
tion  ?  What  is  said  of  its  beauty  and  loveliness  ?  What  more  is  said  of  it  ? 


Which  is  the  5th  FAMILY  ?  What  is  said  of  the  distribution  and  habits 
of  these  birds  ?  Where  are  the  larger  Gulls  most  common  ?  Which  of  the 
Swimmers  are  most  decidedly  land-birds  ?  What  Gulls  roam  inland  ?  What 
order  of  birds  do  the  Gulls  resemble  ?  Into  what  sections  are  they  ar 
ranged  ?  What  distinctions  does  Swainson  make  ?  Which  of  the  Forked- 
Tailed  Gulls  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  Black  Skimmer?  How 
many  sp.  of  the  TERN?  What  is  s.aid  of  the  Common  Tern?  Of  the  Cay- 


NATATORES.  447 

enne  T.  ?  Whence  does  the  Noody  T.  derive  its  name  ?  What  is  said  of 
it  ?  What  of  the  Silvery  T.  ?  How  many  sp.  of  the  Three-toed  Gulls? 
What  is  said  of  the  Great  Black  Backed  G.  ?  Of  the  Common  G.  ?  In 
what  latitude  do  the  Jagers  breed  ?  What  characters  are  given  ?  How 
does  the  Arctic  Jager  obtain  its  food  ?  Upon  what  mollusk  do  they  feed  ? 
What  else  is  said  of  it  ? 

What  is  the  6th  FAMILY?  How  is  it  characterized?  Do  they  8"wim  or 
dive  ?  What  is  said  of  their  powers  of  flight  ?  In  what  places  do  they 
build  their  nests?  What  is  said  of  the  eggs?  Are  the  sp.  numerous? 
Into  what  groups  are  they  arranged?  What  is  the  size  of  the  TRUE  PELI 
CANS?  What  use  do  they  make  of  their  pouch?  What  is  Audubon's  opin 
ion  relative  to  this  subject?  For  what  have  the  Pelicans  been  celebrated? 
How  have  they  been  depicted?  Has  this  been  done  with  good  reason ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Common  White  P.  ?  Of  the  Brown  P.  ?  What  gen. 
includes  the  Cormorants?  How  do  they  differ  from  others  of  the  family? 
What  bone  is  peculiar  to  the  C.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Common  C.  ?  Of 
the  Green  C.  or  Shag?  Which  is  the  most  beautiful  sp.  in  the  U.  S.  ?  What 
gen.  includes  the  DARTERS  or  SNAKE  BIRDS  ?  What  suggested  the  name  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Anhinga  or  American  Snake  B.  ?  What  group  do  the  FRIG 
ATE  BIRDS  resemble?  How  differ  from  them?  Of  what  fish  are  they  par 
ticularly  fond?  What  other  fish  do  they  persecute?  What  does  Ray  say 
of  them?  Which  is  the  only  gen.  and  sp. ?  In  what  respects  do  the  Gan- 
nets  differ  from  the  Frigate  B.  ?  What  name  is  sometimes  given  to  the 
Common  G.  of  Europe  ?  In  what  other  regions  is  it  found  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  A.  Gannet?  Of  the  Booby?  How  are  the  TROPIC  BIRDS  distin 
guished  and  characterised  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Common  Tropic  B.  ? 

GENERAL  EXERCISE   ON  THE   CHART. 

What  is  the  first  division  of  Birds  on  the  Chart  ?  Into  how  many  orders 
are  the  LAND  BIRDS  arranged?  Name  each,  giving  some  peculiarity  or 
characteristic. .  Name  the  SUB-ORDERS,  and  the  forms  or  peculiarities  of  the 
bills  upon  which  the  divisions  of  Perching  birds  are  based.  Name  and  trace 
the  families  in  each  order.  Which  order  is  most  numerous  ?  Which  the 
lease  numerous  ?  Which  contain  the  largest  birds?  Which  the  smallest  ? 
Which  are  the  most  beautiful  ?  Which  the  most  ordinary  ?  How  are  the 
WATER  BIRDS  divided?  What  kind  of  feet  have  they?  Which  wade? 
Which  swim  ?  What  is  the  form  of  each  ?  Which  the  most  awkward  ? 
Which  most  useful  ?  How  do  the  bills  varj  in  all  the  different  orders  ? 
How  the  toes,  wings,  legs  and  necks? 


19 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XII. 

Fig.  1st.  Skeleton  of  a  Tortoise,  with  the  under  part  (sternum  or  plastron,) 
removed  to  show  how  the  back-bone  and  ribs  are  expanded  and  uni 
ted  together,  forming  the  carapace,  dorsal  plate,  or  buckler. 

H.  The  three-branched  shoulder.  I.  Humerus,  between  the  shoul 
der-joint  and  the  elbow.  K.  Ulna.  L.  Radius,  both  bones  of  the 
fore-arm.  R.  Femur,  or  the  thigh  bone.  S.  Tibia,  the  largest,  and 
Fibula,  the  smallest  bones  of  the  leg. 

Fig.  2d.  Skeleton  of  a  Bird,  consisting  of  A.  Cranium  or  Skull.  B.  Cer 
vical  vertebrae.  C.  The  anchylosed  or  immovably  fixed  vertebrae  of 
the  back.  D.  The  caudal  vertebrae.  E.  Ribs.  F.  Breast-bone.  G. 
Furcula,  or  merrythought.  H.  Clavicle,  or  collar-bone.  H*.  Scapula, 
or  shoulder-bone.  I.  Humerus.  K,  L.  Bones  of  the  fore  arm,  ulna, 
and  radius.  M.  Metacarpus  of  hand.  N.  Phalanges  of  fingers.  R. 
Femur,  or  thigh-bone,  o,  o.  Patella,  or  knee-pan. ,  S.  Leg,  tibia 
and  fibula.  T,  T.  Os  calcis,  or  heel-bone.  U,  U.  Metatarsal  bones. 
V,  V.  Metacarpal  bones.  0.  Ilium.  P.  Pubis,  and  Q.  Ischium,  bones 
of  the  pelvis. 

Fig.  3d.  Skeleton  of  a  Fish,  showing  the  five  sorts  of  fins,  some  of  which 
are  often  absent,  a,  b,  first  and  second  dorsal  fins  on  the  ridge  of  the 
back,  varying  in  number  and  form  ;  c,  the  caudal  or  tail  fin,  as  impor 
tant  to  a  fish  as  the  rudder  to  a  ship ;  d,  anal  fin,  on  the  under  part 
of  the  tail ;  e,  one  of  the  ventral  fins  which  correspond  to  tke  hind 
feet  of  quadrupeds;  f,  one  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  are  analogous  to 
the  fore  feet  of  quadrupeds,  or  the  wings  of  birds. 

Fig.  4th.  Skeleton  of  a  Frog,  showing  the  absence  (or  mere  rudiments,)  of 
ribs,  and  its  long  hind  limbs  adapting  it  for  sudden  springs  and  long 


Fig.  5th.  Skeleton  of  a  Boa-constrictor,  consisting  of  skull,  a ;  vertebral  col 
umn,  b  ;  and  ribs,  c.  The  ribs,  304  in  number,  come  forward  in  succes 
sion,  like  the  feet  of  a  caterpillar,  and  form  152  pairs  of  levers  by 
which  the  animal  moves  from  place  to  place.  The  jaws,  d,  have 
on  each  side,  a  double  row  of  sharp,  strong,  close-set  teeth,  pointing 
backwards,  thus  giving  a  firm  hold  of  its  victims. 

Fig.  6th.  Skeleton  of  a  Chameleon,  showing  how  the  toes  and  tail  are 
adapted  for  clinging  to  the  branches  of  trees,  and  that  the  trunk  is 
mounted  high  upon  the  legs,  forming  in  this  respect  an  exception  to 
most  reptiles. 


ZL.XIT. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THIRD    BRANCH    OF    ZOOLOGY. 


HERPETOLOGY,  (Gr.  egm?™?,  herpetos,  a  reptile,  from 
herpo,  to  creep.) 


II,  GRAND  DIVISION  OF  THE  VERTEBRATES,  (Cold-blooded  Animals,) 


SECTION  I. 

THE  second  grand  division  of  the  Vertebrates,  or  Cold-blooded 
Animals,  includes  REPTILES  and  FISHES. 

REPTILIA,  (Lat.  reptilis,  a  reptile,  from  repo,  to  creep.)  REP 
TILES.  The  science  which  treats  of  Reptiles  is  called  Herpe- 
tology,  (or  Erpetology.)  They  form  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  the  vertebrate  classes  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  They  are 
highly  characterised  by  the  vertebral  column,  the  articulations 
of  which,  in  most  recent  adult  forms,  are  spherically  convex  at 
one  extremity  and  spherically  concave  at  the  other.  The  num 
ber  of  vertebrae  varies  exceedingly.  As,  for  example,  in  the 
Surinam  toad,  (Pipa,)  there  are  seven,  and  in  the  Python  upwards 
of  four  hundred.  The  ribs  also  occur  in  various  stages  of  de 
velopment.  A  general  survey  of  these  creatures  brings  to  view 
wonderful  varieties  of  form  and  structure  by  which  they  are 
adapted  to  different  localities.  Some  dwell  on  the  land ;  others 
in  the  ocean.  Many  of  them  are  found  in  rivers  and  morasses, 
and  some  are  even  arboreal  in  their  habits,  living  amidst  the  foli 
age  of  the  trees,  intertwined  with  the  branches,  or  flitting,  with 
bird-like  swiftness,  from  leaf  to  leaf  or  from  branch  to  branch, 
in  pursuit  of  their  insect  food.  Though  found  in  different  lati 
tudes,  the  hotter  regions  of  the  globe  are  the  great  nursery  of  the 
Reptiles  ;  in  tropical  countries,  they  actually  teem,  swarming  in 
sandy  deserts,  among  dense  and  tangled  brushwood,  in  humid 


452  HERPETOLOGY. 

forests,  and  extended  pestilential  swamps.  They  are  termed 
COLD-BLOODED  ANIMALS,  their  natural  temperature  being  not 
much,  if  at  all,  above  that  of  the  atmosphere  or  water  in  which 
they  dwell.  Their  power  of  producing  animal  heat  is  very  lim 
ited,  so  that  the  system  is  at  once  affected  by  the  lowering  of  the 
temperature  of  the  medium  which  they  inhabit.  In  our  climate, 
and  indeed  in  climates  considerably  nearer  the  meridian,  they 
all  undergo  a  state  of  torpidity,  in  some  sheltered  retreat,  to 
which,  as  a  refuge,  their  instinct  directs  them,  and  where  they 
remain  during  the  season  of  winter.  Their  blood,  though  cold, 
is  red.  In  these,  and  in  fact  in  all  cold-blooded  animals,  the 
vital  principle  is  much  stronger  than  in  those  whose  blood  is 
warm.  A  frog  has  been  kept  alive  forty  days  after  having  been 
subjected  to  the  total  privation  of  its  lungs.  The  brain,  which 
in  reptiles  is  considerably  inferior  to  that  of  birds,  though  supe 
rior  to  that  of  fishes,  is  not  so  essentially  requisite  to  the  exer 
cise  of  their  animal  and  vital  functions  as  in  the  mammalia;  for 
they  continue  to  live  and  to  execute  voluntary  movements  for  a 
considerable  time  after  being  deprived  of  it,  and  even  after  the 
loss  of  the  head ;  their  muscles  also  are  strong  and  preserve 
their  irritability  for  some  time  after  life  would  appear  to  be  ex 
tinct ;  their  heart  continues  to  pulsate  for  hours  after  it  has  been 
torn  from  the  body.  In  the  reptiles  this  organ  is  strikingly  pecul 
iar.  In  warm-blooded  vertebrates  it  consists  of  two  auricles 
and  two  ventricles  ;  the  left  ventricle  furnishing  the  system  with 
blood,  which,  in  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  lungs  has  been 
acted  on  by  the  external  atmosphere.  In  Reptiles  the  heart  con 
sists  of  but  one  ventricle  and  two  auricles  ;  and  of  these  the 
right  auricle  receives  the  vitiated  blood  returned  from  the  sys 
tem  to  the  heart ;  the  left  auricle  receives  the  arterialized  blood 
returned  from  the  lungs ;  and  both  auricles  convey  their  con 
tents  into  the  cavity  of  the  ventricle.  The  vitiated  and  the  arte 
rialized  blood  thus  become  more  or  less  mixed  together ;  part 
of  this  mixed  fluid  is  sent  through  the  great  arterial  trunk,  as  a 
supply  to  the  system,  and  part  through  the  pulmonary  arteries  to 
be  further  oxygenated  in  the  lungs,  this  ventricle  having  in  it- 
Felf  the  branching  arteries  both  of  the  body  and  the  lungs. 
Such  is  the  circulation  in  the  tortoises,  lizards,  and  snakes.  The 
blood  of  Reptiles  is  characterized  by  the  possession  of  the  larg 
est  globules  to  be  found  in  the  entire  sub-kingdom  of  Vertebrates. 
Those  in  the  tailed  Batrnchians,  as  the  Siren,  &c.,  are  visible  to 
the  naked  eye.  As  in  fishes  and  in  birds,  these  globules  are 
elliptical  in  their  outline,  whereas  in  the  Mammals,  excepting  the 
CamehdcB,  they  are  circular. 


HERPETOLOGY.  453 

The  Amphibia,  at  an  early  stage  of  their  existence,  are  fur- 
nished  with  gills,  and,  like  fishes,  respire  in  water;  the  gills,  indue 
time,  become  obliterated,  and  lungs  developed,  as  in  the  frog, 
the  newt,  &c.,  (Plate  XIII.)  Others,  however,  of  this  group, 
though  they  acquire  lungs,  never  lose  their  gills,  and  are  at  the 
same  time  both  aquatic  and  aerial  in  their  respiration,  or  capa 
ble  of  breathing  both  in  air  and  water.  Such  are  the  Proteus, 
the  Siren,  and  the  Axolotl.  The  former  are  called  Caduci- 
branchiate,  (Lat.  caducus,  falling  or  perishable;  branchia,  gills  ;) 
the  latter  are  termed  Perennibranchiate,  (Lat.  perennis,  durable  ; 
branchice,  gills.)  In  the  latter  Amphibians,  the  ventricle  receives 
blood  from  the  auricles,  and  transmits  it  into  an  enlarged  arte 
rial  vessel  or  bulb,  which  soon  divides  into  separate  branches, 
one  being  destined  for  each  leaf  of  the  gills  essentially  like  those 
of  a  fish  ;  here  these  arterial  vessels  sub-divide  into  five  capil 
laries,  and  these  at  length,  (as  in  fishes,)  gradually  pass  into 
branchial  veins  which  at  last  emerge  into  two  vessels,  and  these 
unite  to  form  the  aorta,  or  great  arterial  trunk.  Into  this  aorta, 
the  blood  purified  in  the  gills,  or  branchiae,  is  conveyed  without 
being  first  sent  back  to  the  heart;  and  from  this  aorta,  it  is  dis 
tributed  throughout  the  system.  But  besides  the  branchial,  these 
Amphibians  have  also  a  pulmonic,  (Lat.  pulmo,  a  lung,)  circula 
tion.  By  the  pulmonary  artery  proceeding  from  the  aorta,  a 
portion  of  the  blood  which  has  already  been  partially  oxygenated 
in  the  gills,  is  conveyed  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  still  further 
purified.  It  is  then  sent  through  pulmonic  veins  to  the  left  auri 
cle,  and  from  that  to  the  ventricle,  whence,  mixing  with  the  vitia 
ted  blood  of  the  system,  it  is  sent  to  the  gills,  and  thence  to  the 
aorta,  from  which  a  portion  again  passes  to  the  lungs,  the  rest  to 
the  system,  and  so  on  in  a  perpetual  succession. 

The  Caducibranchiates,  at  the  commencement  of  their  exist 
ence,  have  only  gills  truly  developed,  and  the  circulation  is  bran 
chial  or  fish-like.  The  lungs  are,  at  this  period,  in  a  rudimen 
tary  state,  and  the  pulmonary  arteries  exceedingly  minute.  In 
process  of  time,  however,  a  new  impetus  is  given  to  the  pulmo 
nary  arteries  and  to  the  lungs,  at  the  expense  of  the  branchial 
arteries  and  the  gills  ;  as  the  former  develop,  the  latter  decrease, 
until  at  the  last,  the  branchial  apparatus  entirely  perishes,  no 
trace  of  it  being  left;  while  certain  vessels,  which  formed  a 
junctiotT  between  the  branchial  system  of  arteries  and  the  pulmo 
nic  arteries,  enlarge,  and  now  add  only  to  the  pulmonic  circula 
tion.  Thus  the  circulation  in  the  frog  and  newt  changes,  by  a 
wonderful  transition,  from  that  of  a  fish  to  that  of  a  perfect  rep 
tile  !  while  in  the  Proteus  and  its  allies,  it  continues  to  be  that 


454  HERPETOLOGY. 

of  the  fish,  with  the  addition  of  a  modified  state  of  pulmonary 
circulation.  We  advert  thus  particularly  to  these  peculiarities, 
because  they  present  proof  so  striking  of  divine  contrivance. 

Reptiles  have  either  four  limbs,  (Plate  XII.  figs.  1,  4,  6,)  two, 
(see  Chirotes  or  Bipes  on  the  Chart,)  or  none,  (Plate  XII.  fig.  5  ;) 
the  ribs  are  sometimes  very  numerous,  (Plate  XII.  fig.  5,)  some 
times  wanting  or  merely  rudimentary,  (Plate  XII.  fig.  4;)  in  the 
latter  case,  the  ribs  assist  greatly  in  terrestrial  locomotion.  There 
is  no  true  distinction  between  the  chest  and  abdomen,  no  dia 
phragm  or  muscular  expansion,  dividing,  as  in  quadrupeds,  these 
two  cavities.  As  the  blood  is  of  a  low  temperature,  these  ani 
mals  need  neither  fur  nor  feathers  for  the  retention  of  the  vital 
heat.  They  are  therefore  covered  either  with  horny  plates,  or 
with  scales,  or  have  the  skin  entirely  naked.  Their  sight  is  in 
general  extremely  acute.  On  this  sense  they  depend  in  their 
pursuit  of  food,  and  for  their  perception  of  the  approach  of  ene 
mies.  The  senses  of  taste,  smell,  and  touch,  in  reptiles  are  com 
paratively  feeble.  With  regard  to  hearing,  considerable  varia 
tion  appears  in  different  groups.  In  serpents,  the  sense  is  very 
acute,  and  they  evidently  derive  pleasure  from  musical  notes,  a 
fact  well  understood  by  the  serpent-charmers  of  the  East.  In 
lizards,  also,  the  sense  of  hearing  appears  to  be  quick  ;  in  tor 
toises  and  in  the  Amphibians  it  is  probably  much  more  obtuse.  In 
most  cases  the  internal  organs  of  hearing  are  entirely  covered  by 
the  scaly  investment  of  the  head,  or  by  the  naked  skin.  In  liz 
ards  generally,  the  tympanic,  or  drum-like  membrane,  is  stretched 
over  the  external  orifice  of  the  ear,  and  is  on  a  level  with  the 
scaly  covering  of  the  rest  of  the  head  ;  but  in  the  crocodile,  the 
external  orifice,  instead  of  being  thus  permanently  closed,  is  pro 
vided  with  a  firm,  movable  lid  or  operculum,  by  means  of  which 
the  aperture  may  be  either  stopped  or  kept  open.  While  bask 
ing  on  the  margin  of  a  river,  or  lying  there  in  ambush  for  prey, 
the  crocodile  is  able  to  raise  the  ear-lid,  in  order  to  listen  atten 
tively  to  every  noise ;  but  when  he  dives  beneath  the  water, 
either  for  safety  or  to  drown  the  victim  he  has  seized,  the  en 
trance  of  water  into  the  auditory  cavities  is  prevented  by  the 
firm  shutting  of  the  lid,  which  accurately  fits  the  orifice. 

Reptiles  are  ordinarily  produced  from  eggs.  Many  of  them 
exhibit  extraordinary  fecundity.  None  of  them,  unless  the 
Pythons  be  an  exception,  ever  perform  the  process  of  incubation. 
They  bury  their  eggs  in  the  sand,  deposit  them  in  warm  places 
of  concealment,  or  leave  them  floating  in  the  water  exposed  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  In  due  time  the  young  are  hatched.  In 
some  Reptiles  which  produce  eggs,  as  the  Viper,  the  young  is 


HERPETOLOGY.  455 

already  formed  and  advanced  within  the  egg  at  the  time  the  pa 
rent  deposits  it.  This  reptile,  in  many  northern  and  temperate 
regions,  seems  to  represent  the  multitude  of  deadly  snakes  that 
infest  the  torrid  regions  ;  while  the  harmless  ringed  snake  takes 
the  place  of  the  huge  Python  of  Bengal  and  Java.  In  the  coun 
tries  of  the  Polar  circles,  the  snake,  the  lizard,  the  toad  and  the 
frog  are  never  seen.  The  absence  of  the  snails,  insects  and 
small  animals  upon  which  reptiles  usually  feed,  excludes  them 
from  those  dreary  regions.  The  larger  part  of  them  are  carni 
vorous  ;  the  Tortoises,  however,  are  vegetable  feeders.  A  few 
feed  both  on  small  animals,  as  slugs,  insects,  &c.,  and  on  leaves 
and  fruits. 

Reptiles  probably  number  as  many  as  two  thousand  species. 
They  are  either  terrestrial,  or  aquatic,  or  both,  and  hibernate  in 
temperate  regions,  passing  nearly  the  whole  winter  in  a  state  of 
lethargy.  An  extensive  division  of  the  Serpents  have  hollow 
fangs  which  they  can  erect  at  pleasure,  when  they  open  their 
mouths  to  bite,  and  these  fangs  have  apertures,  from  which  they 
eject  into  the  wounds  made  by  them,  an  active  and  deadly  poi 
son. 

From  the  earliest  times  the  forms  and  habits  of  Reptiles  have 
attracted  attention.  They  are  found  represented  on  the  monu 
ments  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  numerous  allusions  to  them 
are  contained  in  the  scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament.  Nor 
should  it  be  unnoticed  that  among  the  organic  remains  which  the 
industry  and  science  of  inquiring  minds  have  lately  brought  to 
light,  none  present  forms  more  wonderful,  or  proportions  more 
gigantic,  than  some  of  the  Fossil  Reptiles. 

REPTILES  are  divided  into  four  orders,  viz. :  (1)  CHELONIA, 
Chelonians  ;  (2)  SAURIA,  Saurians  ;  (3)  OPHIDIA,  Ophidians ; 
(4)  AMPHIBIA,  Amphibians. 

These  orders  pass  into  each  other  by  certain  gradations  of 
form,  traceable  in  all,  but  most  evidently  so  in  the  Saurians  and 
Ophidians,  all  these  gradations  clearly  pointing  to  the  existence  of 
one  grand  scheme,  of  which  the  parts  respectively  link  together  in 
admirable  harmony. 

REPTILES. 

What  is  the  3d  branch  of  ZOOLOGY  ?  Of  what  does  it  treat  ?  To  what 
Grand  Division  of  VERTEBRATES  do  they  belong  ?  What  is  said  of  the  ver 
tebral  column  ?  Of  their  form,  habitat,  &c.  ?  Why  are  they  called  COLD 
BLOODED  animals  ?  What  is  their  condition  during  winter  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  strength  of  the  vital  principle  in  Reptiles  ?  How  is  this  illustrated  ? 


456  CHELONIANS. 

State  what  is  peculiar  in  the  heart  of  Reptiles.  Explain  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  in  Tortoises,  Lizards,  &c.  What  striking  tacts  are  given  respect 
ing  the  blood  of  Reptiles?  What  is  at  first  the  condition  of  the  Amphibia? 
What  change  do  they  undergo  ?  Is  this  true  oi  all  of  them  ?  How  do  some 
of  them  dift'er?  Explain  the  circulation  in  both  divisions.  How  many  limbs 
have  Reptiles  ?  Does  their  internal  structure  differ  from  that  of  Quadru 
peds  ?  What  is  said  of  their  covering  ?  What  of  their  organs  of  sense  ? 
How  are  they  usually  produced  ?  How  do  they  dispose  of  their  eggs  ?  How 
is  it  with  the  VIPER  ?  W^hat  is  said  of  the  diffusion  of  Reptiles  ?  Upon 
what  do  they  feed  ?  How  many  species  do  they  include  ?  Name  the  OR 
DERS  into  which  they  are  divided.  Point  out  on  the  Chart  some  animals  be 
longing  to  each  of  these  orders. 


SECTION  II. 
FIRST  ORDER.     CHELONIANS,  or  TORTOISES. 


CHELONIA.     (Gr.  XsMvii,  chelone,  a  tortoise.) 

The  Tortoises  may  be  arranged  into  the  following  divisions, 
viz:  (1)  LAND  TORTOISES;  (2)  MARSH  and  RIVER  TORTOISES; 
(3)  MARINE  TORTOISES  or  TURTLES. 

They  differ  most  widely  from  the  general  form  of  the  class; 
for  (1)  They  are  clothed  with  a  natural  armor,  not  like  that  of 
the  Armadillo,  a  simple,  horny  addition  to  the  skin,  but  a  part  of 
the  skeleton  itself.  The  skeleton  is,  in  fact,  thrown  to  the  out 
side  of  the  body,  so  as  to  form  an  external  bony  envelope,  covered 
with  a  horny  or  leathery  sheathing,  and  enclosing,  as  in  a  box, 
the  internal  organs,  and  other  parts  of  the  bony  frame-work 
which  do  not  immediately  enter  into  its  composition.  Tortoises 
may  be  likened  to  Frogs,  so  enveloped  in  horny  armor  as  to  be 
restrained  by  it  from  jumping. 

The  upper  piece,  or  dorsal  buckler,  is  termed  the  carapace. 
This  is  usually  more  or  less  arched,  and  consists  of  an  expansion 
of  the  ribs  into  wide  flat  bones,  all  united  firmly  together,  and 
also  to  the  edge  of  the  flattened  spinal  processes,  —  the  whole 
forming  a  consolidated  plate.  (Plate  XII.  fig.  1.)  To  the 
margin  of  the  plate  thus  formed,  is  added  a  third  set  of  bones, 
regarded  as  representing  the  sternal  ribs  of  the  Crocodiles  arid 
other  Lizards,  and  assisting  to  complete  the  circumference  of 
the  carapace. 

The  lower  plate,  or  abdominal  buckler,  is  termed  the  plastron 
or  sternon.  This,  instead  of  being  prolonged  forwards  into  a 
keel  to  afford  attachment  to  large  muscles,  as  in  the  Birds,  is  ex 
tended  sidewise  for  the  protection  of  the  body.  It  consists  of 


CHELONIANS.  457 

nine  bony  portions,  of  which  eight  are  in  pairs;  the  ninth  is 
single,  and  occupies  the  front  part  of  the  plastron. 

(2)  The  Chelonians  are  also  distinguished  from  other  Reptiles 
by  the  entire  absence  of  teeth.  As  a  compensation  for  this, 
however,  the  jaws  are  cased  in  horny  coverings  with  cutting 
edges,  resembling  the  hooked  beak  of  a  Parrot,  and  with  which 
they  crop  and  rnince  the  vegetable  substances  on  which  many 
of  them  feed.  The  armor  in  which  the  animals  are  encased, 
seems  to  be  their  most  effectual  defence.  In  the  Land  Tortoises 
the  carapace  is  usually  much  arched  and  firmly  united,  so  that, 
without  injury,  it  can  sustain  a  very  great  weight;  the  plastron 
in  these  also  exhibits  the  highest  degree  of  solidity,  and  is  united 
to  the  carapace  by  an  extended  lateral  surface.  At  the  line  of 
its  union,  it  is  sometimes  slightly  movable,  but  in  most,  it  is 
fixed  by  an  unyielding  suture.  Its  front  and  hind  margins  are 
generally  indented  or  notched,  for  the  more  easy  egress  of  the 
neck  and  tail ;  but  sometimes  they  simply  end  in  a  cross  line ; 
or,  on  the  contrary,  are  prolonged  into  a  point.  In  the  Land 
Tortoises  of  the  genus  Pyxis,  (Gr.  puxis,  a  box,) — species  Arach- 
noides,  (Gr.  spider-like,) — the  Arachnoid  Tortoises  of  India,  the 
plastron  is  furnished  with  a  transverse  hinge,  giving  a  power 
of  motion  to  the  front  part,  so  that  the  animals  can  redraw  their 
head  and  fore-limbs  within  the  carapace,  and  close  the  plastron 
upon  it.  In  another  genus  of  the  same  group,  Cynixis,  of  Guiana, 
the  carapace,  instead  of  being  one  solid  whole,  has  the  posterior 
portion  distinct  from  the  front  portion,  and  movable,  so  as  to  close 
upon  the  hinder  margin  of  the  plastron,  and  shut  in  the  hinder 
limbs  and  tail.  In  the  aquatic  species,  the  shell  is  generally 
more  flattened,  so  as  to  present  less  resistance  to  the  water. 
Some  of  them  swim  with  considerable  rapidity,  and  are  much 
more  active  in  their  habits  than  others  of  the  order.  The  shell 
of  such  has  its  parts  less  firmly  united,  and  is,  in  some  degree, 
flexible ;  it  also  affords  much  less  complete  protection  to  the 
body. 

Notwithstanding  the  horny  beak  with  which  the  jaws  of  Tor 
toises  are  in  general  furnished,  the  sense  of  taste  is  decidedly 
higher  in  these  than  in  other  Reptiles.  The  broad,  thick,  fleshy, 
and  movable  tongue,  is  provided  with  salivary  glands,  and  nerves 
of  taste,  but  is  not  capable  of  being  protruded  from  the  mouth. 
It  is  not  an  organ  of  taste  merely,  but  filling  out  the  entire  cavity 
of  the  mouth,  assists  in  the  process  of  respiration ;  for  "  Turtles 
swallow  the  air  they  breathe." 

The  eyes  are  larger  in  proportion,  and  more  movable  in 
Tortoises  than  in  other  Reptiles.  They  have  three  eye-lids;  two 


458  CHELONIANS. 

external,  continued  from  the  common  skin  of  the  head,  and  vary, 
ing  as  to  form  in  different  genera ;  one,  internal,  resembling  the 
nictitating  membrane  of  birds ;  and  moved  by  muscles  appropri 
ate  to  that  office.  The  form  of  the  pupil  is  round,  as  in  birds. 
The  iris  is  always  colored,  usually  dark,  but  in  some,  red,  or 
even  milk-white. 

Tortoises  have  no  movable  external  ear,  but  in  all  are  found 
the  tympanic  orifice  and  membrane  which  are  wanting  in  Sauri- 
ans,  and  the  sense  of  hearing  is  consequently  well  developed. 
The  sense  of  smell  appears  to  be  at  a  low  degree.  The  nostrils 
open  on  the  most  anterior  part  of  the  upper  jaw  or  mandible,  and 
are  close  to  each  other.  In  the  River  Tortoises,  and  in  the 
MATAMATA,  a  Marsh  Tortoise,  of  South  America,  the  nostrils  are 
prolonged  into  a  sort  of  flexible  proboscis,  which  the  animals  can 
raise  for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  between  the  large,  floating 
leaves  of  water  plants,  while  they  lurk  with  their  bodies  con 
cealed  below  them,  and  immersed  in  the  water, — lying  in  wait 
for  their  prey. 

The  males  of  the  Tortoises  are,  in  general,  smaller  than  the 
females,  and  commonly  distinguished  by  the  plastron,  which  is 
slightly  concave.  Tortoises  have  a  voice, — that  is,  they  have, 
more  or  less,  the  faculty  of  uttering  distinct  sounds.  They  vary 
in  their  food  according  to  the  localities  which  they  are  accus 
tomed  to  frequent.  Some  live  on  marine  plants;  others  on  small 
animals,  in  addition  to  vegetable  food.  They  require  but  little 
nourishment,  and  can  pass  months,  and  even  years,  without  eat 
ing.  Turtles,  in  their  growth,  are  exceedingly  slow,  coming  to 
maturity  the  latest  of  all  the  Reptiles.  But,  at  the  same  time,, 
they  are  very  long-lived.  Land  Tortoises  have  been  known  to 
live  one  hundred  and  twenty  years,  and  some  have  even  reached 
more  than  two  hundred  years. 

According  to  Agassiz,  their  eggs,  up  to  the  seventh  year,  are 
of  small  size, — numerous,  yet  not  distinguishable  into  sets;  but 
with  every  succeeding  year,  there  appears  a  larger  and  larger 
set  of  eggs;  each  set  being  made  up  of  the  usual  number  which 
the  species  lays,  so  that  a  Turtle  of  eleven  years  old,  for  the  first 
time,  contains  mature  eggs  ready  to  be  laid  in  the  spring.  The 
larger  eggs  always  appear  in  regular  sets,  of  a  definite  number, 
and  these  coincide  with  the  number  laid  by  that  particular  species 
at  one  time.  Four  sets  can  be  readily  distinguished  ;  one  of 
them  mature  eggs;  another  about  half  the  size;  a  third  still 
smaller;  and  the  fourth  smaller  still,  (about  the  size  of  a  large 
pin's  head;)  below  these,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  differ 
ence  in  size.  "Turtles,"  says  Agassiz,  "lay  once  a  year; 


CHELONIANS.  459 

therefore,  it  follows  that  an  egg  requires  four  years  from  the 
time  there  exists  a  marked  difference  among  the  eggs  of  different 
sizes,  to  acquire  its  full  maturity."*  Fresh-water  Tortoises  lay 
their  eggs  in  moist  ground,  or  in  dryer  places  near  the  water; 
Marine  Turtles  lay  theirs  in  hot  sand;  the  Land  Tortoises  lay 
theirs  upon  dry  ground.  The  time  of  the  extrusion  of  the  ani 
mal  varies  from  six  weeks  to  three  or  four  months. 

The  divisions  of  the  Chelonians  vary,  as  made  by  different 
naturalists.  Agassiz,  who  prefers  names  which  have  priority  of 
dale,  divides  the  order  TESTUDINATA,  or  CHELONIA,  into  two  sub 
orders. 

I.  AMYDJE,  with  seven  families. 

(1)  Testudinina,    Land  Tortoises. 

(2)  Emydoida,     (3)  Cinosternoida,  )  R. 

(4)  Chelydraid*,  (5)  Hydraspida,      (  Rl™r  an 
(6)  Chelyoida,     (7)  Trianychidat,     ) 

II.  CHELONII,  with  two  families. 

(1)  Chelonioidtz,  (2)  Sphargida,  Marine  Turtles. 

FIRST  SUB-ORDER.     AMYDJE.     DIGITATED. 

This  sub-order  includes,  besides  the  Land  Tortoises,  the 
Marsh  and  River  Tortoises,  intermediate  in  form  between  the 
Marine  and  Land  Tortoises.  The  Marsh  Tortoises  proper,  are 
sometimes  arranged  into  two  divisions,  viz:  (1)  the  Pleurodera, 
(Gr.  pleuron,  a  side ;  deire,  neck,) — so  named  because  the  head 
is  concealed,  not  by  being  drawn  back  in  a  straight  line,  but  by  the 
neck  folded  to  one  side  of  the  opening  of  the  shell.  ,.  The  arms 
are  also  incapable  of  being  completely  drawn  within  the  cara 
pace  and  plastron.  Seven  is  said  to  be  the  number  of  the  genera 
included  in  this  division.  None  of  the  species  belong  to  North 
America,  but  many  to  South  America.  (2)  The  Cryptodera, 
(Gr.  krupto,  to  conceal ;  deire,  neck,)  in  which  the  cylindrical 
shaped  neck  can  be  folded  back  upon  itself  under  the  center  of 
the  forepart  of  the  carapace.  The  pelvis  is  articulated  to  the 
internal  surface  of  the  carapace,  while  in  respect  to  the  plas 
tron,  it  is  free ;  this  gives  to  many  of  the  Marsh  or  Pond  Tor 
toises  a  power  to  jnove  the  under  portions  of  the  osseous  box ; 
and  this,  accordingly,  has  a  less  degree  of  solidity ;  whereas,  in 
the  Pleurodera,  the  pelvis  is  firmly  fixed  to  the  roof  of  the  cara 
pace  above,  and  to  that  of  the  plastron  beneath.  The  species  of 
this  division  are  very  numerous,  and  many  are  found  both  in 
North  and  South  America. 

*  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States.     Vol.  I. 


460  CHELONIANS. 

FIRST  FAMILY.      Testudinina,  (Lat.  Tesiudo,  a  tortoise.) 
LAND  TORTOISES.     First  Sub-Order,  Amydee. 

The  Tortoises  of  this  family  exhibit  the  greatest  symmetry  of 
form,  and  are,  on  various  accounts,  entitled  to  the  first  rank  in 
the  order.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  highly  arched  cara 
pace,  and  still  more,  by  their  short,  clubby  feet,  terminating  in 
flat,  spade-like  nails.  The  outward  armor  is  entirely  ossified, 
and  harder  and  thicker,  in  proportion  to  the  animal's  size,  than 
in  the  Aquatic  Tortoises.  The  shield  is  covered,  externally, 
with  epidermal  scales,  and  the  skin  everywhere  more  or  less 
protected  with  them  ;  on  the  most  exposed  parts,  they  are  thick 
and  stiff,  and  form  a  continuous  hard  covering.  The  neck  and 
legs  are  short,  and  can  be  drawn  entirely  within  the  shell. 
(See  Radiated  Tortoise  on  Chart.) 

The  Land  Tortoises  show  nothing  of  the  fierce  dispositions 
exhibited  by  most  of  the  other  groups. — never  attacking  or 
making  resistance,  but  resorting  to  the  shield,  and  trusting  to  that 
alone  for  protection.  Their  feet,  which,  in  shape,  have  some 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  Elephant,  are  adapted  to  walking  on 
solid  ground  only ;  when  placed  in  water,  these  animals  endeavor 
to  walk,  as  if  upon  land,  having  no  swimming  motion.  Their 
movement  on  dry  ground  is  firmer  and  more  steady,  the  weight 
being  almost  equally  supported  by  both  pair  of  limbs;  and  they 
can  travel  for  a  distance  at  a  pace  less  slow  than  any  other  Tor- 
toises.  The  fore  feet  have,  usually,  five  toes,  and  the  hind  ones, 
four,  which  are  furnished  with  short  conical  claws,  well  adapted 
for  digging.  The  food  of  the  Land  Tortoises  is  entirely  vegeta 
ble.  They  appear  most  fond  of  the  succulent  stems  of  plants 
and  fleshy  fruits.  ''I  have  often,"  says  Agassiz.  "seen  our 
Gopher  gnawing  the  stumps  of  cabbage,  and  apples  falling  from 
the  trees  in  my  garden,  as  the  Squirrels  do,  holding  them  between 
their  feet,"  The  lungs  are  very  much  larger  in  the  Land  Tor 
toises  than  in  any  other  family  of  the  first  sub-order.  Their 
size  is  also,  on  the  whole,  larger  than  that  of  any  other  family 
of  that  division. 

The  Land  Tortoises  include  four  genera. 

(1)  Cinixys,  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  species  found  in 
Guiana.     In  these,  the  hind  part  of  the  carapace  is  not  united  to 
the  front  part,  and  is  movable,  so  that  the  animals  can  shut  in 
their  hind  Hmbs  and  tail. 

(2)  Pyxis.  (Gr.  puxis,   a   box.)      This  genera   includes  the 
Land  Box  Tortoises,  having  the  front  part  of  the  plastron  mova- 


CHELONIANS.  461 

ble   on    a  hinge,  so  that  they  can  conceal  the  head  and  fore 
limbs  within  the  carapace. 

(3)  Homopus,  (Gr.    homos,   like  each  other;  pous,  foot,)  in 
cluding  Land   Tortoises  which  have  the  carapace  and   pastron 
immovable.     They  have   but  four  nails  on  the  fore  feet,  while 
the  other  genera  have  five.     The  VERMILION  TORTOISE,  H.  are- 
olatus,  (Lat.  divided  into  areas,  or  spaces.)  is  a  species  of  this 
genus,  found  in  Eastern  Africa  and  Madagascar,  and  one  of  the 
smallest  known  of  Land  Tortoises,  being  seldom  more  than  five 
inches  in  length. 

(4)  Testudo,   having  the   carapace  and   plastron   immovable. 
Of  this  genus,  only  one  species  is  indigenous  to  North  America, 
viz:  T.  Carolina  or  T.  Polyphemus, — [Xerobates~\  (Gr.  xeros  from 
xera  land  ;  baino,  to  go,)  Carolina,  Ag., — the  GOPHER  TORTOISE, 
ranging  from  Florida  to  Georgia.     It  is  from  fifteen  to  seventeen 
inches   in   length.      Its  strength   is  so   great  that  it  can  move 
easily  with  a  man  standing  on  its  back.     In  habits,  it  is  noc 
turnal  ;    its  flesh   is  excellent,  and  much  sought  after  for  the 
table.     In  sandy  districts,  it  excavates  holes  in  the  ground,  which 
much  impede  the  movements  of  horsemen. 

The  ELEPHANTINE  TORTOISE,  T.  Indica,  (T.  Elephantinar)  CyL 
indraspis,  (Gr.  rolling  or  cylindrical  shield,)  Indica,  is  from 
three  to  four  feet  in  length ;  and  every  way  a  huge  animal.  It 
sometimes  has  been  known  to  weigh  not  far  from  three  hundred 
pounds.  The  Elephant  Tortoises  are  found  in  great  numbers  in 
the  Galapagos  islands,  but,  comparatively,  not  large, — averaging 
sixty  pounds  in  weight.  They  are  eagerly  sought  by  crews  of 
vessels.  When  captured,  they  serve  for  fresh  meat,  as  they  can 
be  kept  for  a  year  in  the  hold  of  a  ship  without  food  or  drink. 

The  GREEK  or  EUROPEAN  TORTOISE,  T.  Grceca,  is  a  well  known 
species,  found  in  the  South  of  Europe. 

The  GEOMETRIC  TORTOISE,  T.  geometrica,  is  a  beautiful  little 
creature,  about  six  inches  in  length,  found  in  South  Africa  and 
Madagascar.  It  has  its  specific  name  from  the  radiating  lines 
of  yellow,  forming  angular  figures  on  the  plates  of  the  carapace. 

The  Charcoal  Tortoise,  T.  carbonaria,  is  common  in  Brazil 
and  other  parts  of  South  America.  The  carapace  is  deep  black, 
and  eighteen  inches  long.  This  kind  is  sold  as  a  great  delicacy 
in  the  markets  at  Caraccas. 

The  RADIATED  TORTOISE,  T.  radiala,  a  handsome  species,  is 
a  native  of  Madagascar,  whence  it  is  frequently  taken  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  to  the  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  isles.  The 
carapace  is  hemispherical ;  the  plates  are  simple  and  black,  with 
a  yellow  central  spot,  whence  diverge  lines  of  the  same  color;  the 
plates  of  the  plastron  are  ornamented  with  black  and  yellow. 


402  CHELONLANS. 


SECOND  FAMILY.      Emydoidce,  (Gr.   e^s,   emus,   a  fresh-water 

tortoise.) 

This  is  a  most  numerous  family,  including  a  large  number  of 
well  known  species,  which  present  great  varieties  of  habit,  size, 
and  structure.  Durneril  and  Bibron  unite  the  Emydoidas  and 
Chelyoida  into  one  family,  under  the  name  of  ELODITES,  refer- 
ring  the  Emydoida  to  the  division  Cryptodera,  and  the  Chelyoida 
to  the  division  Pleurodera.  Our  limits  do  not  allow  us  to  detail 
minutely  the  distinctive  peculiarities  of  this  family,  or  to  assign 
at  large  the  differences  existing  in  the  various  sub-divisions  un 
der  which  it  is  exhibited. 

In  these  Tortoises,  the  box  in  which  the  animal  is  enclosed,  is 
less  thick  and  strong  than  in  the  Land  Tortoises,  not  becoming 
completely  ossified  until  late  in  life;  its  figure  is  oval,  for  the 
most  part,  broader  behind  than  before.  All  the  bony  plates  show 
great  constancy  and  regularity  of  arrangement.  The  outside  of 
the  whole  shield  is  covered  with  scales,  as  is,  more  or  less,  the 
skin  of  the  head,  neck,  limbs,  and  tail;  the  tympanum  is  visible, 
and  the  eyelids  are  of  equal  height. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  these  are  eminently  MARSH  TORTOISES. 
Almost  all  of  them  can  withdraw  and  conceal  their  limbs  within 
the  carapace  and  plastron ;  but  in  the  Platysternvn,  (Gr.  broad- 
sternon,)  the  plastron  or  sternon  from  its  width,  suffices  to  con 
ceal  the  limbs  when  folded ;  yet  the  head  remains  constantly 
exposed.  The  food  of  these  Tortoises  is  both  vegetable  and 
animal.  None  of  them  catch  active  prey,  or  are  in  any  way 
ferocious;  when  hard  pressed,  however,  they  defend  themselves 
by  biting.  They  lay  their  eggs  on  dry  land,  in  holes  which  they 
dig  with  their  hind  legs;  the  land  species,  from  two  or  three  to 
five  or  seven  ;  the  water  species,  from  ten  or  fifteen  to  twenty, 
thirty,  or  even  more.  (Agassiz.)  The  shell  of  the  eggs  is  never 
brittle,  but  rather  flexible,  and  less  calcareous  than  in  some  other 
families. 

The  genera  Emys  and  Cistudo,  are  prominent  representatives 
of  this  family.  In  the  Emys,  the  fore  feet  have  five  toes;  the 
hind  feet,  four;  the  plastron  is  broad,  immovable,  solidly  united 
to  the  carapace,  and  covered  with  twelve  plates;  the  head  is 
about  the  ordinary  size;  the  tail  long. 

Emys  Mulilenbergii,  or  Muhlenburg's  Tortoise,  is  the  smallest 
known  species,  about  four  inches  in  length;  found  in  New  Jer 
sey  and  the  eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania. 

E.  rugosa,  (Lat.  wrinkled,)    or   E.  rulriventris,    (Lat.   red- 


CHELONIANS.  4G3 

bellied,) — the  Ptychemys,  (Gr.  ptuche,  a  fold;  emys.)  rugosa,  of 
Agassiz, — is  found  as  far  South  as  Virginia,  and  North  as  far  as 
the  neighborhood  of  New  York  City.  It  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Red-bellied  Terrapin,  and  as  food  is  prized  by  epicures. 
Length  from  ten  to  seventeen  inches.  (Agassiz  says  fifteen 
inches.) 

Emys  concmna,  (Lat.  polished,  beautiful,)  is  a  handsome  spe 
cies,  found  in  Georgia ;  in  length,  according  to  Agassiz,  fifteen 
inches.  This,  and  the  preceding  species,  are  the  rarest  of  the 
family. 

E.  concentrica,  is  found  both  in  North  and  South  America. 
New  York  is  said  by  DeKay  to  be  its  northern  limit.  It  gives 
the  preference  to  salt-water  marshes,  and  is  therefore  called  the 
SALT-WATER  TERRAPIN.  The  flesh  of  this  species  is  in  particu 
lar  request  for  the  table.  The  plates  of  the  carapace  are  olive- 
green,  with  concentric  lines  of  brown,  whence  the  specific  name, 
concentrica.  Sometimes  it  is  called  E.  palustris.  These  Tortoises 
bury  themselves  in  rnud  during  the  winter ;  they  are  then  very 
fat,  and  taken  in  large  numbers.^  The  length  is  from  seven  to 
ten  inches. 

E.  picta,  (Lat.  painted,)  or  Clirysemys,  (Gr.  gold-colored  Emys,) 
picta,  Ag., — is  probably  the  most  essentially  aquatic  Tortoise 
of  the  entire  family ;  in  fact,  it  soon  perishes,  if  removed  from 
the  water.  The  PAINTED  EMYS  (see  Chart)  is  very  common  in 
the  United  States,  but  on  account  of  the  ill  flavor  of  its  flesh, 
never  used  for  food.  The  plates  of  the  carapace,  which  is  con 
siderably  depressed,  are  of  a  deep  brown  color;  the  plastron  is 
of  a  yellow  or  gold  color.  For  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its 
markings,  this  may  be  esteemed  the  handsomest  of  all  the  fresh 
water  Tortoises.  It  seems  to  enjoy  much  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  sometimes  floats  in  the  water  with  the  head  just  emerging 
from  the  shell,  luxuriating  in  the  genial  temperature.  It  inhab 
its  stagnant  ponds  or  lakes,  and  is  never  found  in  rivers  or  run 
ning  streams.  Its  length  is  from  five  to  nine  inches.  When 
young,  its  contour  is  circular  rather  than  oval.  It  is  remarkably 
slow  in  coming  to  maturity,  not  laying  eggs  before  it  is  seven 
years  old. 

E,  guttata,  (Lat.  speckled,)  the  SPOTTED  TORTOISE,  is  a  small 
species  found  throughout  the  Union.  Its  length  is  about  four 
inches.  The  carapace  is  black,  or  deep  brownish  black,  with 
distant  rounded  yellow  dots,  occasionally  with  a  few  orange 
spots.  It  shows  a  preference  for  streams  and  ponds  which  have 
a  muddy  bottom.  On  a  warm  day,  Speckled  Tortoises  may  be 
seen  basking  in  the  sun,  on  a  log  or  rock  ;  but  on  the  approach 


464  CHELONIANS. 

of  any  person,  they  slip  suddenly  into  the  water.     This  species 
is  the  Nanemys,  (Gr.  dwarf-emys,)  gull.ata,  of  Agassiz. 

The  genus  Cistudo,  (Lat.  a  box.)  includes  TERRAPINS,  or  Box 
TORTOISES.  These,  like  the  Emydes,  have  five  toes  on  the  fore 
feet  and  four  on  the  hind  ones.  The  head  is  very  high  ;  the 
plastron,  broad,  oval,  and  divided  by  a  transverse  hinge  into  two 
movable  portions  or  valves,  by  means  of  which  the  whole  body 
may  be  shut  in.  The  beak  of  the  upper  jaw  projects  downward 
in  the  middle ;  the  lower  jaw  is  sharp  pointed  in  front ;  the  hind 
foot  plantigrade.  These  Tortoises  never  take  to  the  water  from 
choice,  and  would  be  drowned  if  detained  there.  Indeed,  they 
are  so  much  on  dry  land  as  to  be  sometimes  called  Land  Tor 
toises. 

The  CAROLINA  TERRAPIN,  or  Box  TORTOISE,  C.  Carolina,  or 
C.  Virginia,  (Agassiz,)  is  found  in  New  England,  also  westward 
as  far  as  Michigan,  and  southward  as  far  as  the  Carolinas.  In 
its  general  habits,  in  the  vaulted  form  of  its  carapace,  and  in  the 
structure  of  its  feet,  which  are  but  slightly  palmated,  it  appears 
to  be  a  link  between  the  Marsh  and  Land  Tortoises.  This  spe 
cies  is  not  aquatic,  preferring  woods  and  dry  places  and  living 
on  vegetables  and  insects;  occasionally,  however,  it  is  met  with 
in  swamps  and  moist  places.  Of  all  the  Marsh  Tortoises,  it  has 
the  shortest  and  most  convex  carapace.  The  general  color  is 
dark  brown  with  stars  and  blotches.  The  flesh  is  not  much  es 
teemed,  but  the  eggs,  which  are  about  as  large  as  a  pigeon's,  are 
thought  to  be  excellent,  and  are  much  sought  for.  The  length 
of  this  species  is  from  five  to  seven  inches. 

BLANDING'S  Box  TORTOISE,  C.  Blandingii,  has  a  shell  less 
raised  than  that  of  the  Carolina  Terrapin,  and  the  lower  jaw  is 
hooked  instead  of  the  upper,  as  in  the  Carolina  species.  Its 
length  is  from  seven  to  eight  inches.  This  species  was  first  ac 
curately  described  and  figured  by  Dr.  Holbrook,  in  his  valuable 
work  on  North  American  Herpetology.  According  to  Agassiz, 
who  deems  this  a  "true  Emys,"  the  oldest  name  is  E.  meleagris. 
The  EUROPEAN  Box  TORTOISE,  C.  Europaa,  is  widely  dif 
fused.  It  differs  from  the  Carolina  Terrapin  in  giving  the  pref 
erence  to  still  waters,  ponds  and  marshes,  in  the  mud  of  which 
it  delights  to  bury  itself.  This  species  is  particularly  fond  of 
small  fishes.  These  it  kills  previously  to  devouring  them,  but 
rejects  the  air  sac,  which  rises  and  floats  on  the  surface,  so  that 
the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  these  animals  in  any  pool  or  sheet 
of  water,  is  judged  of  by  the  numbers  of  these  floating  air  sacs. 
The  flesh  of  the  European  Box  Tortoise,  though  not  very  deli 
cate,  is  nevertheless  eaten. 


CHELONIANS. 


THIRD  FAMILY.     Cinosternoida,  (Gr.    xZ>«w,   Jcineo,  to   move; 
,  sternon.)     MUD  and  MUSK  TORTOISES. 


The  Tortoises  of  this  family  have  long  and  narrow  bodies, 
covered  by  a  shield  which  is  entirely  ossified.  The  marginal 
plates  are  twenty-four  in  number  ;  the  plastron  is  divided  into 
three  sections,  and,  "  at  least  in  the  adult  species,  is  made  up  of 
eight  plates,  there  being  no  odd  one,  as  in  all  the  other  families 
of  the  sub-order."  (Ag.)  The  shield  or  carapace  is  covered 
with  large  horny  scales  ;  the  head  is  large,  elongated,  and  pyr- 
amydal  in  form  ;  the  mandibles  are  hooked,  and  in  the  under 
jaw  covered  with  fleshy  excrescences.  In  the  female,  the  tail  is 
short  ;  in  the  males,  thick  and  long.  Their  legs  are  slender,  ill 
fitted  for  land  travel,  but  easily  carrying  the  body  through  the 
water  over  the  bottom.  As  a  family,  they  are  dwarfish  in  their 
forms,  the  largest  not  being  more  than  nine  inches  long,  and  the 
smallest  not  more  than  four  inches.  These  Tortoises  smell 
strongly  of  musk.  Their  disposition  is  a  blending  of  shyness 
and  ferocity.  "  They  remind  us,"  says  Agassiz,  "of  the  Insec- 
tivora  among  the  Mammalia,  the  rapacious  habits  of  which  are 
in  strange  contrast  with  their  size  and  feebleness."  Their 
movements  are  abrupt  and  quick,  but  have  little  power  ;  their 
food  is  chiefly  animal  ;  their  habits  aquatic,  though  sometimes 
they  bask  in  the  sun  on  the  shore.  They  lay  only  from  three 
to  five  eggs,  having  the  shape  of  a  lengthened  ellipse  with  very 
blunt  ends,  and  a  glazed,  shining  surface,  much  smoother  than 
that  of  the  other  turtles'  eggs,  and  also  quite  thick  and  brittle. 

This  family,  entirely  American,  is  represented  by  the  genera 
Cinosternon  and  Sternoth&rus,  (Gr.  sternon;  thairos,  a  hinge.) 
The  former  has  both  the  front  and  hind  parts  of  the  plastron 
movable  upon  an  intermediate  fixed  position  ;  the  latter  has  the 
plastron  solid,  with  the  front  part  movable. 

Cinosternon  represents  the  MUD  TORTOISES,  or  Cinosteroids. 
Several  species  are  described. 

C.  Pennsylvanicum,  or  Thyrosternum,  (Gr.  thuron,  porch  ; 
sternon,)  Pennsylvanicum,  (Ag.)  is  very  common  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States.  It  inhabits  ditches  and  muddy  ponds,  and 
often  takes  the  hook.  Its  food  consists  of  frogs  and  small  fishes. 
The  length  is  seven  or  eight  inches. 

SternotJiarus,  or  Ozotheca,  (Gr.  ozo,  to  smell  ;  theke,  repos 
itory,)  Ag.,  of  sub-family  QzothecoidcK,  includes  the  MUSK  TOR 
TOISES.  Of  the  species  the  Musk  Tortoise,  S.  odoratus,  or  O. 
odorata,  Ag.,  is  the  most  common  and  the  smallest  one  known,  being 


486  CHELONIANS. 

less  than  four  inches  in  length.  It  is  common  in  marshes  and 
ditches  from  Maine  to  Florida.  The  carapace  is  gibbous  or  ob 
long,  of  a  brownish  color,  with  streaks  of  green.  The  color  and 
marking  are,  however,  not  easily  detected,  as  the  animal  is  usu 
ally  covered  with  mud,  and  an  agglutination  of  water  plants. 
It  is  sometimes  called  Mud  Terrapin,  and,  on  account  of  its  dis 
agreeable  odor,  Stink-Pot,  and  other  names  equally  savory. 


FOURTH  FAMILY.     Chelydroida,  (Gr.  jeAu^og,  cheludros,  a 
water-tortoise.) 

SNAPPING  TURTLES. 

The  body  of  these  Tortoises  is  high  in  front  and  low  behind, 
the  upper  surface  is  "like  a  shed-roof  falling  backwards,  curved 
down  on  either  side,  lowest  about  the  middle,  less  and  less  to 
wards  the  ends."  The  carapace  projects  beyond  the  attached 
surface  of  the  body,  except  at  the  neck,  where  it  is  joined  with 
the  plastron  ;  the  latter  is  not  movable,  of  a  cross-like  shape,  and 
covered  with  twelve  plates.  The  head  is  very  large  and  cov 
ered  with  small  plates  ;  the  upper  mandible  is  hooked  ;  below 
the  under  mandible  are  two  small  wattle-like  excrescences.  The 
tail  is  extremely  long,  compressed  and  surmounted  by  a  ridge 
of  strong  scales,  as  in  the  crocodile.  The  limbs  are  very  robust, 
and  the  nails  of  the  toes  are  strong,  hooked  and  sharp.  The 
head,  though  of  great  size,  can  be  withdrawn  within  the  cara 
pace  ;  but  not  so  the  tail  and  limbs.  "  The  animal  lives  mostly 
in  the  water,  but  makes  considerable  passages  over  land.  It  does 
not,  like  the  TrionychidcB,  remain  burrowed  in  the  soft  muddy 
bottom,  but  rather  lies  in  wait  for  prey  under  shelving  banks,  or 
among  the  reeds  and  rushes." 

This  family  is  represented  by  the  ALLIGATOR  TORTOISE,  or 
SNAPPING  TURTLE,  to  which  naturalists  have  given  various 
names,  among  which  are  Chelonura,  (Gr.  clielone,  tortoise  ;  oura, 
a  tail,)  Serpentina,  (Say  ;)  Gypochelys,  (Gr.  gups,  a  vulture  ; 
clielus,  a  tortoise,)  Serpentina,  (Agassiz.)  Both  internally  and 
externally,  it  exhibits  an  approach  to  the  alligator,  and  perhaps 
may  be  viewed  as  an  intermediate  link.  When  adult,  it  exceeds 
three  feet  in  its  total  length.  So  great  is  the  strength  of  its  jaws 
that  a  large  one  has  been  seen  to  bite  off  a  piece  of  plank  more 
than  an  inch  thick.  It  eats  frogs,  other  aquatic  reptiles,  and 
even  fish  ;  it  swims  with  celerity,  and  is  prone  to  snap  at  every 
thing  coming  near  it.  Woe  to  the  unwary  duck  or  other  animal 
that  swims  unguardedly  within  its  reach.  ,  The  Alligator  Tor 
toise  is  a  native  of  Carolina  and  the  warmer  districts  of  North 


CHELONLANS.  407 


America.     This  Tortoise,  according  to  De  Kay,  lays  from  sixty 
to  seventy  eggs,  about  the  size  of  a  small  walnut. 

FIFTH  FAMILY.     Hydraspidce,  (Gr.  vdoa,  hudra,  a  water-snake  ; 

aspis,  a  shield.) 


This  family  includes  four  genera,  viz.  :  Platemys,  (Gr.  pla- 
tus,  broad;  emus,  emys:)  Rhinemys,  (Gr.  rkin,  nose;  emus, 
emys  ;)  Phrynops,  (Gr.  phrunos,  a  ruheta,  or  venomous  toad  ; 
dps,  face;)  Hydraspis.  The  whole  are  included  by  Wagler  in 
one  genus,  Platemys.  They  have  the  head  flattened  and  covered 
with  a  single  delicate  scale,  or  with  a  number  of  small  irregular 
plates  ;  the  jaws  are  simple  ;  two  barbels  appear  under  the  chin  ; 
the  carapace  is  very  much  flattened  ;  the  plastron  is  immov 
able  ;  there  are  five  claws  on  the  fore  feet,  four  on  the  hind. 
One  species  is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Macquarie  River, 
(Australia  ;)  other  species  are  found  in  South  America,  living  in 
marshes  or  else  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  So  far  as  the  head  and 
neck  are  concerned,  some  of  these  animals,  as  the  Chelodina  of 
New  Holland,  appear  more  like  a  snake  than  a  tortoise. 

SIXTH  FAMILY.     Chetyoidce,  (Gr.  x&vg,  clielus,  a  tortoise.) 

The  Tortoises  of  this  family  have  a  shield  that  is  thick,  .com 
pletely  ossified,  and  regularly  divided  into  plates  ;  the  head  is 
extraordinarily  large,  flat  and  triangular  ;  the  jaws  are  weak, 
neither  pointed  nor  sharp  edged,  unfit  for  catching  large  active 
prey,  or  for  tearing  any  tough  vegetable  or  animal  matter  ;  the 
mouth  is  broad,  but  very  close  when  its  roof  and  floor  are 
brought  together,  being  well  adapted  for  catching  and  swallow 
ing  minute  animals  ;  the  legs  are  strong  ;  the  feet  broad  and 
compact,  with  long  and  sharp  claws,  the  fore  feet  having  five, 
the  hind  feet  four.  This  family  includes  but  one  genus,  Chelys. 
The  only  recognized  species  is  the  MATAMATA,  C.  matamata,  (an 
aboriginal  name,)  found  in  Cayenne  and  Guiana,  having  the  neck 
furnished  with  long  cutaneous  appendages,  and  two  barbels  on 
the  chin.  The  head  looks  as  if  it  had  been  crushed,  and  this, 
together  with  its  fringes  and  skinny  enfoldings,  gives  it  a  singu 
larly  grotesque  appearance.  Decidedly,  it  is  the  most  remark 
able  of  the  Pond  or  Marsh  Tortoises.  When  full  grown,  the 
Matamata  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length. 


468  CHELONIANS. 


SEVENTH  FAMILY.     Trionychida,  (Gr.  T^,  treis,  three ;  " 
onux,  nail.) 

SOFT-SHELLED  OR  RIVER  TORTOISES. 

These  Tortoises  are  distinguished  by  the  complete  absence  of 
scales  from  the  body,  the  shell  being  covered  with  a  soft  skin. 
The  feet  are  broad,  webbed,  and  move  horizontally ;  of  the  toes, 
three  on  each  foot  are  provided  with  nails  or  claws,  whence  the 
term  Trionyx,  (see  derivation  above.)  The  form  is  that  of  a  flat 
orbicular  disk,  slightly  elongated,  with  a  long  pointed  head  pro 
jecting  upon  a  lengthened,  slender  neck.  The  structure  of  these 
animals  is  well  adapted  to  life  and  motion  in  the  water.  They 
swim  with  great  facility.  In  this  process  they  are  aided,  not  by 
their  flattened  and  webbed  feet  alone,  but  by  the  loose  and  flex 
ible  skin  of  the  body,  forming  a  narrow  flap  or  border  around  the 
edges  of  the  shell,  and  performing  the  office  of  a  fin.  The  soft 
carapace  is  generally  dark  colored,  variegated  with  brown ;  but 
the  plastron  and  all  the  under  parts  are  pale,  like  the  turbot. 
The  plastron  is  not  entirely  ossified  in  the  Trionyx  proper,  and 
is  united  to  the  carapace  by  cartilage.  These  Tortoises  live 
mostly  on  the  muddy  bottom  of  shallow  waters,  burying  them 
selves  in  the  soft  mud,  leaving  only  the  head,  or  a  small  part  of 
it  exposed.  Sometimes  they  remain  under  water  as  long  as  half 
an  hour,  without  coming  to  the  surface  to  take  breath.  They 
are  rarely  seen  on  land,  where,  to  them,  locomotion  is  labored 
and  unsteady.  They  lay  from  a  dozen  to  twenty  or  more  eggs, 
of  a  spherical  form,  having  a  thick  but  brittle  shell,  and  about 
the  size  of  a  musket  ball. 

They  feed  upon  fish,  reptiles,  and  mollusks,  especially  Ana- 
dontas  and  Paludinas,  fragments  of  which  have  been  found  in 
their  intestines.  Two  genera  represent  this  family. 

(1)  Gymnopus,  (Gr.  naked-footed,)  or  Platypeltes,  (Gr.  plains, 
broad  ;  pelte,  shield  ;)  (2)  Cryptopus,  (Gr.  krupto,  to  hide  ;  pous, 
foot,)  or  Aspidonectes,  (Gr.  aspis,  shield  ;  nectes,  a  swimmer,) 
Agassiz.  The  type  of  the  genus  Gymnopus,  or  Platypeltes,  is 
the  Trionyx  ferox,  the  species  of  this  country  earliest  known  to 
foreign  naturalists.  The  Tryonyx  ferox,  or  P.  ferox,  (Lat. 
fierce,)  is  found  from  Georgia  to  Western  Louisiana.  Though 
fierce,  it  is  not  very  large.  Agassiz  says  the  largest  tortoise 
which  he  ever  saw  or  heard  of  belonging  to  this  species,  was  one 
foot  and  a  half  in  length.  As  the  generic  name,  Platypeltes,  in 
dicates,  the  carapace  is  broad.  The  great  breadth  of  the  carti 
laginous  circumference  of  the  carapace,  and  the  narrowness  of 


CHELONIANS.  469 

the  plastron,  are  distinctive  marks  of  this  tortoise.  In  its  native 
regions  it  reigns  as  a  tyrant,  producing  great  havoc  among  the 
finny  tribes ;  it  is  very  voracious,  and  eagerly  seizes  a  hook 
baited  with  a  fish. 

The  females  visit  the  shore  in  May  to  lay  their  eggs.  These 
are  globular  in  shape  and  brittle  ;  they  are  hatched  in  July.  It 
is  said  that  in  its  fierceness  and  voracity,  this  Tortoise  will  at- 
tack  small  quadrupeds,  aquatic  birds,  and  young  alligators.  The 
Trionyx  of  the  Nile,  G.  Mgyptiacus,  is  much  valued  in  Egypt,, 
on  account  of  the  services  it  renders  in  devouring  the  eggs  and 
young  of  the  crocodile. 

Tortoises  of  the  genus  Cryptopus,  or  Aspidonectes,  have  the 
plastron  broad,  and  capable  of  closing  up  in  front,  so  as  to  shut 
in  the  retracted  head  and  limbs ;  in  the  rear  they  have  a  cartila 
ginous  valve  on  each  side,  for  shutting  in  the  -hind  limbs. 

A.  spinifer,  (Lat.  thorn -bearing  or  prickly,)  is  a  species  com- 
mon  in  Lake  Champlain,  and  in  most  of  our  western  rivers. 
Length  fourteen  inches. 

SECOND  SUB-ORDER.    CHELONIDJE,  OR  CHELONII.     SEA  TUSTLES. 
PINNATED. 

The  entire  structure  of  the  Sea  Turtles  shows  an  express 
adaptation  to  aquatic  habits.  Not  only  is  the  carapace  greatly 
flattened,  but  the  limbs,  in  which  the  toes  are  not  externally  dis 
tinct,  are  likewise  flattened  and  modified  into  large  oars.  On 
land,  these  animals  shuffle  along  in  the  most  awkward  manner, 
and  make,  with  toilsome  efforts,  only  a  slow  progress ;  but  they 
plough  the  waves,  dive  and  ascend  with  admirable  address  and 
dexterity.  They  swim  almost  entirely  by  means  of  their  front 
limbs ;  the  other  pair  acting  independently  and  being  chiefly 
useful  in  aiding  to  balance  the  body,  and  guide  the  general 
course.  They  feed  chiefly  on  marine  plants.  The  gullet  of 
these  Turtles  is  lined  with  long  cartilaginous  processes,  all  tend 
ing  towards  the  stomach.  These  appear  designed  to  prevent  the 
return  of  the  food  when  the  water  which  is  swallowed  in  con 
nection  with  it  is  regurgitated. 

The  Sea  Turtles  never  resort  to  the  shore,  except  to  deposit 
their  eggs.  They  lay  them  at  night  and  in  large  companies. 
Those  of  most  of  the  species  are  both  nutritious,  and  agreeable 
to  the  taste.  "American  Sea  Turtles,"  says  Agassiz,  "  lay  their 
eggs  towards  the  end  of  May,  or  in  the  beginning  of  June.  They 
lay  a  large  number  of  them,  about  one  hundred  at  a  time,  or 
even  more,  which  they  deposit  on  shore,  in  the  dry  sand.  Their 


UNIVERSii 

\ 


470  CHELONIANS. 

eggs  are  not  large,  in  comparison  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and 
not  perfectly  spherical,  their  orbicular  outline  being  more  or  less 
irregular."  "I  have  no  reason,"  he  says,  "'to  trust  the  reports 
that  they  lay  eggs  more  than  once  a  year."  Other  writers,  how 
ever,  say  "the  process  is  repeated  three  times  a  year."  The 
eggs  are  almost  unprotected  by  a  shell,  and  hence  it  is  necessary 
that  the  sand  in  which  they  are  laid  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  should  be  soft  and  movable.  To  obtain  a  suitable  local- 
ity  for  their  eggs,  they  often  travel  many  hundred  leagues.  As 
cension  Island  is  to  them  a  favorite  place  of  resort.  At  the 
breeding  season  the  Turtle-fishery  is  carried  on.  The  flesh 
of  the  females  is  in  the  highest  estimation,  and  at  this  sea 
son,  it  is  supposed  to  possess  its  best  quality.  "  The  fish 
ers  suddenly  advance  from  their  watching  places,  and  despatch 
the  Turtles  with  clubs,  or  turn  them  quickly  over  upon  their 
backs,  in  doing  which,  it  is  often  necessary  to  use  levers, 
several  men  at  the  same  t:me  combining  their  strength.  A  few 
skillful  men,  in  the  course  of  three  hours,  may  turn  over,  and 
thus  secure  forty  or  fifty  turtles."  On  the  coast  of  Guiana,  haul 
nets  are  employed  for  the  capture  of  these  creatures.  In  the 
Chinese  and  Indian  seas,  and  also  on  the  shores  of  Mozambique, 
boatmen  take  them  by  availing  themselves  of  the  natural  powers 
and  instincts  of  certain  fishes,  named  poissons  pecheurs,  or  Fish- 
fishers.  The  Turtles  are  usually  met  with  in  the  warm  latitudes 
of  the  ocean,  and  especially  towards  the  torrid  zone. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     Chelonioida. 

This  family  are  characterized  by  having  the  carapace  very 
broad,  more  or  less  depressed,  of  a  somewhat  heart-shaped  out 
line,  covered  with  horny  scales,  and  bordered  by  a  distinct  mar 
ginal  rim  ;  also  by  having  a  flat  nail  on  the  thumb  of  each  pad 
dle.  Three  well  defined  genera  are  found  along  the  coast 
of  the. United  States;  the  greatest  difference  between  them 
has  relation  to  the  structure  of  the  mouth.  Their  food  consists 
of  aquatic  plants,  sea-weeds,  and  the  like.  In  size,  they  much 
surpass  the  average  size  of  the  Amyda;  yet  they  are  shy  and 
inoffensive,  not  biting  when  hard  pressed,  but  striking  with  their 
powerful  flappers,  and  endeavoring  to  escape  by  quickening 
their  speed.  They  lay  their  eggs  at  the  end  of  May  or  begin 
ning  of  June. 

The  GREEN  or  ESCULENT  TURTLE,  Chelonia  mydas.  is  consid 
ered  the  most  important  of  the  Turtles,  its  flesh  being  in  great 
request  as  a  luxury  for  the  table,  and  as  furnishing  abundant  and 


CHELONIANS.  471 

wholesome  food  to  voyagers  in  tropical  climates.  It  has  twelve 
pair  of  scales  of  a  greenish  color,  but  they  do  not  overlay  each 
other,  and  are  of  no  use  in  the  arts.  Green  Turtles  are  very 
common  in  shallow  parts  of  the  sea  near  the  islands  and  the 
shores  of  continents,  within  the  tropics,  where  they  may  be  seen 
in  great  numbers  among  the  sea-weeds,  grazing  like  a  herd  of 
cattle ;  occasionally  coming  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  and  some 
times  remaining  there,  basking  in  the  sunshine.  They  are  often 
caught  at  sea  in  calm  weather,  a  harpoon  and  line  being  used. 
The  usual  length  is  four  or  five  feet,  and  the  weight  from  four 
hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds  ;  but  this  Turtle  has  been 
known  to  "  reach  the  length  of  eight  feet,  and  a  weight  of  fif 
teen  hundred  pounds."  The  flesh  of  the  smaller  ones  is,  how 
ever,  the  more  highly  esteemed. 

The  coast  of  Florida  is  one  of  the  resorts  for  the  females, 
which  deposit  each,  every  spring,  between  one  hundred  and  two 
hundred  eggs  in  the  sand,  where  they  hatch  in  about  seven  or 
eight  weeks.  But  scarcely  a  thirtieth  of  this  number  gain  the 
sea,  or  live  a  week  after  reaching  it.  Birds  and  beasts  of  prey 
thin  the  number  of  those  hatched  ;  and  crocodiles  and  rapacious 
fishes  are  ready  to  seize  upon  such  as  escape  destruction  on 
land  and  gain  the  water. 

The  TORTOISE  SHELL  TURTLE,  Chelonia  imbricata,  or  Eret- 
mochelys,  (Gr.  eretmo^^  an  oar;  chelus,  a  tortoise,)  imbricata, 
(Ag.,)  has  the  horny  muzzle  somewhat  lengthened  into  a  sharp 
point,  and  the  lower  jaw  is  received  into  a  groove  of  the  upper, 
so  that  the  food  can  be  cut  as  well  as  bruised  by  it.  The  shield 
has  twelve  pair  of  scales.  They  overlap  each  other,  at  least 
one-third  of  each  lying  over  the  one  behind  it ;  hence  this  spe 
cies  is  named  imbricata,  (imbricated.)  The  plates  increase  only 
in  front.  As  they  enlarge  there,  "the  older  parts  move  back 
wards,  where  they  are  worn  off  by  external  mechanical  agencies. 
This  process  goes  on  so  fast  that  in  a  specimen  of  two  feet  in 
length,  no  trace  of  those  primary  scales  which  covered  the  whole 
shield,  during  the  first  year,  could  be  found.  This  mode  of 
growing  and  moulting,  if  we  may  call  it  so,  is  very  similar  to 
that  in  the  human  nail."  (Ag-)  The  flesh  of  this  Turtle  has 
a  disagreeable  flavor,  probably  arising  from  the  nature  of  its 
food.  The  animal  is  chiefly  sought  for  the  plates  of  the  cara 
pace,  called  "  Tortoise  Shell,"  and  which  are  much  thicker  and 
stronger,  as  well  as  more  clouded  in  color  than  those  of  any 
other  species.  The  shell  procured  from  the  live  Turtle  is  thought 
to  be  the  finest.  The  epidermis,  or  outer  shell,  is  said  to  change 
every  year.  The  shell  is  removed  from  the  bone  of  the  cara- 


472  CHELONIANS. 

pace  by  presenting  its  convex  surface  to  a  glowing  fire.  The  ap 
plication  of  boiling  water  to  the  shell  when  removed,  so  mollifies 
it  that  it  may  be  acted  on  like  a  soft  mass,  and  by  pressure  in 
metallic  moulds,  made  to  assume  a  great  variety  of  forms.  A 
single  Turtle  yields  about  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  Tortoise 
Shell.  When  the  stripped  animal  is  set  at  liberty,  the  shell 
grows  again  ;  and  hence  it  sometimes  happens  that  in  after 
years,  the  stripped  Turtle  is  recaptured,  and  subjected  to  a  sec 
ond  ordeal,  but  the  shell  in  that  case  obtained  is  very  thin.  The 
Tortoise  Shell  Turtle  never  reaches  so  large  a  size  as  the  Green 
or  Esculent  Turtle.  Sometimes  it  is  called  the  Hawk's-bill  Tur 
tle.  (See  Chart.)  It  is  found  in  the  warmer  latitudes  of  the 
seas  and  coasts  of  this  continent,  and  also  in  the  seas  of  Asia. 

Com.  Wilkes,  in  his  "Exploring  Expedition,"  slates  that  the 
chiefs  in  the  Fejee  Islands,  keep  Tortoise  Shell  Turtles  in  pens. 
Tortoise  Shell  "  sometimes  sells  in  Manilla  for  from  two  to  three 
thousand  dollars  the  picul,  (one  hundred  and  thirty-three  English 
pounds.") 

The  LOGGERHEAD  TURTLE,  C.  caretta,  or  Thalassoclielys,  (Gr. 
Sea-Turtle,)  Caouana,  differs  from  the  tortoise  shell  Turtle,  in 
having  thirteen  pairs  of  scales,  and  these  not  imbricated.  The 
flesh  is  not  much  valued,  though  wholesome.  The  Loggerhead 
Turtle  feeds  upon  fish  and  mollusks.  It  yields  abundance  of 
oil,  for  which  alone  it  is  sought.  This  species  is  numerous  in 
the  Mediterranean. 


SECOND  FAMILY.     Sphargida,  (from  Gr.  erqDa^a/eo),  spharageo,  to 
roar  loudly.) 

These  Sea-Turtles  have  the  bony  structure  of  the  carapace 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  leathery  skin,  instead  of  plates  or 
scales  ;  the  form  may  be  compared  to  a  flattened  cone,  with  an 
gular  sides  ;  the  skeleton  is  light,  and  the  shield  narrow  and 
small,  compared  with  the  size  of  the  animal  ;  in  the  full  grown 
Turtle,  the  skin  is  quite  smooth  ;  but  in  the  young  is  tubercu 
lous.  The  paddles  are  without  any  distinct  nails.  These  Tur 
tles  are  the  largest  in  size  and  lay  a  great  number  of  eggs. 
Only  one  species  is  as  yet  recognized. 

The  LEATHERY  TURTLE,  Sphargis  coriacea,  (Lat.  leathery.) 
This  has  jaws  of  immense  strength,  the  lower  one  being  sharp 
edged,  and  turning  up  at  a  point  which  when  the  jaws  are  closed 
is  received  into  a  central  indentation  or  notch  of  the  upper  jaw. 
The  carapace  is  heart-shaped  and  has  seven  longitudinal  ridges 
at  equal  distances  from  each  other.  (See  Chart.)  The  eyes 


CHELOiNIANS.  473 

open  almost  vertically,  which  gives  to  the  animal  a  strange  as 
pect.  This  Turtle  exceeds  all  others  in  size;  the  carapace  is 
sometimes  fifteen  feet  in  circumference,  and  nearly  seven  feet  in 
length.  It  sometimes  weighs  more  than  eighteen  hundred 
pounds.  Agassiz  states  he  has  seen  those  that  weighed  over  a 
ton.  The  Leathery  Turtle  feeds  upon  marine  animals,  as  well 
as  plants.  When  aged,  it  is  said  "  to  carry  on  its  carapace  "a 
world  of  parasites."  This  gigantic  species  is  found  in  the  Med 
iterranean,  and  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  It  breeds  on 
the  Tortugas  or  Turtle  islands,  on  the  Bahama  islands  and  Keys, 
and  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  laying,  on  an  average,  about  three 
hundred  and  fifty  eggs,  in  two  sets.  A  large  sized  specimen  of 
this  species,  taken  off  Sandy  Hook  in  1816,  is  now  in  the  Ameri 
can  Museum,  New  York  city.  The  Leathery  Turtle  was  known 
to  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  of  its  carapace  the  first  lyre  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  formed ;  the  seven  ridges  on  the  back  sug 
gesting  the  adoption  of  seven  strings,  which  was  the  ancient 
number.  Hence,  it  is  sometimes  called  the  LUTE  TURTLE. 

CHELONIANS. 

Into  what  divisions  may  this  Order  be  arranged  ?  In  what  respects  do 
they  widely  differ  from  the  general  form  of  the  class  ?  What  is  the  shield 
of  the  back  called?  Of  what  does  this  consist?  What  in  the  TORTOISES 
represents  the  sternal  or  breast  ribs  of  the  lizards,  &c.  ?  What  is  the  name 
of  the  lower  plate  of  the  armor  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  is  the  sec 
ond  distinction  between  CHELONIANS  and  other  reptiles?  How  are  they 
compensated  for  the  want  of  teeth  ?  What  is  said  of  the  armor  of  the 
LAND  TORTOISES?  What  is  peculiar  in  that  of  the  genus  Pyxis  ?  In  that 
of  the  genus  Cinixys  ?  How  is  it  in  the  aquatic  species  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  organs  of  sense  in  Tortoises?  What  of  their  food?  Of  their  pow 
ers  of  abstinence  ?  Of  their  growth  ?  Of  their  age  ?  What  does  Agassiz 
say  of  their  eggs?  Into  how  many  SUB-ORDERS  does  he  divide  the  order 
Chelonia?  Name  the  families  included  in  AMYD^E,  or  DIGITATED  TORTOISES. 
Also  those  included  in  CHELONII  or  PINNATED,  (finned,)  T.  What  groups 
besides  the  Land  Tortoises  does  the  Sub-order  Ainydae  include  ?  Into  what 
two  divisions  are  the  strictly  Marsh  Tortoises  sometimes  arranged  ?  Are 
the  sp.  of  this  Sub-order  numerous  ?  What  is  said  of  the  forms  of  the 
Land  Tortoises  ?  What  of  their  distinguishing  characteristics  ?  Of  their 
disposition,  habits,  &c.  ?  Name  the  sp.  which  are  mentioned.  Which  of 
these  are  found  in  the  U.  S.  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  can  you  say  of 
the  others? 

Which  is  the  2nd  and  most  numerous  FAMILY  ?  How  does  the  box  or 
armor  of  these  T.  differ  from  that  of  the  Land  T.  ?  Where  are  the  largest 
part  of  them  found  ?  How  is  it  with  the  Cistudo  ?  What  gen.  are  promi 
nent  in  this  family  ?  Which  is  the  smallest  sp.  of  Emys  ?  Which  is  the 
largest  ?  What  is  said  of  the  SALT  WATER  TERRAPIN  ?  Which  is  the  most 
essentially  aquatic  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  Which  gen.  includes  the  Box 

20 


474  CHELONIANS. 

TORTOISE  ?    What  is  said  of  the  CAROLINA  TERRAPIN  ?     Of  the  European 
Box  T.  ? 


Which  is  the  3rd  FAMILY?  Describe  them.  Of  what  does  Agassiz say 
they  remind  us  ?  What  is  said  of  their  movements,  food,  &c.  ?  On  what 
continent  are  they  all  found  ?  What  genera  represent  this  family  ?  Which 
genus  includes  the  MUD  Tortoises?  Which  the  MUSK  T.  ? 

What  is  the  4th  FAMILY?  Describe  them.  What  turtle  represents  this 
family  ?  How  does  it  resemble  the  ALLIGATOR  ?  What  is  said  of  its  strength, 
food,  &c.  ? 


What  is  said  of  the  5th  FAMILY?  How  many  gen.  does  it  include?  Where 
are  they  found?     What  other  reptiles  do  some  or  all  of  these  resemble? 


What  is  the  6th  FAMILY  ?  Name  their  characteristics.  What  gen.  does 
it  include  ?  What  is  the  only  recognized  sp.  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ? 

What  is  the  7th  FAMILY  ?  In  what  respects  are  these  distinguished  ? 
For  what  element  does  the  structure  of  these  animals  fit  them?  What 
helps  them  in  swimming  ?  In  what  waters  are  they  usually  found  ?  Upon 
what  do  they  feed?  What  gen.  are  mentioned?  What  is  the  type  of  the 
gen.  Platypeltes  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  of  the  Trionyx  of  the  Nile  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  plastron  of  Aspidonectes  ?  What  sp.  of  this  gen.  is 
mentioned? 

What  is  the  2nd  SUB-ORDER?  How  does  the  structure  of  the  SEA  TUR 
TLES  fit  them  for  aquatic  habits  ?  What  is  said  of  their  motion  ?  Which 
limbs  do  they  use  in  swimming  ?  What  is  the  chief  use  of  the  hind  limb  ? 
On  what  do  they  feed ?  Are  they  ever  found  on  shore?  When  do  they 
lay  their  eggs  and  what  is  said  of  them  ?  What  is  to  them  a  favorite  breed 
ing  place?  At  what  time  is  the  T.  Fishery  carried  on?  How  are  the  Tur 
tles  secured?  How  do  the  Chinese  boatmen  take  them?  In  what  lati 
tudes  are  the  Sea  T.  found?  What  is  the  1st  FAMILY?  How  is  it  charac 
terized?  How  many  Avell  defined  gen.  on  the  coast  of  the  U.  S.  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  food,  &c.?  Which  is  the  most  important  of  the  SEA  TUR 
TLE?  Why?  Where  is  it  very  common?  How  often  caught  at  sea? 
What  is  said  of  the  size  and  weight  ?  What  resort  for  the  female  is  men 
tioned?  What  is  said  of  their  eggs?  Do  their  young,  when  hatched,  all 
reach  the  sea?  How  many  pair  of  scales  has  the  Tortoise-shell  T.  ?  Why 
are  they  said  to  be  imbricated?  At  what  part  do  the  plates  increase?  What 
effect  has  this  upon  the  older  part  ?  What  does  this  mode  of  growing  and 
moulting  resemble  ?  For  what  is  this  animal  chiefly  sought  ?  Which  shells 
are  the  best?  How  is  the  shell  removed  from  the  carapace?  How  is  it 
made  to  assume  various  forms?  Is  the  shell  renewed  upon  the  stripped 
animal  ?  Where  is  this  T.  found  ?  How  does  the  Loggerhead  T.  differ 
from  the  Hawks-bill  or  Tortoise  shell  T.  ?  For  what  is  it  sought? 

What  is  the  2nd  FAMILY  ?  From  what  is  the  family  name  derived  ?  What 
Sea  T.  does  it  include?  What  is  said  of  the  jaw,  carapace,  &c.  of  the 
LEATHERY  T.  ?  What  of  its  size,  weight,  &c.  ?  Where  is  it  found  ?  What 
breeding  places  are  spoken  of?  Why  is  it  sometimes  called  the  LUTE  T.  ? 

How  are  the  Ohelonidae  or  Testudinata  usually  divided,  as  given  on  the 
Chart  ?  What  is  Prof.  Agassiz'  first  division  of  them  as  there  shown  ? 


SAURIANS.  475 


SECTION  III. 

SECOND  ORDER.     SAURIANS. 
Sauria,  (Gr.  cravyog,  sauros,  a  lizard.) 

This  order  contains  a  numerous  assemblage  of  animals  re 
markable  for  the  differences  in  their  size,  which  varies  from  a 
few  inches  to  thirty  feet ;  and  not  less  so  for  differences  in  re- 
spect  to  strength,  form  and  habit.  All,  however,  agree  in  cer 
tain  essential  characters.  Many  species,  generally  of  great 
dimensions,  are  known  only  in  a  fossil  state. 

The  general  contour  of  the  body  is  lengthened  ;  the  skin  is 
protected  either  by  horny  plates,  by  scales  of  various  sizes  and 
figures,  or  by  granulations.  The  limbs  are  usually  four  in  num. 
ber;  the  toes  armed  with  claws.  The  body  always  terminates 
in  a  tail,  which  is  frequently  of  considerable  length.  The  eyes 
are  protected  by  eye-lids,  except  in  certain  instances ;  and  in 
most  species  a  tympanic  membrane  covers  the  orifice  leading  to 
the  internal  organs  of  hearing.  The  ribs,  unlike  those  of  the 
Tortoises,  are  distinct  and  movable;  and  there  is  a  sternum  or 
breast-bone,  which  is  not  found  in  serpents.  The  jaws  are 
armed  with  teeth,  as  in  snakes  ;  but  the  bones  of  the  jaws  are 
firmly  united  together,  and  not  separable  into  distinct  parts,  as 
in  the  latter  animals. 

The  eggs  of  the  Saurians  have  a  hard  calcareous  shell ;  the 
young  undergo  no  metamorphoses  or  changes  like  those  of  the 
newt  and  frog. 

The  tongue,  in  these  animals,  differs  greatly  in  its  form,  and 
in  the  degree  of  freedom  which  it  enjoys.  In  the  Crocodile  it 
is  undeveloped  and  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  general 
floor  of  the  mouth,  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw.  In 
other  groups,  it  is  broad,  fleshy,  and  free  only  at  its  point ;  in 
the  Chameleons,  it  is  fleshy,  cylindrical,  and  capable  of  being 
projected  to  a  great  distance,  and  then  completely  redrawn.  In 
some  genera,  it  is  slender  and  deeply  forked,  like  that  of  a  snake, 
and  when  at  rest  drawn  into  a  sheath  ;  while  in  others,  it  is  flat, 
very  movable,  and  notched  or  forked  at  the  tip.  It  is,  in  all,  lu 
bricated  with  a  glutinous  saliva,  but  does  not  appear  to  be  en 
dowed  with  a  high  sense  of  taste. 

In  most  of  the  Saurians,  the  body  is  so  remarkable  for  its 
length  and  cylindrical  figure  that,  as  Aristotle  has  observed,  they 
resemble  snakes  with  the  addition  of  limbs.  "Among  all  the 
reptiles,"  says  M.  Bibron,  "these  undoubtedly  approach  nearest 


476  SAURIANS. 

to  the  Mammalia,  both  in  the  variety  and  rapidity  of  their  differ 
ent  movements,  especially  if  we  compare  their  progression  with 
that  of  Tortoises.  There  are,  indeed,  among  the  Saurians,  spe 
cies  which  enjoy  many  modes  of  progression  ;  for  they  can  creep, 
walk,  run,  climb,  swim,  dive,  and  even  fly.  Nevertheless,  the 
elongated  and  heavy  trunk  of  these  Reptiles  is  not  supported  by 
the  limbs  without  effort;  they  walk  in  general,  with  constraint 
and  slowly,  forthe  arms  and  thighs  are  short,  slender,  but  slightly 
muscular,  and  directed  outwardly  ;  while  the  elbows  and  knees 
are  too  angular  to  support  with  ease  the  superincumbent  weight. 
Still,  however,  notwithstanding  this  conformation,  so  faulty  in  ap 
pearance,  (though  not  in  reality,)  they  are  capable  of  executing 
a  great  variety  of  movements,  all  bearing  on  progression." 

The  form  of  the  tail,  the  length  of  the  body,  the  structure 
of  the  toes,  and  the  shape  of  the  claws  determine  the  character 
of  the  movements,  and  correspond  with  the  general  habits  of  the 
animal. 

The  hotter  climates  of  the  globe  are  the  great  nurseries  of  the 
Saurians.  Persons  who  live  in  northern  latitudes  are  ordinarily 
not  likely  to  form  any  adequate  idea  of  the  variety  of  these  crea 
tures,  which  tenant  their  favorite  abodes. 

44  In  the  intertropical  latitudes,  they  obtrude  themselves  upon 
notice ;  they  are  in  the  common  pathway,  and  even  haunt  the 
abodes  of  men  ;  they  swarm  among  the  trees;  they  lie  motion 
less  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  enjoying  the  hot  rays  of  the 
sun  ;  they  cover  banks  and  walls  or  crumbling  ruins,  and  min 
gle  their  sparkling  hues  with  those  of  the  blooming  vegetation 
amidst  which  they  nestle," 

Like  the  snake  tribe,  the  Saurians  moult  their  skin  during  the 
spring  or  summer,  appearing  afterwards  in  bright  colors. 

None  of  the  Saurians  are  poisonous;  none  have  poison  fangs, 
though  the  ancients  regarded  many  as  venomous  in  the  extreme. 
Of  these  an  imaginary  animal  termed  the  Basilisk,  (Basilicas,) 
was  especially  celebrated;  a  name  which  modern  naturalists 
apply  to  a  genus  peculiar  to  South  America. 

Though  the  Lizard  race  do  not  possess  the  medical  properties 
which  have  been  ascribed  to  them,  many  of  them,  as  the  Igua 
nas,  hold  a  high  rank  as  articles  of  luxury  for  the  table  ;  and 
the  flesh  and  eggs  of  the  Teguixin  or  Monitor,  a  large  species 
found  in  Brazil  and  other  parts  of  South  America,  are  esteemed 
for  food. 

The  Saurians  are  divided  into  the  following  families,  viz.: 
(1)  Crocodilida,  Crocodiles;  (2)  Chamaeleonidce,  Chameleons; 


SAURIANS.  477 

(3)  Geckotida,  Geckos ;  (4)  Iguanida,  Iguanas  ;  (5)  Varanida, 
Varans;  (6)  Teidce,  Teguixins;  (7)  Lacertida,  Lizards;  (8) 
Chalcida,  Chalcides  ;  (9)  Scincidce,  Scinks. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     CROCODILES. 
CrocodiHda,  (Gr.  xQoxodsdog,  krokodeitos,  a  crocodile.) 

This  family  includes  three  genera,  closely  related  to  each 
other,  and  agreeing  in  the  general  details  of  their  structure. 
They  are  the  largest  of  the  Lizards  found  in  America.  They 
are  called  Alligators  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  Caimans  in  the  Antilles  and  South  America.  In  Africa  and 
Asia  they  are  called  Gavials.  Those  of  America  are  distin 
guished  by  a  broad  and  rounded  snout;  those  of  Africa  by  an 
elongated  flat  snout,  and  those  of  Asia  by  a  pointed  one  like  the 
beak  of  a  bird.  They  differ  from  other  reptiles  in  the  tongue, 
which  is  thick,  flat,  and  attached  so  much  to  the  mouth  that  the 
ancients  believed  this  member  was  altogether  wanting.  "To  it, 
of  all  animals,"  wrote  Herodotus,  "nature  has  not  given  a 
tongue."  The  power  of  swimming  is  shown  by  the  palmated 
feet,  and  by  the  lateral  compression  of  the  tail,  which  thus  acts 
as  a  large  and  powerful  fin  ;  the  tail  is  no  doubt  used  as  a  wea 
pon  of  defence,  being  armed  with  a  serrated  ridge  of  strong 
square  scales.  The  lower  jaw  is  rather  longer  than  the  upper, 
and  both  are  armed  with  a  single  row  of  pointed  teeth,  the  num 
ber  of  which  does  not  vary  with  age,  as  in  other  animals.  The 
Crocodiles  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  rivers  and  fresh  waters  of 
warm  countries  ;  but  are  most  abundant  in  those  latitudes  which 
approach  nearest  to  the  equinoctial  line.  Their  mode  of  feed 
ing  is  very  peculiar.  They  do  not  swallow  their  prey  upon 
seizing  it,  nor  is  it  ever  eaten  while  fresh  ;  but  the  victim  is  first 
drowned,  and  then  conveyed  to  some  hole  at  the  edge  of  the  wa 
ter,  where  it  is  suffered  to  putrify  before  it  is  devoured.  Their 
food  consists  principally  of  fish,  crabs,  and  such  other  animals  as 
they  can  catch.  They  seem  to  manifest  an  affinity  to  the  Tor 
toises  in  the  coverings  of  their  bodies,  being  defended,  like  them, 
by  plates  or  shields;  with  this  difference,  however,  that  in  the 
Tortoises  the  plates  are  compactly  united  at  the  edges,  while  in 
Crocodiles  they  are  sufficiently  far  apart  to  admit  the  free  mo- 
tion  of  all  parts  of  the  body  and  limbs.  Owing  to  a  peculiarity 
in  the  vertebras  of  the  neck,  which  bear  upon  each  other  by 
means  of  small  false  ribs,  that  render  motion  sidewise  somewhat 
difficult,  these  creatures  can  not  turn  about  with  much  facility, 


478  SAURJANS 

and  may  be  avoided  without  difficulty,  when  on  land  they  at 
tempt  the  pursuit  of  man. 

The  Crocodiles  of  the  Nile  were  regarded  as  sacred  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  sometimes,  when  caught  young,  they 
were  so  tamed  as  to  follow  in  the  train  of  their  religious  proces 
sions.  In  some  localities  they  have  been  killed  of  the  length  of 
thirty  feet,  (Swain.)  Those  of  Egypt  and  Senegal,  (Africa,) 
are  less  numerous,  but  more  dangerous  than  those  of  this  conti 
nent.  No  living  species  of  this  family  is  found  in  Europe,  nor 
has  any  yet  been  detected  in  Australia,  but  remains  have  been 
discovered  which  indicate  the  former  existence  of  this  animal  in 
territory  now  included  in  the  British  dominions. 

Alligator  (Lat.  a  binder)  Champsa,  (Gr.  Crocodile,  Hesiod.) 
ALLIGATORS.  (See  fig.  on  Chart.) 

These  have  the  head  broad ;  the  muzzle  wide  and  rounded  ; 
the  teeth  of  unequal  length;  the  fourth  or  canine  tooth  of  the 
lower  jaw,  (counting  from  the  fore  part  of  the  jaw,)  is  the  longest 
and  is  received  into  a  corresponding  cavity  or  pit  in  the  upper 
jaw,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  so  that  it  is  concealed.  The 
hinder  limbs  are  rounded  and  destitute  of  rigid  scales;  the  webs 
between  the  toes  are  short. 

The  Alligators  pursue  fish  with  much  dexterity,  driving  a 
shoal  of  them  into  a  creek,  and  then  getting  into  the  midst  of 
their  prey  and  devouring  them  at  pleasure.  They  also  seize 
and  feed  upon  dogs,  frogs,  pigs  or  other  animals  incautiously  ap 
proaching  too  near  to  their  lurking  places.  The  usual  method 
of  capturing  the  Alligator  is  by  baiting  a  large  four-pointed  hook 
and  suffering  it  to  float  in  the  river.  When  the  creature  has 
swallowed  the  hook,  he  is  hauled  on  shore  and  killed.  Audubon 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  chase  of  a  wounded  Ibis  by 
one  of  these  animals.  It  had  almost  reached  the  terrified  bird, 
"  when,"  says  he,  "by  pulling  three  triggers  at  once,  we  lodged 
the  contents  of  our  guns  in  the  throat  of  the  monster.  Thresh 
ing  furiously  with  his  tail,  and  rolling  his  body  in  agony,  the 
Alligator  at  last  sunk  to  the  mud  ;  and  the  ibis,  as  if  in  grati 
tude,  walked  to  our  very  feet,  and  then  lying  down,  surrendered 
to  us." 

The  principal  species  are  the  Caiman  with  bony  eye-lids,  A. 
palpelrosus,  (Lat.  from  palpelra,  an  eye-lid.)  found  in  Cayenne 
and  Brazil,  also  in  the  Mississippi,  as  high  as  the  Red  River,  in 
Carolina  and  Florida,  and  sometimes  twenty  feet  in  length. 

The  PIKE-NOSED  ALLIGATOR,  (see  Chart.)  A.  Indus,  (Lat.  a 
pike,)  found  in  the  southern  rivers  of  North  America.  In 
Louisiana,  the  Alligators  of  this  species  bury  themselves  in 


SAURIANS.  479 

mud,  where  they  become  stiff,  without  being  frozen.  So  intense 
is  their  lethargy,  when  the  cold  is  severe,  that  they  may  be  cut 
deeply  without  being  roused.  Their  eggs  are  less  in  size  than 
those  of  the  Crocodile,  being  not  much  larger  than  a  hen's.  A 
peck  of  them  are  sometimes  taken  out  of  the  place  of  deposit  in 
the  sand. 

The  SPECTACLED  CAIMAN,  A.  sclerops,  (Gr.  skleros,  hard ; 
ops,  face,)  is  a  native  of  Cayenne,  Brazil,  and  Paraguay.  It  has 
its  English  name  from  a  ridge  across  the  forehead,  and  another 
before  each  eye,  showing  some  resemblance  to  a  pair  of  specta 
cles.  The  eggs  are  as  large  as  those  of  a  goose  ;  usually  about 
sixty  are  deposited.  The  Indians  esteem  them  as  food,  and  even 
relish  the  flesh  of  the  Yacare,  as  the  animal  is  called  in  Para 
guay. 

Crocodilus.     The  CROCODILE.     (See  Chart.) 

This  genus  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  sudden 
narrowness  of  the  muzzle  behind  the  nostrils,  which  produces  a 
large  notch  for  the  lodgment  of  the  fourth  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw, 
when  the  mouth  is  closed.  The  hinder  margin  of  the  leg  is  orna 
mented  with  a  series  of  ridged  scales,  and  the  hind  toes,  espe 
cially  the  three  outermost,  are  joined  by  webs  to  their  point. 
The  sublime  description  of  the  Leviathan  in  the  book  of  Job, 
(chap,  xii..)  evidently  relates  to  the  Crocodile.  The  most  favor- 
a.ble  season  for  catching  the  animal,  is  the  winter,  when  it  usually 
sleeps  in  sand  banks,  enjoying  the  warmth  of  the  sun  ;  or  else, 
in  the  spring,  while  the  female  is  "  watching  the  sand  islands, 
where  she  has  buried  her  eggs."  Sometimes  it  is  harpooned, 
the  coat  of  mail  which  protects  the  animal,  being  pierced  by  the 
weapon.  The  eggs  of  this  formidable  creature  are  but  little 
larger  than  those  of  a  goose.  Many  of  them  are  destroyed 
yearly  by  birds  of  prey  and  quadrupeds,  particularly  the  Ich 
neumon.  Herodotus  speaks  of  a  bird  called  Trocliilus,  (sup 
posed  by  some  to  be  one  of  the  Plovers,)  which  entered  the  jaws 
of  this  animal  unmolested,  and  picked  out,  and  devoured  the 
bdella,  suckers  or  gnats.  These  insects  also  infest  the  mouths 
of  the  Ciiimans,  of  South  America.  Two  species  of  this  genus  are 
found  in  this  hemisphere,  viz  :  the  C.  rhomfrifer,  (Lat.  rhombus,  a 
rhomb;  fero,  to  bear.)  found  in  Cuba;  and  the  SHARP-NOSED 
CROCODILE,  C.  acutus,  (Lat.  sharp,)  found  in  St.  Domingo  and 
Martinique.  The  other  species  all  belong  to  the  Eastern  Con 
tinent. 

The  COMMON  CROCODILE,  C.  vulgaris,  is  found  in  the  Nile,  the 
Senegal,  and  the  Ganges,  and  along  the  coast  of  Malabar. 


480  SAURIANS. 

The  HELMETED  CROCODILE,  C.  galeatus,  (Lat.  helmeted,)  is 
found  in  Siam. 

The  Two-RiDGED  CROCODILE,  C.  biporcatus,  (Lat.  Ms,  twice  ; 
porcatus,  ridged.)  occurs  in  the  Ganges,  in  the  rivers  of  Pondi- 
cherry,  and  in  those  of  Java. 

The  CUIRASSED  CROCODILE,  C.  cataphractus,  (Gr.  kataphracios, 
mailed,)  is  found  in  the  river  Galba,  near  Sierra  Leone,  (Africa.) 

The  GAVIALS. 

Gavialis.  This  genus  is  at  once  distinguished  by  the  length 
and  narrowness  of  the  jaws,  which  are  prolonged  in  a  straight 
beak-like  snout,  armed  with  ranges  of  formidable  teeth.  Of  this 
genus  there  is  but  one  known  species. 

The  GAVIAL  OF  THE  GANGES,  Gavialis  Gangeticus,  (see  Chart,) 
one  of  the  scourges  of  that  celebrated  river.  The  dying  Hindoo, 
exposed  upon  its  bank,  and  the  dead  body  committed  to  its 
waters,  become,  not  rarely,  the  food  of  this  ferocious  animal. 

"In  the  living  sub-genera  of  the  Crocodilean  family,"  observes 
Dr.  Buckland,  ('Bridgewater  Treatise,'  pp.  20,)  "we  see  the 
elongated  and  slender  beak  of  the  Gavial  of  the  Ganges,  con- 
structed  to  feed  on  fishes;  while  the  shorter  and  stronger  snout 
of  the  broad-nosed  Alligators,  gives  them  the  power  of  seizing 
and  devouring  quadrupeds  that  come  to  the  banks  of  rivers  in 
hot  countries.  As  there  were  scarcely  any  mammalia  during 
the  secondary  periods,  whilst  the  waters  were  abundantly  stored 
with  fishes,  we  might,  a  priori,  expect  that  if  any  crocodilean 
forms  had  then  existed,  they  would  have  most  nearly  resembled 
the  Common  Gavial ;  and  we  have  hitherto  only  found  those 
genera  which  have  elongated  beaks  in  formations  anterior  to, 
and  including  the  chalk,  while  True  Crocodiles,  with  a  short  and 
broad  snout,  like  that  of  the  Caiman  and  the  Alligator,  appear 
for  the  first  time  in  strata  of  the  tertiary  periods,  in  which  remains 
of  the  Mammalia  abound." 

FOSSIL  CROCODILES. 

These  have  been  found  in  the  Eocene  or  early  tertiary  depos 
its  of  England.  About  seventy  fossil  members  of  the  Crocodile 
family  are  known;  but  not  many  belong  to  the  United  States. 
In  their  structure,  they  conform  most  nearly  to  the  Gavial  of  the 
Ganges. 

The  genus  Steneosaurus,  (Gr.  stenos,  narrow  or  straight; 
sauros,  a  lizard),  affords  the  nearest  link  to  the  living  species  of 
the  crocodile  family. 

The  genus  Teleosaurus,  (Gr.  teleios,  perfect ;  sauros,  a  lizard,) 


SAURIANS.  481 

resembles  the  living  Saurians  in  the  general  contour  of  the  head 
and  jaws,  but  differs  from  them  widely  in  the  conformation  of  the 
muzzle,  and  the  opening  of  the  nose.  Many  species  of  the  fossil 
Crocodiles  were  of  enormous  size,  much  larger  than  the  living 
ones  of  the  present  day. 

SUB-FAMILY.     MARINE  FOSSIL  LIZARDS. 


Enaliosauria,  (Gr.  zvdhos,  enalios,  marine  ;    crai^oj,  sauros,  a 

lizard.) 

This  group  includes  some  very  extraordinary  fossil  Saurians. 
Little  else  than  the  bones  have  been  preserved,  and  from  these 
alone  the  structure  and  habits  are  inferred.  It  is  hence  impos 
sible  to  speak  with  certainty  in  regard  to  many  parts  of  the  living 
organization  ;  while  yet  it  is  made  quite  clear,  that  in  these  ex 
tinct  and  gigantic  reptiles,  the  extremities  were  flattened  into 
fin-like  flippers,  connecting  them  with  the  CHELONIA,  and,  to 
gether  with  other  peculiarities  of  their  structure,  pointing  out  the 
animals  as  exclusively  aquatic.  The  Enaliosaurians  "  inhabited 
the  seas  of  Europe  during  the  Trias  and  Jura  formations."  We 
are  not  aware  that  any  species  have  as  yet  been  discovered  in 
North  America.  The  two  genera,  are, 

1st,  Ichthyosaurus,  (Gr.  ickihus,  a  fish;  sauros,  a  lizard.) 
(See  Chart.)  This  reptile  is,  according  to  Prof.  Owen,  a  singu 
lar  compound,  in  which  the  characters  of  the  fish,  the  cetacea, 
and  the  bird  are  engrafted  upon  an  essentially  Saurine  type  of 
structure.  Dr.  Buckland,  in  his  "Bridgewater  Treatise,"  says 
of  it,  "It  presents  combinations  of  form  and  mechanical  con- 
trivances,  which  are  now  dispersed  through  various  classes  and 
orders  of  existing  animals,  but  are  no  longer  united  in  the  same 
genus.  Thus,  in  the  same  individual,  the  snout  of  a  Porpoise 
is  combined  with  the  teeth  of  a  Crocodile  ;  the  head  of  a  Lizard 
with  the  vertebrae  of  a  Fish  ;  and  the  sternum  of  the  Orni 
thorhyncus  with  the  paddles  of  a  Whale."  The  general  outline 
of  an  Ichthyosaurus  "must  have  most  nearly  resembled  the 
modern  Porpoise  or  Grampus.  It  had  four  broad  feet  or  paddles, 
and  terminated  behind  in  a  long  and  powerful  tail."  The  struct 
ure  of  the  skeleton  is  like  that  of  a  Saurian  ;  but  the  vertebral 
column  consists  of  more  than  a  hundred  vertebrae,  each  of  which 
is  hollow,  and  fashioned  like  those  of  fishes.  The  form  of  the 
sternal  arch  and  the  broad  surfaces  of  the  clavicles  are  adapted 
to  give  great  strength  to  the  chest,  and  enable  the  animal  to 
breast  the  most  disturbed  waters.  Dr.  Buckland  remarks,  that 
"  the  bones  composing  the  arch  are  combined  nearly  in  the  same 


482  SAURIANS. 

manner  as  the  Ornithorhyncus,  of  Australia,  which  seeks  its  food 
at  the  bottom  of  lakes  and  rivers,  and  is  obliged,  like  the  Ichthy 
osaurus,  to  be  continually  rising  to  the  surface  to  breathe  air." 
To  this  sternal  arch  the  front  paddles  are  articulated;  they  are 
nearly  one-half  larger  than  the  posterior  paddles,  and  in  this  part 
of  the  structure  the  cetaceous  type  appears  to  have  been  flattened. 
The  bones  of  the  head,  the  length  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  teeth, 
sometimes  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  in  number,  pre 
sent  analogies  to  those  of  the  Crocodile.  The  eyes,  however, 
were  extremely  large,  much  larger  than  those  of  the  latter  ani 
mal,  and  we  can  easily  imagine,  glared  ferociously  as  the  mon 
ster  darted  towards  its  prey.  Six  different  species  have  been 
enumerated.  The  commonest  species,  /.  tenuirostres,  (Lat.  thin- 
beaked,)  reaches  the  length  of  fourteen  feet.  The  species  I. 
platyodon,  (Gr.  platus,  broad  or  large,  and  odous,  tooth,)  has 
been  seen  in  specimens  thirty  feet  long.  The  teeth  are  some 
times  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length  ;  and  the  orbit  (of  the  eye) 
one  foot  in  diameter.  The  vertebrae  are  one  hundred  and  twenty 
in  number.  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  that  one  species  has 
succeeded,  or  been  the  result  of  the  transmutation  of  a  former 
species. 

It  should  be  added,  that  the  first  remains  of  the  Ichthyosaurus 
were  collected  by  a  lady, — Miss  Anning, — from  the  cliffs  of 
Lyme  Regis,  Eng.  The  Ichthyosaurians  are  abundant  through 
out  the  Lias  and  Oolitic  formations. 

Plesiosaurus,  (Gr.  plesios,  next;  sauros,  a  lizard.)  This 
genus  was  first  described  by  Conybeare,  in  1821.  Its  most 
remarkable  character  pertains  to  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck, 
which  are  from  twenty  to  forty  in  number,  (see  Chart;) — more 
than  in  any  other  known  animal.  Conybeare  conjectures,  that 
as  this  creature  breathed  air,  and  had  frequent  need  of  respira 
tion,  it  usually  swam  upon  or  near  the  surface  of  the  water, 
arching  back  its  long  neck  like  the  Swan,  and  plunging  down 
wards  at  the  fishes  coming  within  its  reach.  Cuvier  asserts, — 
"  To  the  head  of  a  Lizard,  the  Plesiosaurus  united  the  tail  of 
a  Crocodile  ;  a  neck  of  enormous  length,  resembling  the  body  of 
a  Serpent ;  a  trunk  and  tail  having  the  proportions  of  an  ordinary 
quadruped  ;  the  ribs  of  a  Chameleon,  and  the  paddles  of  a 
Whale."  The  greater  length  of  its  extremities  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  movement  on  land  was  probably  less  difficult  for 
this  creature  than  for  the  Ichthyosaurus.  It  was,  probably,  in 
general,  about  ten  feet  long;  though  some  species  of  this  genus 
and  the  preceding  one,  must  have  exceeded  twenty  feet  in  length. 


SAURIANS.  483 

Prof.  Owen  enumerates  no  less  than  sixteen  species  of  this  extinct 
and  most  anomalous  animal. 

Pterodactylus,  (Gr.  pteron,  wing  ;  daktutos,  a  finger  or  toe,)  The 
PTERODACTYLE,  (see  Chart,)  The  researches  of  geology  have 
brought  to  light  this  Flying  ( fossil )  Lizard,  which  received  its  name 
from  Cuvier.  The  construction  of  the  skeleton  fully  proves  that  it 
was  capable  of  flying,  or  of  skimming  from  one  spot  to  another. 
The  wings  were,  probably,  much  like  those  found  in  the  Bat. 
The  neck  was  very  long  and  bird-like  ;  the  head  large  ;  the  jaws 
armed  with  pointed  teeth ;  and  the  tail  very  short.  Six  or  seven 
species  of  this  genus  have  been  distinguished;  one  is  almost  the 
size  of  a  Thrush  ;  one  of  a  Common  Bat ;  arid  another  consider 
ably  larger  than  the  first.  To  these  extinct  reptiles,  the  little 
Dragons,  (Draco,)  have  but  a  distant  resemblance.  The  food  of 
the  smaller  species  consisted  of  insects,  the  larger  preying  upon 
the  fishes,  or  the  marsupials  of  their  day.  These  very  singular 
animals  have  only,  within  a  comparatively  short  period,  been 
admitted  to  a  place  among  the  Repiiles. 

Iguanodon,  (Iguana,  and  odous,  a  tooth.)  This  name  has 
been  given  to  the  fossil  remains  of  an  extinct  animal  related  to 
the  Iguana;  but  which  attained  a  far  more  enormous  bulk. 
The  bones  were  discovered  by  Dr.  Mantell  in  the  strata  of 
Tilgate  forest,  Eng.  The  teeth  are  so  much  like  those  of  the 
Iguana,  as  to  show  beyond  question,  its  relation  to  this  gigantic 
Saurian,  which  could  not  have  been  less  than  seventy  feet  in 
length.  The  teeth  of  the  Iguanodon  disclose  some  peculiar  me 
chanical  contrivances,  fitting  them  for  cropping  tough  vegetable 
food,  such  as  that  furnished  by  the  plants  found  imbedded  with  it. 

SAURIANS. 

What  is  the  SECOND  ORDER  OF  REPTILES  ?  Give  the  general  characteris 
tics  of  this  order.  What  did  Aristotle  observe  respecting  the  SAURIANS? 
In  what  respects  do  they  come  nearer  the  Mammalia  than  other  reptiles  ? 
In  what  climates  are  they  most  numerous  ?  At  what  season  do  they  moult 
their  skin?  Are  medicinal  properties  justly  ascribed  to  them?  Into  how 
many  families  are  they  divided?  What  is  the  First  Family?  How  many 
genera  does  this  family  include  ?  How  do  they  compare  in  size  with  the 
rest  of  the  LIZARDS?  Where  are  they  called  ALLIGATORS?  Where  CAI 
MANS?  Where  GAVIALS?  How  are  these  severally  distinguished?  In 
what  particulars  do  they  differ  from  other  reptiles?  What  evinces  their 
power  of  swimming?  How  are  the  jaws  armed?  Where  are  Crocodiles 
most  abundant  ?  What  is  peculiar  in  their  mode  of  feeding?  How  are 
they  related  to  the  Tortoises?  How  did  the  ancient  Egyptians  regard 
them  ?  Is  any  species  found  in  Europe  or  Australia  ?  What  characters  of 
the  ALLIGATOR  are  given  ?  What  is  said  of  its  pursuit  of  fishes  ?  How  is 
it  captured?  What  incident  is  related  by  Audubon ?  Mention  the  princi 
pal  species.  How  does  the  gen.  Crocodilus  differ  from  the  gen.  Alligat&r  ? 


484  SAURIANS. 

Mention  the  species  found  in  this  Hemisphere.  Also  the  other  species  and 
their  localities.  How  is  the  gen.  Gavialis  at  once  distinguished?  "NY hat 
is  said  of  the  Gavial  of  the  Ganges?  What  is  the  remark  of  Dr.  Buckland? 
What  is  said  of  Fossil  Crocodiles?  From  what  is  the  name  Enaliosauria 
derived  ?  Upon  what  is  this  group  of  marine  Fossil  Lizards  founded  ?  What 
two  genera  does  it  include?  What  does  Prof.  Owen  say  of  the  Ichthyosau 
rus?  What  does  Dr.  Buckland  say  respecting  it?  What  further  is  said 
of  it?  How  many  species  have  been  enumerated?  Who  first  described 
the  gen.  Plesiosaurus?  What  is  its  most  remarkable  character?  What  was 
the  conjecture  of  Conybeare?  What  else  is  said  of  this  gen.?  How  many 
species  have  been  enumerated?  What  is  said  of  the  Pterodactylc ? 
What  of  the  Iguanodon?  Of  the  Chameleon?  Illustrate  this  order  from 
the  Chart,  tracing  the  gen.  and  families  as  there  given. 


SECTION  IV. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     CHAMELEONS. 

Chamaleonidcz,  (Gr.  ja//cataW,   chamaileon,  a  Chameleon, 
Chameleon-kind.) 

These  are  a  group  of  singular  reptiles,  not  immediately  rela 
ted  to  any  other  family,  but  perhaps  succeeding  the  Crocodiles 
as  fitly  as  it  would  any  other  reptiles.  It  contains  but  a  single 
genus,  Chamcekon;  the  first  peculiarity  whereof  consists  in  the 
absence  of  scales, — instead  of  which,  the  surface  of  the  skin  is 
covered  with  horny  granulations  of  unequal  size,  but  of  sym 
metrical  distribution ;  (2)  the  body  is  of  a  deep,  compressed 
form,  surmounted  on  the  back  by  a  sharp  ridge;  (3)  the  Parrot- 
like  structure  of  the  feet,  (Plate  XII.  fig.  6,)  longer  in  proportion 
than  those  of  any  other  Saurian,  having  each  five  toes,  divided 
into  two  opposing  sets,  one  including  two,  and  the  other  three, 
armed  with  five  sharp  claws,  and  connected  together  as  far  as 
the  claws  by  the  skin. 

The  internal  organ  of  hearing  is  entirely  hidden;  the  head  is 
very  large,  and  seems  to  be  set  upon  the  shoulders;  the  upper 
part  usually  showing  an  elevated  crest  or  casque;  and  a  ridged 
arch  is  over  each  of  the  large  orbits  to  the  muzzle.  The  mouth 
is  very  wide ;  the  teeth  are  sharp,  small,  and  three  lobed.  The 
eyes,  though  in  themselves  small,  appear  extremely  minute ;  the 
whole  of  the  ball,  except  the  pupil,  being  covered  with  skin, 
forming  a  single  circular  eye-lid  with  a  central  dilatable  aperture, 
The  furrow  between  the  ball  of  the  eye  and  the  edge  of  the 
orbit  is  very  deep ;  and  the  eye-lid  closely  attached  to  the  ball, 
moves  with  it.  Each  eye  has  the  power  of  motion  independent 
of  its  fellow ! — so  that  we  may  see  the  axis  of  one  directed  up- 


SATJRIANS.  485 

wards  or  backwards,  while  that  of  the  other  is  in  a  contrary 
direction,  giving  a  strange  and  most  ludicrous  aspect  to  the  ani 
mal,  in  unison  with  its  general  contour  and  slow  movements. 
In  consequence  of  this  independent  motion  of  the  eyes  the  animal 
when  agitated,  appears,  in  its  movements,  as  if  it  were  joined  to 
another,  with  which  it  has  no  unity  of  purpose  or  action.  For 
this  reason,  the  Chameleon  never  goes  into  the  water.  He  can 
not  swim  ;  when  in  the  water  his  power  of  concentration  is  lost; 
and  he  tumbles  about  as  if  in  a  state  of  intoxication.  Moreover, 
he  may  be  asleep  on  one  side,  and  awake  on  the  other ! 

As  Cuvier  observes,  the  only  part  of  the  Chameleon  which 
moves  with  quickness,  is  its  tongue.  This  organ  is  cylindrical 
and  worm-like  in  shape,  capable  of  being  greatly  elongated ;  it 
terminates  in  a  fleshy  tubercle,  and  is  lubricated  with  a  viscous 
saliva.  When  not  in  use,  it  can  be  withdrawn  into  the  mouth, 
but  is  thrust  forth  with  noiseless  and  arrow-like  rapidity  after  in 
sects,  slugs,  and  the  like,  which  come  within  its  reach.  On  these 
the  animal  lives,  and  not  "on  air,"  as  many  of  the  ancients  sup 
posed.  The  gummy  secretion  at  the  tip  of  the  tongue  enables  it 
to  secure  its  food  readily.  When  fully  protruded,  the  tongue 
reaches  to  a  distance  equal  to  the  length  of  the  animal's  body. 
"An  insect  on  a  leaf  at  an  apparently  hopeless  distance,  or  a 
drop  of  water  on  a  twig,  disappear  as  if  by  enchantment,  before 
the  Chameleon,"  so  marvelously  rapid  is  the  movement  of  its 
tongue;  and  here,  doubtless,  is  the  origin  of  the  old  idea  relating 
to  the  airiness  of  its  food.  The  structure  of  the  grasping  power 
of  the  tail  in  these  animals  can  hardly  fail  to  remind  the  beholder 
of  the  Spider  Monkeys,  and  distinctly  points  to  their  arboreal 
habits;  when  they  descend  to  the  ground,  their  actions  there 
appear  strange  and  awkward.  The  females  of  this  group  dig  a 
hole  in  the  ground  for  the  reception  of  their  eggs,  which  they 
cover  with  earth  and  dry  leaves. 

In  captivity,  the  Chameleons  have  little  in  their  habits  or 
manners  that  is  pleasing  or  attractive.  Like  all  the  Lizard 
tribe,  they  are  capable  of  enduring  long-continued  abstinence  from 
food,  and  apparently  without  injury. 

Fifteen  species,  mostly  African,  are  described  as  belonging  to 
the  genus  Chaiimleon. 

The  COMMON  CHAMELEON,  C.  vuJgaris,  is  found  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Africa.  This  species,  the  emblem  of 
hypocrisy  and  inconstancy,  is  the  one  so  well  known  to  the  an 
cients,  and  respecting  which  so  much  has  been  said  relative  to 
its  power  of  changing  its  form,  and  taking  the  color  of  near  ob 
jects,  and  which  was  believed  "  to  live  on  air." 


456  SAURIANS. 

The  FORKED-NOSED  CHAMELEON,  C.  lifidus,  (Lat.  divided 
into  two  parts,)  is  a  very  singular  species,  found  in  the  Moluccas, 
India  and  Australia,  having  the  top  of  the  head  flat,  and  the 
snout  prolonged  into  two  distinct  branches. 

The  WARTY  CHAMELEON,  C.  verrucosus,  (Lat.  warty,)  is  one 
of  the  largest  species,  averaging  twenty  inches  in  its  total  length. 
It  is  a  native  of  Madagascar. 

THIRD  FAMILY.     Geckolidcz.     The  GECKOS. 

The  Geckos  are  a  numerous  family,  divided  by  Cuvier  into 
seven  sections,  according  to  the  structure  of  the  toes,  but  bear 
ing  a  strong  resemblance  to  each  other  in  their  general  charac 
ters,  and  are  distinguished  for  their  nocturnal  habits.  Their 
flattened  form  and  broad  head  give  them  a  peculiarly  disagree 
able  appearance,  which  is  increased  by  their  sombre  and  rather 
toad-like  hue  :  whence  they  have  been  subjected  to  the  unfounded 
imputation  of  being  venomous  creatures,  producing,  by  their 
touch,  malignant  disorders  of  the  skin.  Their  limbs  are  short 
and  the  toes,  which  are  nearly  of  equal  size,  are  flattened  and 
expanded  on  their  under  surface,  either  throughout  the  whole  or 
a  greater  part  of  their  length  ;  the  dilated  parts,  or  the  disks,  are 
often  marked  with  regular  but  minute  plates,  so  ranged  as  to  pro 
duce  a  striated  surface,  and  acting  as  suckers.  The  nails  are 
sharp,  hooked,  and  retractile,  like  those  of  a  cat,  so  that  their 
points  may  not  become  worn  or  blunted.  The  tongue  is  fleshy 
and  broad,  but  short  and  capable  of  little  protrusion,  and  notched 
at  the  tip,  which  alone  is  free.  The  eyes  are  large  and  full, 
with  extremely  small  eye-lids,  which,  as  in  the  Chameleon,  form 
only  a  single  membrane,  leaving,  however,  a  large  aperture,  and 
exposing  the  nictitating  membrane.  The  pupil,  as  in  the  cat 
and  other  nocturnal  animals,  is  linear  when  undilated,  and  con 
tracts  under  the  influence  of  light. 

The  orifices  of  the  ears  are  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  head, 
the  tympanum  being  considerably  below  the  surface.  The 
mouth  is  extremely  wide ;  the  teeth  are  small,  uniform,  and  im 
planted  along  the  inner  margin  of  the  jaws  ;  the  nostrils  are 
placed  laterally. 

The  skin  is  more  or  less  covered  with  granulations  or  horny 
tubercles ;  and  in  some  species,  it  is  extended  along  the  sides 
and  limbs  into  a  kind  of  marginal  fringe. 

The  voice  of  these  reptiles  is  a  sort  of  clucking  cry,  of  which 
the  term  GECKO,  uttered  in  a  shrill  tone,  is  an  imitation. 

Their  food  consists  of  insects    and  caterpillars,  which  they 


SAURIANS.  437 

often  obtain  by  waiting  in  ambush  for  them,  or  by  pursuing  them 
into  the  holes  and  crevices  to  which  they  retreat  for  refuge.  The 
imbricated  suckers  of  the  feet  permit  these  reptiles  to  traverse 
ceilings,  and  suspend  themselves  on  the  under  side  of  a  leaf, 
whilo>  watching  the  movements  of  their  prey. 

Their  sharp,  hooked-like  claws  enable  them  to  climb  the  bark 
of  trees  with  perfect  facility;  to  penetrate  the  cavities  and  clefts 
of  rocks,  and  to  ascend  walls  for  the  purpose  of  finding  chinks 
or  hollows  in  which  they  conceal  themselves  during  the  day,  rest 
ing  motionless,  and  affixed  by  the  feet,  with  the  back  downwards. 
We  must  not  fail  to  notice  the  singular  power  which  the 
Geckos  have  of  reproducing  the  tail  when  it  is  lost  by  accident. 
Indeed,  the  tail  appears  to  be  brittle  ;  and  when  broken  off,  it  is 
soon  replaced ;  but  a  swelling  at  the  base  of  the  reproduced 
member,  marks  its  line  of  union. 

These  reptiles,  though  persecuted,  seem  partial  to  the  habita 
tions  of  men ;  attracted  thither  by  the  flies  which  swarm  in  the 
regions  of  their  abode.  It  is  useless  to  try  to  seize  them.  Their 
power  of  adhesion  is  instantly  overcome  in  the  case  of  danger; 
in  their  quick  escape,  not  the  slightest  noise  or  rustle  is  heard,  so 
that  they  vanish  as  if  by  magic.  Mrs.  Mason,  of  the  Baptist 
mission  in  Burmah,  says:  "The  first  reptile  that  attracts  the 
attention  of  new  comers,  is  the  Gecko,  or  House  Lizard.  They 
are  every  where  ;  under  the  sides  of  tables  and  chairs  ;  in  the 
closets  and  book-cases,  and  among  the  food  and  clothing.  They 
sometimes  tumble  from  the  roof  upon  the  tables,  but  they  usually 
come  struggling  with  a  centipede,  or  some  other  Vermin  in  their 
mouths."  So  far  from  having  any  wish  to  destroy  them,  Mrs. 
Mason  says  their  services  were  invaluable,  the  best  "  help  "  sho 
had.  "  This  harmless  little  creature,"  she  continues,  "is  repre 
sented  by  English,  French,  and  German  authorities,  as  '  a  species 
of  poisonous  lizard  ;  '  yet  I  have  had  them  rest  on  the  back  of 
my  hand,  and  hang  suspended  from  my  fingers,  without  the 
slightest  disagreeable  effect  being  produced."  This  is  the  ani 
mal  mentioned  in  Prov.  xxx.,  28,  correctly  rendered  by  Jerome, 

"  The  Gecko  taketh  hold  with  her  hands, 
And  dwelleth  in  kings'  palaces." 

The  Geckos  are  arranged,  by  some  naturalists  into  seven  ge 
nera,  based  upon  the  distinctive  form  of  the  toes  and  including 
about  sixty  species.  They  are  found  in  Asia,  Africa,  America 
and  Australia. 

The  COMMON  GECKO,  G.  verus,  (Lat.   true,)  was  noticed  by 


483  SATJRIANS. 

Pliny  and  others  of  the  ancients,  under  the  name  of  Stellio,  (Lat. 
a  newt,  or  an  animal  having  star-like  spots  upon  its  back.) 

The  BANDED  GECKO,  Diplodactylus,  (Gr.  dipldos,  double  ; 
dactulos,  finger,)  vittatus,  (Lat.  banded  or  filleted,)  is  a  singu 
lar  species,  found  in  Australia. 

The  LEAF-TAILED  GECKO,  Phyllurus  (Gr.  phuJlon,  a  teaf; 
oura,  tail,)  platurus,  (Gr.  plains,  broad  ;  oura,  tail,)  is  a  curious 
New  Holland  species,  first  described  by  Dr.  Shaw,  having  a 
tail  which  is  flattened  horizontally  in  the  shape  of  a  leaf. 

The  WALL  GECKO,  Platydactylus,  (Gr.  broad-fingered,)  mura- 
lis,  (Lat.  of  a  wall,)  is  a  species  common  in  southern  Europe, 
where  it  attracts  attention  by  its  power  of  ascending  smooth  per 
pendicular  walls.  *  It  is  this  species  which  is  called  by  the  Ital 
ians,  Tarantola,  or  Tarantula. 

The  LEAF-FINGERED  GECKO,  Phyllodactyla  (Gr.  leaf-fingered,) 
tuberculosus,  (Lat.  pimpled  or  tuberculated,)  is  found  in  Cali 
fornia. 

The  SMOOTH  GECKO,  G.  lavis,  (Lat.  smooth.)  or  PlatydactuJus 
theconyx,  (Gr.  theke,  a  bag  or  sheath  ;  onux,  a  nail,)  is  a  native  of 
South  America  and  the  Caribbee  Islands.  Specimens  of  this  spe 
cies,  in  which  the  tail  has  been  broken  off  and  replaced  by  another 
of  imperfect  growth,  are  seen  in  cabinets. 

FOURTH  FAMILY.     Iguanida.     The   IGUANAS,  or  Thick-tongued 
Lizards. 

These  form  a  very  numerous  group  of  reptiles,  of  which  the 
genus  Iguana,  (aboriginal  name,)  may  be  considered  the  type. 
The  whole  have  been  comprised,  (see  Chart.)  in  forty-six  genera 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  species.  Further  discoveries,  together 
with  modifications  of  former  classifications,  have  increased  the 
number  of  genera  to  over  fifty.  Of  the  entire  number  of  spe 
cies  belonging  to  this  family,  about  one  hundred  are  natives  of 
America.  North  America  possesses  a  considerable  number,  but 
not  more  than  three  species  are  found  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

In  all  the  genera  of  the  Iguanas,  the  body  is  covered  with 
horny  plates  or  scales,  often  keeled,  spinous  or  tuberculated,  but 
never  investing  bony  centres'or  rings.  Nearly  all  have  a  horny 
ridge  or  crest  along  the  middle  of  the  back  and  tail.  The  teeth 
vary  in  their  mode  of  attachment,  but  are  never  rooted  or  fixed 
in  sockets.  The  tongue  is  of  moderate  size  and  free  at  the  ex 
tremity  only;  it  is  thick,  fleshy  and  spongy  or  velvety  on  its  sur- 


SAURIANS.  489 

face,  never  cylindrical,  nor  playing  in  a  sheath.  The  eyes  are 
protected  with  movable  eyelids.  The  fingers  are  free,  distinct, 
and  all  furnished  with  claws.  The  auditory  orifice  is  usually 
visible,  and  often  surrounded  with  pointed  scales. 

The  senses  of  sight  and  hearing  in  the  Iguanas,  appear  to  be 
well  developed ;  taste  they  seem  to  have  in  a  fair  degree,  but 
not  smell ;  the  touch  is  moderate. 

MM.  Dumeril  and  Bibron  divide  these  reptiles  into  two  sub- 
families;  (1)  the  Pleurodonta,  (Gr.  pleuron,  side;  odous,  tooth,) 
having  the  teeth  palatine,  or  in  a  sort  of  furrow  running  along 
the  jaw  bones  and  to  which  they  adhere  simply  by  their  inner 
surface.  All  the  genera  are  American,  with  the  exception  of 
one  genus,  BracJiylophus,  (Gr.  brachus,  short;  lophos,  crest,) 
found  in  India. 

(2)  The  Acrodonta,  (Gr.  akros,  the  highest  part  or  summit ; 
odous,  tooth,)  having  the  teeth  soldered  to  the  ridge  or  upper 
edge  of  the  jaws,  of  which  they  appear  to  be  a  continuation,  and 
from  which  they  rise.  Our  space  allows  us  to  notice  but  a  few 
of  the  genera  and  species. 

I.  Iguana,  distinguished  by  having  a  long  flap  or  fold  of  skin 
under  the  throat,  on  the  part  nearest  the  chin,  somewhat  like  a 
dewlap,  and  by  having  two  series  of  palatine  teeth,  a  long  com 
pressed  tail,  and  a  dentated  crest  along  the  back. 

The  animals  of  this  genus  are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  but 
often,  however,  visit  the  ground,  and  occasionally  take  to  the  wa 
ter,  in  which  they  swim  with  ease  and  rapidity.  They  are  easily 
tamed,  though  they  retain  a  degree  of  fierceness,  and  will  often 
attempt  to  bite.  The  female  visits  the  sea  shore,  or  the  borders 
of  rivers,  in  order  to  deposit  her  eggs  in  the  sand. 

The  incessant  destruction  of  these  creatures  for  the  sake  of 
their  flesh,  has  rendered  them  exceedingly  scarce  in  localities 
where  they  were  once  abundant.  Their  eggs  are  much  es 
teemed.  When  attacked,  they  seldom  attempt  to  escape,  but 
gaze  at  their  assailants,  inflating  their  throats  prodigiously,  and 
assuming  as  formidable  an  air  as  possible,  They  show  them 
selves  to  be  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  are  generally  killed  by 
plunging  a  sharp  instrument  into  the  brain.  A  well  known  spe 
cies  inhabiting  South  America  and  the  West  India  Islands,  is 
the  Iguana  tuberculata,  (Lat.  having  tubercles,)  often  reaching 
five  feet  in  length,  and  sometimes  measuring  even  six;  the  sides 
of  the  neck  are  covered  with  tubercles,  whence  the  specific  name. 
The  general  color  of  this  species  is  green,  more  or  less  tinged 
with  olive  ;  or  yellowish,  marbled  with  a  brighter  tint ;  the  tail 
is  ringed  with  dusky  black.  It  is  fierce  in  its  aspect  and  dispo 
sition.  On  account  of  the  excellence  of  its  flesh,  the  animal 


4C9  SAURIANS. 

has  also  the  specific  name   sapidissima,    (Lat.  most  savory  ;)  it 
does  not,  however,  suit  "  some  constitutions," 

II.  Anolius,  or  Anolis.     This  gen  us  is  distinguished  by  an  ex 
pansion  of  the  skin  on  the  last  joint  but  one,  (or  the  penultimate 
joint,)  of  the  toes ;  by  the   possession  of  two  rows  of  palatine 
teeth  ;  by  the  absence  of  pores  from  the  thighs.     In  some  species, 
both  the  back  and  tail  are  without  a  ridge  or  crest ;  in  others,  a 
crest  consisting  of  minute  scales  runs  along  the  middle  line  of 
the  back,  and  sometimes  along  the  tail. 

Like  the  Chameleons,  the  animals  of  this  genus  have  the 
power  of  changing  their  color.  They  are  smaller  in  size,  the 
largest  being  not  more  than  a  foot  in  length  ;  climb  the  branches 
of  trees  with  great  facility ;  and  even  rest  upon  the  leaves, 
secured  by  the  disks  with  which  their  toes  are  provided.  The 
males  are  said  to  make  a  barking  noise  like  that  of  a  small  dog, 
and  to  curl  the  tail  over  the  back  while  running.  In  these  ani 
mals,  as  well  as  those  of  the  preceding  genus,  the  middle  parts 
of  the  body  and  the  tail  are  more  slender  and  fragile  than  the  other 
portions,  so  that  they  often  suffer  a  break,  followed,  however,  by 
a  reproduction  and  consequent  deformity.  One  species  is  found 
in  the  United  States,  viz. :  the  CAROLINA  ANOLIS,  A.  Carolinen- 
sis.  It  is  very  abundant  in  the  southern  sections  of  the  Union, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  Green  Lizard  or  Chameleon.  This  is 
a  very  beautiful  animal,  of  alight  golden  green  above  and  green 
ish  white  beneath  ;  the  throat  pouch,  when  inflated  with  air,  is 
of  a  vermilion  color.  It  keeps  about  gardens,  and  often,  in  search 
of  flies,  enters  the  windows  of  houses,  and  can  even  walk  upon 
glass  by  means  of  the  disks  of  the  toes. 

The  GREAT  CRESTED  ANOLIS,  A.  velifer,  (Lat.  sail-bearing,) 
is  one  of  the  species  which  have  upon  the  back  a  sail-like  crest. 

III.  Basilicus,  (Gr.  basilikos,  a  kinglet.)     This  genus  varies 
from  the  Iguana,  in  the  absence  of  femoral  pores,  and  in  having 
a  more  contracted  dewlap.     A  triangular  fold  of  thin  skin,  sus 
tained  by  a  cartilage,  and  rising  vertically  from  the  middle  lon 
gitudinal  line  of  the  back  of  the  head,  gives  a  singular  aspect  to 
the  animals  of  this  genus,  which   appear  as  if  crowned  with  a 
raised  hood  or  pointed  cap.     An  elevated,  serrated  ridge  or  crest 
of  scales  passes    along  the  middle  of  the   back  and  tail,  in  the 
males  of  one  or  two  of  the  species,  supported   by  bony  appenda 
ges,  and  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  continuous  fin. 

The  MITRED  BASILISK,  B.  mitratus,  (Lat.  mitred,)  found  in 
Mexico  and  regions  further  south,  receives  its  name  from  the 
conspicuous  pointed  hood  or  crest  on  the  occiput  or  hind  part  of 
the  head.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  Basilisk  of  modern  natu- 


SAUBLANS.  491 

ralists,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Malignant  Basilisk,  or 
serpent  of  the  African  deserts,  pictured  by  the  fancy  of  poets, 
whose  very  glance  the  ancients  believed  to  be  fatal  to  all  who 
came  within  its  influence.  The  true  Basilisk  or  Cockatrice  is, 
notwithstanding  its  formidable  appearance,  a  perfectly  harmless 
reptile,  possessing  great  activity  and  seeking  its  insect  food  among 
the  trees. 

IV.  Amllyrhyncus,  (Gr.  amblus,  blunt ;  rhunchos,  a  beak  or 
muzzle,)  is  an  anomalous  genus  found  in  the  volcanic  Galapa 
gos  islands,  so  noted   for  their  peculiar  forms.       The  head  is 
short  and  has  a   blunt  muzzle ;  the  scales  of  the   body  are  not 
tuberculated  ;  the  skin  of  the  throat  is  dilatable,  but  not  formed 
into  a  dewlap  ;  a  high  crest    appears   upon  the   back   and   tail. 
Two  species  are  found  in  the  Galapagos  islands,  one  terrestrial 
and  burrowing  under  ground,  A.  subcristatus,  (Lat.  somewhat 
crested  ;)  the  other  marine,  A.  cristatus,   (Lat.   crested,)  living 
exclusively  on  the  rock-bound  sea,  feeding  on  sea-weed,  and  sel 
dom  found  at  much   distance  from  the   shore.     "It  is  of  a  dirty 
black  color  ;  stupid  and  sluggish  in  its  movements.      The  limbs 
and  strong  claws  are  admirably  adapted    for  crawling  over  the 
rugged  and  fissured  masses  of  lava  which  every  where  form  the 
coast ;  on  the  black  rocks,  six  or  seven  of  these  hideous  reptiles 
may  oftentimes  be  seen  basking  in  the  sun."     (Darwin's  "  Voy 
ages  of  the  Adventure  and  the  Beagle.") 

V.  Tropidolepis,  (Gr.  tropis,  a  keel  ;  lepis,  a  scale.)  is  a  ge 
nus  confined  to  North  America,  and  embracing  ten  species.  The 
Lizards  which  it  includes  have  rough  carinated  (keel-like)  scales 
on  the  back  and  sides,  while  those  of  the  other  parts  are  imbri 
cated.     The  body  is  depressed   and  oblong  in  shape  ;  the  head 
short,  depressed  and  rounded  in  front ;  the  neck  contracted  and 
smooth  beneath ;  the  thighs  have  a   series  of  distinct  pores,  but 
there  is  no  crest  either  on  the  back  or  tail. 

The  Brown  Swift,  T.  undulatus,  (Lat.  varied  with  waves,)  is 
found  within  the  Atlantic  states  as  far  north  as  New  York,  and 
also  in  the  Western  States.  It  is  often  seen  running  along  fences 
or  among  trees,  particularly  in  hilly  or  sandy  districts,  abounding 
in  pine  trees,  among  which  it  seeks  its  insect  food ;  and  hence 
is  called  the  Pine  or  Fence  Lizard.  This  little  creature,  from 
five  to  eight  inches  lontj,  is  venomous  in  its  aspect,  but  really 
harmless.  Like  the  Chameleon,  it  changes  its  color.  It  is 
very  active,  and  therefore  called  Swift. 

VI.  Phrynosoma,  (Gr.  phrunos,  a  toad  ;   soma,  body.)     (Hoi- 
brook.) 

The  genus  Agama  formerly  included  both   Tropidolepis  and 


492  SAURIAN  S. 

Phrynosoma,  but  as  now  restricted,  it  contains  no  American  spe 
cies.  The  genus  Phrynosoma  is  closely  allied  to  the  preceding. 
It  includes  several  species  inhabiting  Texas,  Mexico  and  Califor 
nia.  The  short,  squat,  nearly  orbicular  body,  the  feeble  limbs, 
the  long  spines  fringing  the  hind  part  of  the  head,  and  the 
shorter  ones  scattered  along  the  back,  give  the  animal  quite  a 
singular  appearance.  The  species  which  are  most  numerous 
are  P.  cornuta,  (Lat.  horned,)  or  spinosa,  (Lat.  spiny  ;)  P.  or- 
biculare,  (Lat.  orbicular.)  They  are  named  Tnpayaxan,  or  Horned 
Frog,  from  their  fancied  resemblance  to  the  latter  animal.  These 
species  feed  upon  insects,  which  they  take  by  stealing  upon 
them  imperceptibly  :  they  have  the  strange  habit  of  feigning 
death  when  handled  or  even  approached. 

SECOND  SUB-FAMILY,  Acrodonta,  without  palatine  teeth,  and 
the  greater  part  without  any  external  auditory  orifice.  All  the 
species  are  found  in  the  old  world.  We  barely  notice  some  of 
the  more  prominent  genera. 

I.  Draco,  (a  dragon.)  including  eight  or  nine  species  found  in 
India,  Java,  Sumatra,  etc. 

These  Lizards  are  of  small  aize,  and  at  once  distinguished 
from  all  other  Saurians,  by  the  possession  of  a  pair  of  parachute 
appendages,  formed  by  the  horizontal  extension  of  the 'wings  of 
the  sides,  and  resembling  those  of  a  butterfly.  They  are  the 
only  living  representatives  of  the  fabulous  dragons  of  olden  lime, 
celebrated  in  romance  and  fable.  The  "wings"  can  be  folded  up 
or  expanded  at  will,  but  they  can  not  be  made  to  strike  the  air, 
and  raise  the  animal  after  the  manner  of  a  bird  or  bat ;  they, 
however  assist  this  little  dragon,  only  a  few  inches  in  length,  in 
fluttering  from  branch  to  branch  in  search  of  insects,  or  when, 
like  the  Pteromys,  or  Flying  Squirrel,  it  shoots  from  tree  to  tree. 
One  of  the  most  common  species  is  the  D.  Daudini,  of  Bibron, 
or  D.  volans,  (Lat.  flying.)  of  Gmelin,  found  in  Java. 

II.  Stettio,  (Lat.  a  newt  or  stellion.)  is  a  genus  characterized 
chiefly  by  having  the  tail  encircled  with  rings  of  large  scales 
that  are  often  spinous.     It    furnishes    the  only  European  repre 
sentative  of  the  present  family,  viz. :   S.  vulgaris,  the  COMMON 
STELLION. 

III.  Grammatophora.  (Gr.  Grammata,  letters  ;  phoreo,  I  carry,) 
so  called   from  a   fancied    resemblance   of  the  tubercles  of  the 
neck  to  letters.     The  back  is  without  a  crest,  but  has  cross-rows 
of  large  scales.     Some  have  a  fold  across  the  throat.     One  spe 
cies  is  the  G.  muricata,  the  MURICATED  LIZARD. 


SAURIANS.  493 


FIFTH  FAMILY.     VARANID^E.     VARANS. 

The  Varans  are  worthy  of  particular  attention  on  account  of 
the  light  which  they  shed  upon  the  organization  of  certain  fossil 
Saurians.  They  are  also  interesting  on  account  of  the  size  of 
some  of  the  species,  which  is  inferior  only  to  that  of  Crocodiles. 

These  reptiles  are  covered  with  non-irnbricated  tubercles;  i.e., 
they  do  not  overlay  each  other,  like  tiles  on  a  roof.  These  are 
set  in  the  skin,  rounded  (except  on  the  under  part  of  the  body, 
where  they  are  angular  in  shape,)  and  arranged  in  circular 
bands  or  rings.  The  body  is  elongated,  rounded,  and  without 
dorsal  crests ;  the  toes  are  distinct,  very  long,  and  armed  with 
strong  claws.  The  tail  is  more  or  less  compressed,  and  at  least 
twice  as  long  as  the  body ;  the  tongue  is  fleshy  and  very  extensi 
ble,  being,  when  fully  protruded,  twice  as  long  as  the  head  ;  it 
is  of  a  slender  figure,  and  deeply  forked  at  the  tip,  like  the 
tongue  of  a  snake. 

The  Varans  are  divided  into  two  distinct  groups,  viz  :  (1)  the 
eminently  Terrestrial  group,  which  have  the  tail  nearly  conical  in 
shape,  and  which  dwell  far  from  the  water,  in  desert  and  sandy 
places ;  (2)  the  Aquatic  group,  consisting  of  those  which  inhabit 
the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes.  In  this  latter  group,  the  tail  is 
compressed  laterally,  and  surmounted  by  a  ridge,  formed  by  two 
series  of  flattened  scales.  In  these  the  tail  is  an  important  organ 
of  progression  in  the  water;  they  lash  it  rapidly  and  powerfully 
from  side  to  side,  and  thus  propel  themselves  along  with  great 
celerity,  cleaving  the  water  like  an  arrow.  The  body,  in  con- 
sequence  of  the  air  with  which  the  lungs  are  filled,  floats  on  the 
surface,  and  is  directed  by  this  powerful  organ,  at  once  a  rudder 
and  an  oar. 

The  motions  of  these  animals  on  land,  are  quick  and  active. 
It  is  not  certain  that  any  of  them  are  arboreal,  or  able  to  climb 
trees,  but  they  can  scramble  up  rocks  and  craggy  precipices. 
They  run  with  facility ;  but  owing  to  the  length  of  the  tail  and 
manner  in  which  they  work  it  from  side  to  side,  pressing,  at  the 
same  time,  against  the  ground,  their  movements  are  sinuous,  like 
those  of  a  serpent;  and  they  can  spring  upon  their  prey. 

The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  circular,  and  yet  many  are  said  to  be 
nocturnal  in  their  habits;  others,  however,  are  undoubtedly 
diurnal. 

The  food  of  the  Varans  consists  of  the  larger  kinds  of  insects, 
such  as  locusts,  crickets,  and  beetles, — of  birds,  eggs,  and  small 
mammalia.  It  is  said,  "they  unite  themselves  in  packs  on  the 


494  SAURIANS. 

borders  of  lakes  and  rivers,  to  attack  quadrupeds  which  unsus 
pectingly  approach  to  quench  their  thirst."  M.  Dumeril  quotes 
Latour  as  saying  that  he  had  "seen  them  hunt  down  a  young 
deer  which  was  crossing  a  river,  and  succeed  in  drowning  him;" 
and,  on  one  occasion,  had  "found  a  bone  of  the  thigh  of  a  sheep 
in  the  stomach  of  one  of  these  animals  which  he  dissected." 

No  evidence  exists  that  they  ever  attempt  to  injure  man  unless 
previously  molested  by  him. 

Such  are  the  animals  which,  in  certain  parts  of  their  organ 
ization,  bear  the  closest  resemblance  to  the  extinct  Saurians.  If 
the  habits  attributed  to  these  Varans  bear  any  relation  to  those 
of  the  Saurians  now  swept  from  the  earth,  then  "we  might  have 
in  those  annihilated  giants,  no  bad  representatives  of  the  dragons 
of  our  wildest  legends." 

The  species  of  this  family  are  not  numerous,  though  widely 
distributed.  But  one  belongs  to  the  North  America,  viz  :  the 
Mexican  HeJoderma,  Heloderma  horrida,  one  of  the  Aquatic 
Varans.  In  Mexico,  the  belief  is  general,  but  erroneous,  that  the 
bite  of  this  species  is  fatal.  Others  are  found  in  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Oceanica.  Only  two  species  of  Terrestrial  Varans  are 
known  ;  one  is  peculiar  to  the  island  of  Timor,  (F.  Timor iensis ;) 
the  other  is 

The  DESERT  VARAN  OF  EGYPT,  V.  arenarius,  the  Ouaran-el- 
hard  of  the  Arabs, — about  three  feet  in  its  total  length.  It  is 
less  active  than  the  aquatic  species,  and  especially  than  that  in 
habiting  the  Nile. 

The  VARAN  OF  THE  NILE,  V.Niloticus  or  Monitor  Niloticus, 
Nilotic  monitor,  is  a  noted  aquatic  species,  attaining  the  length 
of  five  or  six  feet,  and  common  in  the  Nile.  It  \*  as  held  in 
great  veneration  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  probably,  says  Cuvier, 
because  it  destroyed  the  eggs  of  the  Crocodile,  of  the  approach  of 
which  it  is  said  to  warn  persons  by  a  hissing  noise,  and  hence 
was  called  monitor.  There  are  several  conspicuous  fossil  Sau 
rians,  some  of  which  seem  to  be  allied  to  the  Varans,  and  which 
are  represented  in  the  Cretaceous  (Lat.  creta,  chalk)  system  of 
the  United  States, 

(1)  The  Geosaurus,  (Gr.  ge,  the  earth,  sauros,  a  saurian.) 
This  name  was  given  to  this  fossil  by  Cuvier,  not  in  reference  to 
its  habits  as  a  living  animal,  as  it  was  no  doubt  aquatic,  but  in 
"allusion  to  the  earth, — the  Ge  (rrf)  of  the  Greeks,  as  the  fabled 
mother  of  the  Giants."  Remains  of  this  animal  were  first  ob 
tained  from  the  white  lias,  at  Manheim.  Franconia.  According 
to  DeKay,  remains  have  also  been  found  in  the  marl  of  the  green 
sand  in  New  Jersey,  and  named  G.  Mitchelli,  after  the  late  Dr. 


SAURIANS.  495 

Samuel  L.  Mitchell,  (Ann.  of  the  Lye.  of  New  York,  Vol.  III.) 
Cuvier  judged  from  the  remains,  that  the  animal  was  inter 
mediate  between  the  extinct  Enaliosauria,  or  Sea-Lizards,  and 
the  living  ones.  The  length  of  this  fossil  species  is  estimated  at 
from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet.  (2)  The  animal  of  Maestritcht, 
Mosasaurus,  (Lat.  mosa,  the  Latin  name  of  Maestricht,  and  Gr. 
sauros,  a  lizard,)  named  by  Conybeare  from  a  fine  specimen  ob 
tained  from  Maestricht,  at  the  time  of  its,  capture  by  the  French 
army.  Specimens  of  this  fossil,  M.  maximiliani  or  M.  major 
have  been  obtained  from  New  Jersey  and  the  banks  of  the 
Yellow  Stone  River.  DeKay  gives  the  length,  from  four 
teen  to  fifteen  feet ;  but  Dr.  Buckland  judges  the  animal  to  have 
been  twenty-five  or  twenty-eight  long,  (see  his  "  Bridgewater  Trea 
tise,")  and  so  constructed  as  to  "possess  the  power  of  moving  in 
the  sea  with  sufficient  velocity  to  overtake  and  capture  such 
large  and  powerful  fishes  as,  from  the  enormous  size  of  its  teeth 
and  jaws,  we  may  conclude  it  was  intended  to  devour." 

SIXTH  FAMILY.     Teidce.     TEGUIXINS. 

The  Lacertida  have  been  arranged,  by  M.  Dumeril,  into  two 
divisions,  viz:  (1)  Pleodonta,  (Gr.  pleos,  full,  not  hollow;  odous, 
odontos,  a  tooth,)  distinguished  by  having  solid  and  rooted  teeth  ; 
(2)  Coelodonta,  (Gr.  koilos,  hollow,)  which  have  the  teeth  hol 
lowed  by  a  sort  of  canal,  and  but  slightly  adherent  to  the  bones 
of  the  jaws.  The  latter  are  peculiar  to  the  Old  World ;  the 
Pleodonta  are  confined  to  this  continent,  and  none  are  included 
in  the  family  Teidce,  which  have  the  head-plate  horny,  and  the 
scales  small  and  granular,  and  sometimes  with  large  plates. 
This  division  is  clearly  separable  from  the  Helioderms,  of  Mex 
ico,  which  have  the  head  shields  and  scales  of  the  body  tubercu 
lar  and  the  teeth  groved  within  the  ridge  of  the  jaw. 

The  present  family  of  Lizards  includes  twelve  genera,  which 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  the  one  with  the  tail  compressed 
or  flattened  vertically;  the  other  with  rounded  tail;  or  they  may  be 
divided  into  those  in  which  the  front  has  the  cross-folds,  with 
Six-sided  scales  between ;  (2)  those  in  which  the  throat  has  a 
collar  of  large  shields. 

Those  which  have  compressed  tails,  show  a  marked  resem 
blance  to  the  Crocodiles,  which  is  increased  by  their  great  size. 
The  tail  is  flattened  somewhat  like  an  oar,  and  the  surface  being 
increased  by  caudal  crests,  these  animals  are  able  to  move  in  the 
water,  which  they  inhabit,  with  nearly  or  quite  as  much  facility 
as  the  Crocodiles. 


- 


493  SAURIANS. 

The  species  Crocodilurus,  (Gr.  Crocodile-tailed,)  lacertinus,  is 
nearly  six  feet  in  length  ;  inhabiting  the  waters  of  Guiana  and 
Brazil.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  Tupinambis. 

The  Teius  Teguixin,  or  Teguixin  Monitor,  of  Gray,  Tupinam- 
bis  Monitor,  (Daudin,)  is  the  true  Tupinambis,  the  Sauvegarde,  (the 
Safeguard.)  of  Cuvier.  This  is  one  of  the  most  noted  species. 
In  their  habits,  the  SAFEGUARDS  are  highly  aquatic.  They  are, 
indeed,  able  to  run  with,  great  swiftness  along  the  ground,  and 
they  dig  for  themselves  burrows  or  hiding  places  in  the  earth, 
but  when  hard  pressed,  are  sure  to  take  to  the  water.  They  are 
found  in  South  America,  and  reach  from  four  to  six  feet  in 
length.  Sometimes  they  are  seen  as  long  as  eight  feet. 

D'Ayara  states,  that  "  they  feed  on  fruits  and  insects,"  and  that 
"they  also  eat  serpents,  toads,  young  chicks  and  eggs."  He 
also  relates  that  "they  are  fond  of  honey;  and  in  order  to 
obtain  it  without  injury  from  the  bees,  they  come  forward  at  in 
tervals,  and  as  they  run  away,  each  time,  give  the  hive  a  blow 
with  their  tail,  until,  by  repeated  attacks,  they  weary  out  the  in 
dustrious  insects,  and  drive  them  from  their  home." 

The  Thorictes,  (Gr.  from  thorax,  coat  of  mail,)  dracozna,  is  a 
very  large  species  found  in  Guiana,  and,  in  some  instances, 
being  almost  seven  feet  in  length,  of  which  the  tail  occupied  five 
feet.  This,  and  the  species  Crocodilvrus  lacertinus,  were  for 
merly  included  in  the  genus  Ada,  divided  into  the  two  genera 
by  M.  Bibron. 

The  genus  Ameiva  includes  six  species,  some  of  which  have 
the  tail  more  rounded  or  conical,  and  two  plates  on  the  throat. 
These  are  more  terrestrial  or  arboreal  in  their  habits. 

The  genus  Cnemidopliorus.  (Gr.  kncmis,  a  greave  or  Irggin ; 
phoreo,  I  carry.)  is  interesting  as  including  the  only  representa 
tive  of  the  family  in  North  America.  This  is  the  C.  sex-lineaius, 
(Lat.  six-lined,)  which  is  abundant  in  the  Southern  States,  and  as 
far  North  as  North-eastern  Maryland.  It  is  easily  known  from 
the  other  Lizards  by  the  six  yellow  lines  along  the  back,  and  the 
long  tail.  When  pursued,  it  runs  with  almost  incredible  swift 
ness;  climbing  trees  with  great  facility,  but  not  leaping  from 
branch  to  branch,  like  the  Green  Lizard,  Anolis  Carol  htensis. 

Acrantus,  (Gr.  akrantos,  imperfect,)  is  a  large  South  Ameri 
can  genus,  which  has  but  four  toes  visible  on  the  hind  feet. 


SAUEIANS.  497 

SEVENTH  FAMILY.     Lacertida,  (Lat.  lacerta,  lizard.) 

SLENDER-TONGUED  LIZARDS. 

This  family  includes  the  Coelodonta,  already  defined  ;  and 
which  are  found  in  the  Old  World.  No  true  Lizard  has  yet 
been  discovered  either  in  Australia  or  the  Polynesian  islands. 

In  many  respects,  these  and  the  American  Teidse  agree.  The 
body  is  rounded  and  elongated  ;  the  tail  generally  exceeds  the 
body  in  length,  and  is  always  well  developed  ;  the  head  is  pyra 
midal,  flattened  above,  and  covered  with  plates;  the  tympanum 
is  distinct,  and  sometimes  externally  apparent;  the  feet  have  each 
four  or  five  separate  toes,  armed  with  hooked  claws  ;  the  eyes 
have  the  nictitating  membrane  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  eye 
lids;  the  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  its  edges  are  covered  with 
large  (labial)  plates;  the  teeth  hollowed  and  placed  in  a  groove 
within  the  ridge  of  the  jaw. 

The  True  Lizards  inhabit  all  the  warm  countries  of  the  Old 
World,  and  some  of  those  which  are  considered  temperate ;  but 
in  the  latter,  they  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  When  ex 
cited  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  they  are  extremely  active  and 
vivacious, — the  most  so  indeed  of  all  the  Saurians.  It  is,  how 
ever,  only  by  sudden  darts,  and  for  short  distances,  that  they 
perform  their  movements.  If  these  animals  do  not  soon  gain 
their  burrows,  or  hiding  places,  they  become  fatigued,  and  fall 
an  easy  prey  to  their  enemies.  Hence,  they  never  undertake 
long  excursions  from  their  native  spot,  or  from  the  retreat  which 
they  have  chosen.  In  their  course  over  the  ground,  or  when 
making  their  way  among  tangled  herbage,  the  movement  of  their 
bodies  is  serpentine.  They  help  themselves  onward  not  simply 
by  their  limbs,  but  also  by  the  body,  and  especially  the  tail.  The 
latter  is  so  brittle,  that  it  breaks  off  easily,  but  it  is  soon  renewed  ; 
the  renewed  part  being  clearly  distinguishable  by  a  difference  of 
coloring  from  the  rest,  and  the  vertebras,  instead  of  being  hard 
and  bony,  are  cartilaginous. 

Although  quite  inoffensive,  Lizards  defend  themselves  with 
much  energy  when  attacked,  and  bite  more  sharply  than  might 
be  supposed.  The  larger  part  of  them  feed  upon  insects; 
though  some  of  them  prey  upon  small  animals,  such  as  mice  or 
frogs. 

The  typical  genus,  Lacerta,  contains  species  which  are  widely 
spread  over  Europe  and  Africa,  and  remarkable  for  their  brilliant 
colors,  as  well  as  their  quick  movements.  The  Lizards  of  this 
genus  are  easily  distinguish ?d  by  the  throat  collar  of  broad 

21 


493  SAURIANS 

scales ;  the  tongue  is  long  and  forked ;  the  scales  of  the  tail 
are  disposed  in  rings ;  a  minute  plate  of  bone  above  protects 
the  orbits  of  the  eyes  ;  a  long  row  of  pores  runs  down  each  thigh  ; 
the  palate  is  toothed. 

The  EYED  LIZARD,  L.  ocellata,  of  Southern  Europe,  attains  to 
about  sixteen  inches  in  length.  Its  ground  color  is  a  bright 
glossy  green,  ornamented  with  round  eye-shaped  spots  of  gold 
and  blue,  and  with  rings  and  irregular  markings  of  black.  It  is 
very  bold  and  resolute  ;  when  attacked  by  a  dog,  it  fastens  itself 
on  the  muzzle  of  its  enemy,  and  will  suffer  itself  to  be  killed  be 
fore  it  will  let  go  its  hold.  The  female  lays  seven  or  eight 
oblong  eggs. 

The  GREEN  LIZARD.  L.  viridis,  is  an  elegant  species,  but  in 
size  is  much  less  than  the  preceding.  It  is  readily  tamed,  and 
taught  to  come  to  the  hand  for  food;  will  lie  coiled  in  the  hand 
without  attempting  to  escape  ;  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  grace- 
fulness,  it  is  often  kept  in  cages  furnished  with  an  inner  com 
partment  filled  with  dried  moss  or  bran;  amidst  which  it  buries 
itself  in  order  to  pass  the  winter.  It  seldom  bites  ;  and,  indeed, 
its  bite  is  said  to  be  "a  pinch  scarcely  to  be  felt." 

The  SAND  LIZARD,  L.  agilis,  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
Green  Lizard ;  is  a  native  of  England  and  most  parts  of  the 
Continent  of  Europe.  Its  general  color  is  a  sandy  brown,  spot 
ted  with  black  on  the  sides,  each  spot  having  a  white  or  yellowish 
dot  in  the  center.  Unlike  the  Green  Lizard,  it  is  impatient  of 
confinement,  and  soon  pines  to  death,  never  growing  familiar. 
It  is  sometimes  a  foot  long,  measuring  from  the  nose  to  the  ex 
tremity  of  the  tail.  The  female  buries  her  eggs  in  the  sand,  and 
leaves  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

The  VIVIPAROUS  or  SCALY  LIZARD,  Zootoca,  (Gr.  zoos,  living ; 
tikto,  to  bring  forth,)  vivipara.  This  species  of  the  sub-genus 
Zootoca  is  characterised  by  the  palate  being  toothless.  This  is 
also  found  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  Continent  of  Europe,  and 
is  "a  pretty,  active  little  creature,  frequenting  dry,  sunny  banks, 
thickets  and  copses."  It  seldom  exceeds  five  or  six  inches  in 
length,  and  is  very  gentle  and  harmless.  It  differs  from  the 
preceding  species  in  producing  living  young.  The  eggs  are 
hatched  before  exclusion,  and  not  deposited  in  the  sand ;  hence, 
the  term  applied  to  it,  "viviparous."  This  Lizard  ordinarily 
produces  four  or  five  young,  often  seen  in  company  with  the 
mother,  and  for  sometime,  probably,  guided  by  her,  but  lively 
and  alert,  and  capable  of  procuring  their  own  food.  This  species 
presents  various  markings,  but  in  most,  the  upper  parts  are  of  a 
greenish  or  olive  brown,  with  lines  of  dark  brown  on  the  back 


SAUEIANS.  499 

and  side  ;  the  under  parts  orange,  spotted  with  black,  or,  in  the 
female,  pale  gray,  with  a  tinge  of  green. 

The  genus  Ophiops,  (Gr.  ophis,  serpent ;  dps,  eye,)  is  princi 
pally  distinguished  by  having  no  eye-lids,  or  merely  rudimentary 
ones',  like  the  Serpents. 

The  species  Ophiops  &Ugans,  is  of  an  olive  color  above,  with 
two  lines  of  yellow  on  each  side  of  the  body,  having  two  rows 
of  black  spots  between  them. 

EIGHTH  FAMILY,   ClialcidcB.     CHALCIDES. 

This  and  the  succeeding  family  of  Skinks,  each  conduct  to  the 
Ophidia,  or  Snakes.  These  two  families  have,  therefore,  some 
times  been  regarded  as  constituting  an  intermediate  order  be 
tween  the  Saurians  and  Ophidia,  and  termed  Saurophidia,  or 
Lizard-Snakes.  Some  of  the  genera  of  the  present  family  are, 
by  Cuvier,  classed  with  the  Snakes,  as  they  are  without  limbs,  and 
resemble  the  latter  in  other  respects  in  their  structure. 

The  animals  of  this  family  are  readily  distinguishable  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  scales  or  markings  of  the  skin,  and  by  the 
lateral  furrow  found  in  many  species.  Some  of  them  are  fur 
nished  with  four  legs ;  others  with  but  two ;  while  another  por 
tion  of  the  family  are  entirely  serpent-like  in  their  appearance, 
in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  these  members  outside  of  the 
skin.  The  trunk  of  the  body  blends  with  the  head  and  tail, 
without  any  distinct  lines  of  division,  and  is  covered  with  scales 
which,  instead  of  being  imbricated  like  those  of  fishes,  are  ar 
ranged  in  whorls  or  rings  enclosing  the  body.  Where  the  scales 
are  absent,  furrows  in  the  hardened  skin  exhibit  similar  mark 
ings.  The  teeth  are  not  implanted  in  the  jaws,  but  appended 
along  the  margin  or  internal  edge, — thus  showing  the  true 
pleurodont  character;  the  tongue  is  free,  but  not  very  extensi 
ble  ;  it  is  broad,  and  covered  with  papillse,  and  is  notched  at  the 
front ;  the  ears  are  apparent  externally  in  some  species,  while 
others  present  no  such  indications.  The  eyes  are  generally 
small  and  slightly  developed.  Some  species  have  movable  eye 
lids  ;  in  others,  these  organs  are  not  movable ;  while  a  few  have 
the  entire  ball  of  the  eye  covered  by  the  skin. 

The  Reptiles  are  confined  chiefly  to  Africa  and  America. 
Mexico,  California,  and  the  Southern  parts  of  the  Union  have 
quite  a  number  of  species,  some  fifty  of  which  have  been  de 
scribed  and  arranged  in  sixteen  or  more  genera.  They  have 
been  divided  into  two  sub-families,  according  as  the  skin  is  cov 
ered  with  scales,  or  destitute  of  them.  (1)  Ptychopleura,  (Gr. 


500  SAURIANS. 

ptuclie,  a  fold ;  pleura,  side,)  distinguished  by  a  fold  of  the  skin 
upon  the  side  ;  (2)  Glyptoderma,  (Gr.  gluptos,  graved  or  carved ; 
derma,  skin,)  distinguished  by  square  or  curd-like  divisions, 
sometimes  colored,  and  then,  like  mosaic  work,  extending  in  reg 
ular  order  over  the  skin.  The  first  sub-family  have  scales  ar 
ranged  in  the  manner  described  above.  All  have  a  fold  or 
furrow  on  each  side,  and  are  in  possession  of  eye-lids. 

Of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Ophisauros,  (Gr.  serpent- 
lizard,)  found  in  North  America,  having,  with  the  head  of  a  lizard, 
the  body  of  a  snake,  and  the  snake-like  manners  which  such  a 
form  involves.  It  is  called  the  Glass-snake,  from  the  fact  that  the 
body  is  very  brittle,  and  may  be  broken  by  a  slight  blow. 

Two  species  exist  in  the  United  States,  viz:  (1)  O.  ventralis, 
which  is  limited  to  the  Southern  or  South-Eastern  States;  (2) 
O.  lineatus,  which  is  met  with  in  the  South- West,  and  as  far 
North  as  Michigan. 

II.  Genus  Pseudopus,  (Gr.  pseudos,  false;  pous,  foot.)  includ 
ing    reptiles    which,    in    their   form    and    movements,    resemble 
snakes, — having  no  front  limbs,  and  hind  limbs  which  are  mere 
scaly,  undivided  appendages. 

The  SCHELTOPUSIK,  (P.  Pallasii,  Cuv.,)  is  so  named  by  the 
natives  of  the  desert  of  Naryn,  near  the  Volga,  (Russia.)  It  is 
a  native,  not  of  Europe  only,  but  of  Africa  and  Asia.  This  rep 
tile  is  eighteen  inches  long;  of  a  reddish  yellow  or  chestnut 
color,  clouded  with  black.  It  frequents  wooded  valleys  and 
gives  chase  to  small  Lizards,  which,  together  with  insects,  con 
stitute  its  food.  Being  of  a  quiet  and  inoffensive  disposition,  it 
is,  when  captured,  sometimes  kept  alive  in  rooms.  It  is  re 
corded,  however,  that  on  one  occasion,  one  of  these  reptiles  so 
kept,  got  access  to  a  nest  of  young  birds,  which  it  soon  demol 
ished,  and,  no  doubt,  fully  enjoyed. 

III.  Genus  Chalcides,  'includes  species  chiefly  found  in  South 
America,  having  both  fore  and  hind  limbs,  but  in  a  rudimentary 
condition.       The    front   pair  terminate    in    three  or   four  scaly 
tubercles;    the   posterior   pair   are   represented    by  two.  slender 
spines ;  the  tongue    is  arrow-like   in   figure,  with  a  sharp,  two- 
cleft  point ;  the   surface  is  covered  with   large,  flat,  imbricated 
papilla  resembling   in   form    and  arrangement,  the  scales  of  a 
fish.     Four  species  are  described.     One,  (C.  Schlegii,}  a  native 
of  Java;  the   others   are  found  in  Guiana,  Columbia,  and  Chili. 
These   reptiles  have  no  external  ear,  by  which   they  are  distin 
guished  from  the  following  genus. 

IV.  Genus  Chamaesaura,  (Gr.  chamai,  on   the  ground ;   sau- 
ra,  a  lizard,)  which  has  an  outward   auditory  cavity,  and   the 


SAURIANS.  501 

rudimentary  limbs  without  any  sub-division,  or  but  one  toe  on 
each  foot.  The  only  species  is  the  C.  anguina,  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  having  the  head  covered  with  many  side  shields  or 
scales,  and  the  cylindrical  and  elongated  body  covered  with 
elongate,  keeled  scales. 

V.  Genus  Sauropliis,  (Gr.  Lizard-Serpent,) — includes  reptiles 
with   more  highly  developed  extremities,  each  foot  having  four 
toes.      The  only  species  known,  is  the   S.   telradactylus,   which 
inhabits  the  southern  part  of  Africa. 

The  other  genera  of  this  sub-family  have  four- toes  on  each 
foot,  of  these  we  can  only  refer  to  the  genus. 

VI.  Gerrtionot.us,  (Gr.  shield-back,)  of  which  there  are  eight 
species,  seven  inhabiting  Mexico,  and  one  California.     In  these 
reptiles,  the   thighs  are   destitute  of  the   pores.     They  produce 
their  young    alive;    and   in  their  habits,  closely  resemble  the 
Lizards. 

VII.  Zonurus,  (Gr.  zojie,  belt;  oura,  tail,)  is  a  genus  in  which 
the  limbs  are  four  and  robust;  the  feet  each  furnished  with  five 
toes ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  the  head  triangular  and  flattened ;  the 
scales  of  the  back  and  sides  are  square,  in  a  close  cross  series. 

The  CORUYLE  LIZARD,  Z.  griseus,  (Bibron,)  or  Cordylus 
(Gr.  a  knotty  club.)  griseus,  (Cuvier,)  is  an  example  of  this 
genus.  It  is  a  native  of  South  Africa,  where  it  is  common. 

VIII.  Tachydromus,  (Gr.  swift  runner,)  is  a  genus  found  in 
Cochin  China,  China,  Borneo,  and  Java,  distinguished  by  having 
keeled  ventral  shields ;   and   the   throat  with    keeled  scales.     It 
has,  like  the  preceding,  four  limbs,  but  they  are  less  robust ;  five 
toes,  but  three  not  fully  developed,  and  a  greatly  elongated  form. 

The  TACHYDROME,  T.  sexlineatus,  (Lat.  six-lined,)  receives 
its  specific  name  from  having  three  lines  extending  longitudi 
nally  on  each  side. 

Second  sub-class.  Glyptoderma,  (Gr.  carved -skin.)  This 
division  nearly  corresponds  with  the  family  Amphisbaenidce,  of 
some  authors.  The  lateral  furrow  peculiar  to  these  reptiles,  is 
faintly  seen  in  the  more  typical  Chalcides  referred  to  above.  Most 
of  the  species  have  been  classed  by  some  with  the  Opliidia,  which 
they  greatly  resemble.  From  the  latter,  however,  they  are  dis 
tinguished  by  their  Saurian  head  and  tongue ;  and  by  having 
the  vertebrae  united  by  fibrous  or  thread-like  cartilage. 

I.  Genus  Amphisbaena,  DOUBLE  WALKERS,  so  called  from  the 
strong  resemblance  between  the  front  and  hind  extremities  of  the 
membranous  body,  the  head,  tail,  and  intermediate  part  being  of 
the  same  circumference.  Appearing  to  have  a  tail  at  each  end, 
they  are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  progression  in  either  direction. 


502  SAURIANS. 

M.  Bibron  enumerates  ten  species,  of  which  two  are  natives  of 
Africa,  the  rest  of  America. 

The  DUSKY  AMPHISBAENA,  A.  fuliginosa,  and  the  WHITE  AM- 
PHISBAENA,  A.  alba,  are  species  measuring  nearly  two  feet  in 
length ;  found  in  Brazil  and  Cayenne.  They  bore  the  ground 
like  worms,  and,  it  is  said,  move  either  way  with  equal  facility. 
They  are  often  found  in  the  earthy  habitations  of  the  Termite- 
Ants,  which  they  follow  through  their  winding  galleries,  for  the 
purpose  of  feeding  on  them.  The  flesh  of  these  creatures,  dried 
and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  is  sometimes  administered  as  an 
infallible  remedy  in  cases  of  broken  bones,  or  dislocated  joints; 
on  the  inference,  that  as  it  has  the  power  of  uniting  its  own  body, 
if  cut  in  two,  and  of  healing,  in  so  marvelous  a  manner,  amputa 
tion  in  itself,  it  has  at  least  the  power  of  curing  a  simple  fracture 
in  another ! 

II.  Genus  Chirotes,  (Gr.  from  cheir,  hand,)  has  no  hind  limbs, 
but  has  a  pair  of  short  front  limbs  placed  near  the  head,  and  what 
is  remarkable  among  Saurians,  each  having  five  fingers,  or  at 
least  four  fingers  or  toes,  armed  with  claws,  and  a  tubercle  rep 
resenting  the  fifth.  The  possession  of  a  sternum  distinguishes 
these  reptiles  from  the  Amphisbaena.  The  body  is  snake-like ; 
the  head,  neck  and  trunk,  are  of  equal  circumference.  Only 
one  species  is  known  ; 

The  CHANNELED  CHIROTES  or  BIPED,  C.  canal iculatus,  (Lat. 
channeled,) — eight  or  ten  inches  in  length,  a  native  of  Mexico, 
and  extending  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
eyes  are  almost  imperceptible,  covered  with  transparent  skin,  but 
destitute  of  eye-lids.  Its  upper  surface  is  yellow  ;  the  under, 
white,  and  the  whole  body  covered  with  little  square  compart 
ments,  disposed  circularly.  In  the  absence  of  hind  feet,  while 
the  front  ones  are  present,  this  creature  presents  a  strong  resem 
blance  to  the  Siren,  a  genus  of  the  Batrachians. 

NINTH  FAMILY.     SCINKS,  (or  SKINKS,)  or  LEPIDOSAURIANS. 
Scincidce,  (Gr.  erxfyxo?,  skinkos,  a  kind  of  lizard.) 

We  come  now  to  the  last  family  of  the  Saurians,  which,  to  the 
general  characters  of  the  order,  join  many  distinguishing  pecu 
liarities.  They  have  the  head  covered  with  large  plates,  which 
have  angular  and  regular  shapes.  These  render  them  distin 
guishable  from  all  the  other  families  of  the  order,  except  the 
True  Lizards  and  the  Chalcidians,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  pos 
sess  them  also.  The  rest  of  the  body  is  invested  with  scales,  of 
greater  or  less  magnitude,  and  of  variable  forms;  but  always 


SAURIANS.  503 

arranged  in  a  quincunx  or  five -fold  order,  and  overlaying  each 
other  like  the  tiles  of  a  house,  as  we  see  in  large  scaled  fishes, 
as,  for  instance,  the  Carp.  The  scales  of  the  under  parts  and 
sides,  are  nearly  of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  those  of  the  back. 
This  distinguishes  them  from  the  True  Lizards,  in  which  the 
ventral  scales  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the  back,  with  the 
outlines  angular.  There  are  no  lateral  furrows  or  folds  of  skin 
extending  along  the  flanks;  this  again  separates  them  from  the 
Chalcidians.  The  tongue  is  free,  fleshy,  notched  at  its  point, 
without  a  sheath,  and  covered  either  altogether,  or  in  part,  with 
papillae.  The  whole  surface  of  the  scales  being  generally 
smooth  and  polished,  many  of  these  reptiles,  glide  easily  into 
small  crevices ;  and  they  creep  by  giving  a  tortuous  and  snake- 
like  motion  to  the  trunk  and  tail.  The  limbs  vary  in  different 
groups,  being  four,  two,  or  none;  when  present,  they  are  short. 

The  Skinks  include  about  a  hundred  species,  variously  dis 
tributed  over  the  globe.  The  largest  number  of  species  is  found 
in  Australia,  which  has  nearly  forty  peculiar  to  itself.  Asia 
claims  the  next  largest  number;  then  comes  Africa,  and  after 
wards  America.  Europe  numbers  scarcely  more  than  six  or 
eight  species.  Five  species  are  found  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Skinks  have  been  arranged  into  three  sub-families,  dis 
tinguished  from  each  other  by  peculiarities  relating  to  the  eyes. 

I.  Saurophthalmia,   (Gr.   sauros,   a   saurian ;    ophthalmos,   an 
eye.)     The  members  of  this  sub-family  have  movable  eye-lids, 
which  can  be  brought  together  so  as  to  entirely  cover   the  eye. 
Most  of  them  have  four  feet,  but  some  have  two,  while  others 
appear  to  have  none.     All  are   without    femoral    pores.      The 
lowest  form  of  this  group  is  the   Acontias,  (Gr.  a  serpent  that 
darts  from  a  tree  on  its   prey.)     Of  this,  only  one   species  is 
known,  the  Acontius  meleagris,  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Though  much  like  a  serpent  in  the  absence  of  feet,  and  of  a 
tympanic  orifice,  it  possesses  most  of  the  characters  of  the  Skinks. 
The  tongue,  as  in  the  Blind  or  Slow  Worm,  is  flat,  and  like  an 
arrow-head,  with  scarcely  any  notch  at  the  tip.     The  eyes  are 
very  minute,  and  there  is  only  a  single  eye-lid,  which  proceeds 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  orbit.     The   scales  are  smooth  and 
imbricated. 

II.  Genus  Anguis,  (Lat.  a  snake,)  is  probably  the  best  repre 
sentative  of  the  Serpentine  or  Footless  Skinks.      This  is  charac 
terised  by  a  cylindrical  aad  snake-like  body  and  tail,  as  well  as 
by  the  absence  of  limbs.     The  eyes,  as  in  the  preceding  species, 
are  very  minute.     Only  one  species  is  known,  viz :  the  SLOW 


504  SAURIANS. 

WORM  or  BLIND  WORM,  A.fragUis,  (Lat.  brittle.)  When  irri 
tated  or  alarmed,  the  Slow  Worm,  by  a  forcible  contraction  of 
all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  becomes  perfectly  stiff,  and  then 
breaks  in  two,  with  the  slightest  blow,  or  upon  an  attempt  to  bend 
it.  Hence,  Linnaeus  applied  to  it  the  ierin  fragilis.  This  beau- 
tiful  and  harmless  reptile,  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe, 
appearing  early  in  the  spring,  and  going  into  winter  quarters  in 
October.  It  feeds  on  insects,  earth-worms  and  slugs;  being 
particularly  partial  to  the  latter.  The  Slow  Worm  is  said  to 
shed  its  skin  like  the  true  snakes.  The  female  produces  her 
young  alive,  in  July  or  August,  or  at  least  lays  from  ten  to  six 
teen  eggs,  from  which  the  young  soon  escape;  development 
having  considerably  advanced  previous  to  the  deposit.  The 
general  color  is  yellowish  brown  or  yellowish  gray,  with  lines 
and  spots  of  black ;  the  under  parts  are  white,  with  whitish  retic 
ulations  or  net-work. 

III.  Tropidophorus,    (Gr.    tropis,   carina  or  keel  ;   phoreo,  to 
carry.)     In  this  genus  there  are  four  strong  limbs,  each  with 
five  compressed  toes.     The  body  is  fusiform  or  spindle-shaped. 
The  scales  upon  the  body  are  thick  and  striated,  but  rounded  on 
the  muzzle;   the  tail  has  four  spinose  keels  above,  but  is  smooth 
on  the  sides.     The  species  T.  Cocincinensis,  is  a  native'of  Cochin 
China.      It  is,  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  of  a  color  inclining 
to  olive,  or   a  yellow    brown.     The   neck   is   banded,  the  color 
being  brown  ;   with  marks  of  a  much  deeper  shade,  representing 
a  succession  of  figures  like  the  letter  X;  spots  of  deep  brown 
also  appear  on  the  tail ;  and  a  row  of  whitish  points  along  the 
lower  parts  of  the  sides. 

IV.  Genus  Seps,  (Gr.  a  small  serpent.)  exhibits  a  form  some 
what  snake-like,  it  being  much  elongated,  but  still  provided  with 
four  limbs.     These,  however,    are    very  small   and  weak,  and 
have  toes  of  unequal  length.      This  is   represented    by  a   single 
species,  S.  chalcides.     This  curious  reptile  is  a  native  of  South 
ern  Europe,  and,  except  in  the  possession  of  limbs,  resembles  the 
Slow  Worm.     Like   that   reptile,  it  brings  forth  its  young  alive, 
and  feeds  on  insects,  earth  worms  and  slugs.     It   is  said  to  be 
perfectly  harmless,  though   some   suppose   it   to   be  a  poisonous 
animal.     It  spends  the  winter  in  its  ground -bur  row,  but  emerges 
again   in  the   spring,  and  lives   during  summer  in  sunny  spots 
covered  with  herbage  and  underwood. 

V.  Tetradactylus,  (Gr.  four  toed.)     This  genus  has  four  to<js 
on  each  foot. 

VI.  Cliampsodactylus,  (Gr.  with  crocodile-toes.)  has  five  toes  in 
front,  and  four  behind. 


SAUEIANS.  505 

VIT.  Heteropus,  (Gr.  with  unlike  feet,)  has  four  toes  in  front 
and  five  behind. 

VIII.  Trachysaurus,  (Gr.  rough  lizard,)  has  five  toes  to  each 
toot.     The  Rough  Skink,  T.   rugosus,  of  New  Holland,  attains 
to  a  very  large  size,  and  is  very  singular  in  its  appearance. 

IX.  Plestiodon,  is   a  genus  found  in  the  United  States,  also 
having  five  toes  to  each  foot ;  the  fore  feet  short  and  scaly,  with 
five  sharp  nails ;  the  hind  feet  larger,  with  long  slender  toes, 
also    furnished    with    nails.     The    species   P.  fasciatus,   (Lat. 
banded,)   was  formerly   Scincus  fasciatus,   (as    in   the  Chart.) 
The  body  has  five  yellow  lines  upon  it,  from  which  the  specific 
name  is  derived ;  the  color  above  is  bluish  black.     The  length 
is  from  six  to  eight  inches.     This  reptile  is  common  in  the  South 
ern  parts  of  New  York  State,  and  has  been  seen  as  far  North  as 
Massachusetts.     It  is  found  in  Japan.     The  species  P.  erythro- 
cephalus,    (Gr.  red  headed,)  is  twelve   inches  long,    and  found 
from   Pennsylvania  to  Florida.     One   species,  P.  Americanus, 
which  is  the  largest,  is  said  to  attain  the  length  of  twenty-five 
inches.     In  the  Southern  States,  they  are  called  Scorpions,  and 
regarded  as  poisonous,  but  not  justly.     The  larger  species  are 
capable  of  inflicting  a  severe  bite.     The  smaller  ones  are  found 
about  old  logs,  and  sometimes  under  the  bark  of  trees.    A  species 
of  this  genus  is  found  in  Egypt. 

X.  Scincus.     This  genus,  as  now  restricted,  includes  but  one 
species,  S.  ojpcinatts,  peculiar  to  Northern  and  Western  Africa 
and  Syria,  having  the  tongue  notched  -and  scaly,  the  teeth  con 
ical   and    blunt,   and   two  rows  on  the   palate  ;    the   muzzle   is 
wedge-shaped ;  the  scales  are  smooth  and  shining,  like  those  of  a 
fish.     The  limbs  are  four,  with  five  toes  on  each  foot.     The  tail 
is  conical  and  pointed.     The  upper  parts  are  usually  yellow,  or 
of  a  silvery  gray,  mingled  with  brown  and  blackish.     The  under 
parts  are,  generally,  of  a  silvery  white.     It  is  termed  by  Bruce, 
EL  ADDA.     In  ancient  times,  it  was  regarded  as  an  efficacious 
remedy  in  various  diseases,  especially  those  of  an  eruptive  na 
ture.      According  to   Pliny,  it  was    useful   for  curing  wounds 
made  by  poisoned  arrows,  and,  at  the  present  day,  it  is  kept  by 
the   druggists   of  Southern   Europe;    though   its  reputation   has 
greatly  waned.     "  It  runs  with  considerable  rapidity,  and.  when 
alarmed,  it  buries   itself  in   the  sand  with   singular  quickness, 
burrowing,  in  a  few  moments,  a  gallery  of  many  feet  in  depth. 
When  caught,  it  struggles  to  escape,  but  neither  attempts  to  bite, 
nor  to  defend  itself  with  its  claws." 

II.  Sub-family   Opiophthalmoi,  (Gr.  serpent-eyes.)   including 
Skinks,  in  which  the  eyes,  like  those  of  Serpents,  are  either 


508  SAURIANS. 

without  eye-lids,  or  else  have  them  in  the  form  of  a  narrow  ring, 
partly  or  entirely  surrounding  the  eye.  Most  of  the  species  are 
found  in  New  Holland.  The  genus  Hysteropus,  (Gr.  husteropus, 
hind-footed,)  (Bipes,  Cuv.,)  is  without  lore  feet,  and  the  hind  ones 
are  but  short,  flattened  appendages,  without  any  division  into  toes. 
III.  Sub-family  Typhlopthalmoi,  (Gr.  blind-eyes.)  includes 
Skinks  which  are  entirely  blind,  having  eyes  so  minute  as  to  be 
completely  rudimentary.  Of  this  division,  there  are  but  two 
genera,  each  with  a  single  species,  viz :  the  Dibamus,  of  New 
Guinea,  with  hind  oar-like  feet;  and  Typline  Cuvierii,  of  South 
Africa,  without  any  feet  whatever. 

Which  is  the  SECOND  FAMILY  of  the  SAURIAN  REPTILES  ?  What  is  its  only 
gen.?  What  characteristics  are  given?  What  is  said  of  the  organ  of  hear 
ing  ?  Of  the  mouth,  teeth,  &c.  ?  Describe  the  eyes.  What  peculiar  power 
has  each  eye?  How  does  this  animal  therefore  appear  when  agitated? 
How  does  he  act  when  in  the  water  ?  Which  is  the  only  part  of  the  C.  that 
moves  quickly?  Describe  the  tongue  and  its  uses.  In  what  respect  is  the 
Chameleon  like  the  Spider-Monkeys?  What  sp.  are  referred  to? 


What  is  the  THIRD  FAMILY  ?  Give  its  characters.  What  is  the  origin 
of  the  name  Gecko  ?  On  what  does  the  animal  feed  ?  How  is  it  able  to 
traverse  ceilings  and  the  under  side  of  leaves  ?  How  does  it  use  its  sharp 
hook-like  claws?  What  singular  power  does  it  possess?  Repeat  the  re 
marks  of  Mrs.  Mason.  What  is  the  number  of  sp.  ?  Where  are  they  found  ? 
Which  are  referred  to  ? 

What  is  the  FOURTH  FAMILY?  Which  is  the  typical  gen.  of  this  family? 
What  is  said  of  the  number  of  gen.  and  sp.  which  it  includes  ?  Give  their 
general  characteristics.  Into  what  two  SUB-FAMILIES  have  they  been  arrang 
ed  ?  What  is  said  of  the  gen.  Iguana  ?  What  sp.  of  it  are  referred  to  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  gen.  Anolis  ?  What  sp.  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  gen. 
Basilicus  ?  What  of  the  MITRED  BASILISK  ?  What  of  the  gen.  Amblyrhyncus  ? 
What  sp.  are  named?  What  of  the  Tropido! cpis ?  What  of  the  BROWN 
SWIFT?  What  of  the  gen.  Phrynosoma?  Which  are  the  mo?t  numerous 
sp.  ?  Where  are  all  the  sp.  of  the  SECOND  SUB-FAMILY  found  ?  .  Which  is 
.the  first  gen.  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  it?  What  other  gen.  is 
mentioned  ? 

What  is  the  FIFTH  FAMILY  ?  Why  do  the  VARANS  deserve  particular  at 
tention?  Describe  them.  Into  what  groups  are  they  divided?  Give  their 
peculiarities.  Are  they  nocturnal?  Upon  what  do  they  feed?  What  is 
the  remark  of  Latours  ?  What  sp.  belong  to  N.  A.  ?  What  is  said  of  it? 
What  two  sp.  of  Terrestrial  Varans  are  known?  What  is  said  of  the  V.  OF 
THE  NILE?  What  FOSSIL  Saurians  allied  to  the  Varans  are  mentioned? 


What  is  the  SIXTH  FAMILY  ?  Into  what  divisions  have  the  LACERTID^E 
been  arranged  ?  Which  of  these  is  confined  to  this  continent,  and  included 
in  the  Teida3?  Does  it  include  the  Helodorma  of  Mexico?  How  many 
gen.  and  groups  does  it  contain?  Which  group  resembles  Crocodiles? 
What  is  said  of  the  Tupinambia?  Give  the  other  name.  What  is  said  of 


OPHIDIANS.  507 

the  TEGUIXIN  MONITOR?  What  very  large  sp.  is  found  in  Guiana?  What 
representative  of  this  family  is  found  in  N.  A.  ?  How  is  it  known  from  the 
other  Lizards  ? 

What  is  the  SEVENTH  FAMILY  ?  To  which  Continent  are  they  confined? 
Describe  the  habits  of  the  TRUE  LIZARDS.  What  is  said  of  the  gen.  Lacerta? 
Describe  the  Eyed-Lizard.  The  GREEN  L.  What  of  the  LAND  L.  ?  Of  the 
VIVIPAROUS  or  SCALY  L.  ? 

What  of  the  EIGHTH  FAMILY  ?  To  what  order  is  this  and  the  succeeding 
family  closely  related?  How  have  they  been  regarded?  How  are  the 
Chalcides  readily  distinguished  ?  What  further  characters  are  given  ?  To 
what  regions  are  these  Reptiles  confined  ?  Are  any  found  in  the  U.  S.  ? 
How  many  sp.  have  been  described?  Name  the  sub-families  into  which 
they  have  been  arranged  ?  What  gen.  is  found  in  N.  A.  ?  Why  is  it 
called  the  GLASS-SNAKE?  What  sp.  in  the  U.S.?  State  particulars  in 
regard  to  the  other  gen.  and  sp. 

What  is  the  NINTH  FAMILY?  Give  the  peculiarities  of  the  family?  How 
many  sp.  ?  Name  their  localities.  How  many  sub-families  ?  How  distin 
guished  from  each  other  ?  Describe  the  gen.  and  sp.  Name  the  first  sub 
family.  What  is  said  of  the  second  sub-family  ?  What  of  the  third  ? 


SECTION  V. 

THIRD  ORDER. — OPHIDIANS  OR  SERPENTS. 
OpTiidia.     (Gr.  ocpu;,  ophis,  a  serpent.) 

The  Ophidians  are  particularly  distinguished  by  the  total  ab 
sence  of  external  limbs  in  a  majority  of  the  species,  or  else  the 
limbs  are  so  rudimentary  as  to  be  discoverable  only  by  dissection, 
or  on  very  close  examination :  so  that,  as  Cuvier  remarks,  they 
are  more  truly  deserving  of  the  name  of  Reptiles  than  any  other 
order. 

They  possess  an  elongated  form,  with  which  is  conjoined  not 
only  great  flexibility,  but  amazing  strength.  Their  upper  sur 
face  is  covered  with  narrow  and  somewhat  pointed  scales,  of 
small  or  moderate  size,  imbricated  or  disposed  like  tiles ;  these 
are  called  squama.  The  under  surface  is  covered  with  broad 
transverse  scales  or  plates,  called  scuta,  of  which  the  hind  edge 
in  one  overlays  the  front  edge  in  the  other.  The  top  of  the  head 
is  also  usually  covered  with  plates.  The  whole  "of  the  delicate 
and  pellucid  outward  membrane  which  covers  the  scales,  is  shed 
entire,  and  renewed  once  a  year,  or  perhaps  oftener  ;  it  is  some 
times  called  the  slough.  All  serpents  pass  the  winter,  or  cold 
est  part  of  the  year,  in  a  torpid  state ;  when  coming  out  from 
this  state,  the  skin  is  cast  or  exuviated ;  it  is  first  detached 


508  OPHIDIANS. 

around  the  head,  and  is  pushed  off  gradually,  being  turned  inside 
out,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove.  This  rejection  of  the  slough 
was  to  many  of  the  ancients,  a  sign  of  a  renovated  state  of  ex 
istence ;  they  regarded  these  reptiles  as  leading  a  protracted  life 
of  annually  renewed  vigor  and  beauty.  The  internal  frame 
work  or  skeleton  of  serpents  is  extremely  simple,  consisting  of 
the  skull,  the  vertebral  column,  and  the  ribs,  (Plate  XII.  fig.  5.) 
The  breast  bone  is  wanting ;  so  also  are  the  bones  of  the  hips, 
and  of  the  limbs,  excepting  where  the  hind  pair  exist  in  the  form 
of  hook-like  stylets,  as  in  the  Boas.  A  reference  to  the  plate  of 
the  skeleton  just  referred  to,  must  satisfy  any  one  of  its  elegance, 
and  also  suggest  the  idea  of  its  flexibility,  which  an  examination 
of  its  parts  will  fully  confirm. 

The  vertebral  column  consists  of  a  series  of  bones  united  to 
each  other  by  beautiful  ball-and-socket  joints ;  the  head  of  each 
separate  vertebra  being  received  into  a  deep  cup-like  cavity  of 
the  one  succeeding  it.  The  whole  of  the  spine  is,  in  reality,  a 
chain  of  these  joints,  firmly  locked  together,  each  movable  to 
such  extent  as  is  consistent  with  the  safety  of  the  spinal  cord. 

Serpents  are  capable  of  twisting  themselves  in  the  most  extra 
ordinary  manner;  but  their  pliability  consists  less  in  the  mobil 
ity  of  each  joint  separately,  however  great  this  be,  than  in  the 
number  of  joints  into  which  the  vertebral  column  is  divided. 
Two  ribs,  one  on  either  side,  arise  from  each  of  the  distinct 
bones  of  that  column.  Its  bones  are  exceedingly  numerous, 
being  always  more  than  a  hundred,  and  in  some  species  amount- 
ing  to  more  than  three  hundred. 

The  ribs,  forming  a  large  portion  of  a  circle,  embrace  nearly 
the  whole  circumference  of  the  body;  and  to  these  reptiles  are 
the  efficient  agents  of  locomotion.  They  each  severally  play  on 
a  convex  protuberance  of  the  respective  vertebrae,  and  are  acted 
upon  by  powerful  muscles,  which  move  them  backwards  and 
forwards.  Instead  of  being  attached  at  their  extremity  to  a 
breast  bone,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Mammals  and  Lizards,  each 
pair,  by  means  of  a  slender  cartilage,  is  connected  with  one  of 
the  scuta,  or  shield-like  plates  of  the  under  surface.  The  ribs 
may  be  likened  to  the  limbs  of  the  millipede  or  thousand-legged 
worm  ;  they  support  the  weight  of  the  snake,  and  in  its  progres 
sion,  work  like  the  legs  of  that  insect. 

Although  destitute  of  limbs,  yet  some  serpents  are  capable 
of  rapid  advances.  On  the'  surface  of  the  ground,  their  pro 
gression  is  made  in  two  ways.  The  ordinary  movement,  when 
the  body  is  straightened  out  entirely  in  contact  with  the  ground, 
is  by  a  succession  of  short  steps,  taken  by  the  numerous  ribs,  as 


OPHIDIANS.  509 

is  seen  in  the  millipede  ;  the  ribs  moving  in  pairs,  and  each  pair, 
as  advanced,  carrying  forward  with  themselves,  the  scales  to 
which  their  extremities  are  fixed,  and  which  serve  as  so  many 
points  of  resistance  to  a  backward  movement.  But  the  reptile 
makes  a  more  rapid  progress  by  throwing  the  body  into  large 
curvatures,  the  fore  part  being  fixed,  and  the  rest  brought  up  by 
the  action  of  the  muscles  and  ribs;  the  hind  part  of  the  body 
being  next  fixed,  and  the  fore  part  thrown  forwards,  and  so  on, 
alternately. 

The  most  rapid  movements  are  probably  made  when  the  entire 
body  is  gathered  up  into  one  vertical  loop,  like  a  bent  spring,  the 
head  and  tail  being  more  or  less  approximated  ;  the  sudden 
straightening  of  this  loop  or  spring,  with  the  tail  as  the  fulcrum 
or  point  of  resistance,  may  enable  the  animal  to  spring  forward 
at  one  operation,  to  a  distance  greater  than  the  length  of  the 
body. 

The  exceeding  flexibility  of  their  bodies  enables  many  spe 
cies  to  climb  trees  in  pursuit  of  their  prey,  and  on  these,  some 
are  habitually  found  ;  others  are  constant  inhabitants  of  the 
water. 

The  bones  of  the  face,  excepting  in  a  few  species,  have  a  high 
degree  of  mobility,  and  on  account  of  their  peculiarities,  deserve 
special  notice. 

The  lower  jaw  is  not  directly  articulated  with  the  upper,  as  in 
other  animals,  but  connected  with  it  by  two  bones  which  are 
movable  upon  each  other.  The  extremities  of  the  lower  jaw 
also,  instead  of  being  anchylosed,  or  immovably  fixed,  are  con 
nected  by  an  extensile  ligament.  Thus,  unlike  what  is  seen  in 
the  Mammals,  where  the  bones  forming  the  jaws  and  face  are 
firmly  locked  together,  those  of  the  snake  have  no  connection 
but  that  which  is  made  by  ligaments  and  skin.  Hence  the  ser 
pent  tribe  can  swallow  their  food  undivided,  and  many  times 
larger  in  bulk  than  the  circumference  of  the  body.  In  this  pro 
cess  they  are  aided  by  the  expansibility  of  the  skin,  the  gullet, 
and  the  stomach  ;  but  something  additional  was  needed  to  com 
plete  their  capability  of  swallowing  such  enormous  masses  of 
food  ;  how  shall  such  masses  be  made  to  pass  through  the  jaws? 
Here  is  a  difficulty  which,  without  some  peculiarity  of  structure 
must  have  been  insuperable,  but  which,  in  the  case  of  these  rep 
tiles,  is  fully  met  by  the  attachment  of  the  lower  jaw  to  bones 
movable  upon  each  other,  and  allowing  of  a  sort  of  natural  dis 
location,  so  that  the  jaw  gives  way  in  the  act  of  swallowing,  and 
recovers  itself  when  the  prey  is  fairly  engulphed.  The  head 
of  the  snake  may  hence  be  pointed  to  as  exhibiting  one  of  the 


510  OPHIDIANS. 

beautiful  and  striking  instances  of  marked   adaptation  and  har 
mony,  so  extensively  apparent  in  the  works  of  God. 

Serpents  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  two  lungs,  one  of  the  two 
being  generally  abortive,  or  merely  rudimentary. 

All  of  them  have  teeth,  but  these  serve  only  to  retain  their 
food,  and  are  not  adapted  to  mastication.  In  the  harmless  snakes, 
(or  rather  those  which  are  not  poisonous,)  the  upper  and  under 
jaws  are  furnished  with  a  number  of  small,  but  very  sharp  teeth, 
pointing  backwards,  (Plate  XII.  fig.  5  ;)  the  palate  is  also  armed 
with  two  similar  rows,  so  that  there  are  six  lines  of  teeth  in  the 
mouth.  The  venomous  species  not  only  have  the  jaws  very 
small  and  freely  movable  upon  a  bony  peduncle  or  footstalk ; 
but  each  branch  of  the  upper  jaw  has  a  long,  recurved,  pointed 
tooth,  traversed  by  a  canal  or  tube,  leading  from  a  large  gland 
situated  beneath  the  eye.  The  fluid  secreted  by  the  gland  passes 
through  this  tube  into  the  bottom  of  the  wound  which  the  poison- 
fang  inflicts.  When  not  call-ed  into  use,  the  poison-fangs  lie 
concealed  along  the  roof  of  the  mouth ;  but  when  about  to  bite, 
the  snake  raises  them  up,  and  in  the  act  of  biting,  compresses 
the  poison-glands,  by  means  of  a  peculiar  muscle  for  that  pur 
pose,  and  thus  instils  a  few  drops  of  the  deadly  fluid  into  the 
puncture.  These  large  fangs  are,  in  truth,  the  only  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw,  the  others  above  are  arranged  in  two  rows  on  each 
side,  along  the  bones  of  the  palate.  The  branches  forming  the 
lower  jaw  are  slender,  and  but  partially  furnished  with  teeth. 

It  is  common  to  hear  persons  speak  of  the  sting  of  the  serpent ; 
but  from  the  explanation  here  given,  it  will  be  noticed  that  prop 
erly  speaking,  the  serpent  has  no  sting;  the  fatal  wound  is  pro 
duced  by  a  bite. 

Most  species  of  venomous  serpents  are  ovo-viviparous,  i.  e., 
the  young  are  hatched  before  exclusion  and  born  alive,  whence 
the  general  name  of  Vipers — a  contraction  of  Vivipares,  (born 
alive) — though  with  a  few  of  this  division,  whether  they  be  so 
born  or  not,  seems  a  matter  dependent  on  the  latitude  and  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  region  in  which  they  dwell.  Some  of 
the  non-venomous  or  harmless  snakes  are  also  ovo-viviparous; 
the  others  are  oviparous.  The  eggs  are  often  more  than  thirty 
in  number,  rounded  and  agglutinated  in  bead-like  rows,  by  a 
sort  of  mucous  substance.  The  shells  of  the  egg  in  oviparous 
serpents,  although  cretaceous,  are  soft  like  the  eggs  of  the  com 
mon  hen  when  she  has  not  enough  calcareous  matter  in  her  food, 
called  soft  eggs.  Their  color  is  ordinarily  yellowish  or  grayish 
white.  The  Creator  has  in  this  as  in  other  instances,  benefi 
cently  provided  against  the  increase  of  dangerous  animals,  by 


OPHIDIANS.  511 

assigning  a  small  number  of  young  to  the  venomous  species, 
while  many  of  the  harmless  kinds  are  extremely  prolific.  The 
females  often  take  care  of  their  young  for  a  time.  On  the  ap 
proach  of  danger,  they  have  been  seen  to  receive  the  whole  fam 
ily  into  their  throats,  and  when  it  has  passed,  to  restore  them 
again  to  the  open  air. 

The  voice  or  hiss  of  serpents,  which  is  often  exerted,  is  more 
or  less  loud  and  piercing.  It  is  the  expression  of  anger  or  im 
patience  ;  the  warning  of  an  attack,  or  the  signal  of  defiance. 

Their  senses  exhibit  different  degrees  of  development.  They 
cannot  be  said  to  possess  that  of  touch  in  a  high  degree,  though 
they  have  what  is  sufficient  to  regulate  their  progression,  and 
indicate  the  kind  of  surfaces  with  which  their  bodies  are  brought 
into  contact. 

The  tongue  is  soft,  fleshy,  bifid  (or  divided  into  two  branches) 
at  its  extremity,  and  working  in  a  sheath.  It  is  never  venomous, 
as  is  commonly  supposed.  As  an  organ  of  taste,  it  cannot  be 
very  susceptible.  The  prey  is  swallowed  entire,  and  under  cir 
cumstances  which  afford  little  or  no  opportunity  for  the  exercise 
of  taste  by  the  tongue. 

The  sense  of  smell,  judging  from  the  structure  and  habits  of 
these  reptiles,  cannot  be  very  acute. 

The  eyes  are  generally  very  small,  not  protected  by  movable 
eye-lids,  nor  by  a  nictitating  membrane,  so  that  they  always  ap 
pear  to  be  fixed  or  on  the  watch.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  trans 
parent  cornea  seems  to  form  part  of  the  skin  and  epidermis, 
with  which  it  is  detached  at  each  moult  of  the  reptile.  Vision, 
excepting  for  a  time  previous  to  a  change  of  the  skin,  when  it  is 
evidently  less  perfect,  appears  sufficiently  acute  in  reptiles  of  the 
present  order. 

Serpents  sometimes  grow  from  a  length  of  twelve  or  fourteen 
inches,  when  they  are  first  excluded,  to  that  of  twenty-five  or 
thirty  feet,  and  attain 'to  a  great  age.  They  are  extremely  tena 
cious  of  life,  often  surviving  very  severe  wounds.  Instances 
have  occurred  in  which  the  head,  severed  from  the  body,  has, 
after  a  considerable  time,  not  only  retained  vitality,  but  bitten 
with  fury. 

The  popular  opinion  that  serpents  are  capable  of  exercising  a 
power  of  fascination  over  their  intended  victims,  is  perhaps  not 
well  founded.  The  most  eminent  ornithologists  refer  the  effects 
produced  upon  birds  by  the  presence  of  these  reptiles,  to  the  fear 
amounting  to  terror  which  is  thus  occasioned,  and  to  the  instinc 
tive  solicitude  for  their  young,  which  induces  them  to  approach 
these  reptiles  too  nearly  for  their  own  safety.  The  serpent 


512  OPHIDIANS. 

tribes  are  indeed  very  generally  regarded  with  feelings  of  horror 
and  aversion,  for  which  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  account ;  and 
yet  to  some  these  reptiles  have  furnished  objects  of  religious 
veneration.  The  ancient  Mexicans  adored  the  Boa,  and  in  the 
blindness  of  their  superstition,  sought  to  propitiate  it  with  human 
victims.  Among  the  bronze  relics  of  the  Egyptians,  is  a  figure 
of  the  Cobra,  with  expanded  hood,  which  was  probably  regarded 
as  the  image  of  a  divinity,  or  one  of  the  household  gods.  Fig 
ures  of  the  Hindoo  Chrisna  sometimes  present  him  entwined  by 
a  large  Cobra,  which  is  fixing  its  poisoned  fangs  in  the  heel;  and 
again  they  represent  him  as  crushing  the  head  of  the  Serpent, 
while  he  triumphantly  tears  the  creature  from  his  body.  The 
origin  of  these  emblems  cannot  well  be  doubted  ;  they,  in  all 
probability,  spring /rom  traditions  related  to  the  great  prophetic 
promise  of  scripture,  Gen.  iii.  15.  "The  serpent  stands  as  an 
emblem  of  the  principle  of  evil  to  be  ultimately  destroyed  with 
the  poison  of  death  itself,  by  the  seed  of  the  woman." 

The  divisions  of  the  present  order  have  been  variously  given 
by  systematic  naturalists.  We  like  the  arrangement  of  Mr.  J. 
E.  Gray,  who  divides  the  order  into  five  families,  viz.  :  (1)  Co- 
lulrida;  (2)  Boida ;  (3)  Hydridce;  (4)  Viperida ;  (5)  Crota- 
lidcR.  (On  the  Chart  the  reptiles  of  the  last  two  families  are, 
for  convenience,  arranged  among  the  Boida.) 

Between  three  and  four  hundred  species  are  enumerated,  of 
which  about  one-fifth  are  venomous.  But  few  species  of  Oplii- 
dia  have  been  found  in  a  fossil  state. 

FIRST  FAMILY.     Colulrida.     (Lat.  coluber,  a  serpent.) 

This  family  of  the  Ophidians  includes  snakes  the  larger  por 
tion  of  which  are  harmless,  but  few  being  provided  with  poison 
ous  fangs.  They  are  distributed  over  the  globe,  and  are  more 
numerous,  considered  both  as  individuals  and  species,  than  any 
other  family  of  the  order. 

Dr.  Gray  arranges  them,  together  with  the  Boida  and  Hydri- 
d(E,  into  the  sub-order  Colubrina,  of  which  he  gives  the  follow, 
ing  definition  :  "Jaws  strong,  both  toothed,  sometimes  with  fangs 
in  front  or  grooved  teeth  behind.  Head  moderate  or  indistinct ; 
crown  often  covered  with  regular  shields."  The  section  Colu- 
bridfE  have  the  belly  covered  with  broad  scales ;  the  tail  conical 
and  tapering,  and  rarely  compressed  ;  the  nostrils  are  open  and 
placed  at  the  side  of  the  muzzle,  near  the  top.  The  head  is 
usually  covered  with  large  regular  plates,  the  variations  of  which 


OPHIDIANS.  513 

as  to  number  and  shape,  afford  good  specific  distinctions.  The 
Colubridfe  are  mostly  oviparous  and  carnivorous. 

The  leading  genera  of  this  family  as  found  so  numerously  in 
the  United  States,  are  Coluber  and  Tropidonotus,  (Gr.  tropis,  a 
keel ;  710/05,  back.) 

The  genus  Coluber  includes  most  of  the  larger  familiar  spe 
cies  which  have  smooth  scales,  without  the  keel,  or  longitudinal 
ridge  along  the  center,  which  appears  in  the  Tropidonotus.  The 
body  is  usually  slender  and  cylindrical.  The  snakes  of  this 
genus  are  rarely  seen  in  water ;  they  deposit  their  eggs  in  de 
cayed  wood,  sand,  or  other  localities. 

Of  the  well  known  species  found  in  the  United  States  are  (1) 
the  CHAIN  SNAKE,  C.  getulus,  from  its  quick  movements  also 
called  the  racer  ;  length  four  to  six  feet ;  (2)  the  MILK  SNAKE, 
C.  eximius,  (Lat.  select  or  distinguished,)  sometimes,  from  its 
chestnut  colored  spots  and  light  colored  ground,  called  the 
Chequered  Adder;  also  named  the  House  Snake  ;  it  is  not  un- 
frequently  found  in  dairies  and  cellars  in  which  milk  is  kept, 
which  it  is  said  to  seek  with  avidity  ;  length  two  to  five  feet;  (3) 
the  GRASS  SNAKE,  or  Green  Snake,  (see  Chart,)  C.  vernalis, 
(Lat.  vernal,)  is  found  from  Massachusetts  to  Pennsylvania,  has 
been  numerous  in  the  marshes  about  Salina  and  Cayuga,  (N.  Y.  ;) 
length  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches  ;  (4)  the  RINGED  SNAKE, 
C.  punctatus,  (Lat.  dotted.)  (see  Chart;)  it  emits  a  disagreeable 
odor  ;  occurs  from  Maine  to  Louisiana,  under  rocks  and  the 
bark  of  decayed  trees ;  length  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  ;  (5) 
BLACK  SNAKE,  C.  constrictor,  (Lat.  one  who  binds  together); 
abundant  in  all  parts  of  the  land  and  from  three  to  six  feet  in 
length.  It  climbs  trees  with  great  facility,  and  moves  very  rap 
idly  over  the  ground.  This,  as  well  as  the  species  above  men 
tioned,  is  called  the  Racer,  on  account  of  its  pursuit  of  terror- 
stricken  persons  fleeing  before  it,  an  enemy  it  were  wiser  reso 
lutely  to  face.  Its  climbing  power  renders  it  formidable  to  birds 
and  young  squirrels  in  their  nests.  It  has  been  supposed  to  ex 
ert  a  fascinating  influence  over  birds  ;  we  have  already  inti 
mated  that  the  unusual  actings  of  a  bird  in  its  presence  may  be 
occasioned  chiefly  by  the  danger  threatening  its  brood,  which 
the  reptile  might  devour  at  a  single  meal ;  (6)  C.  Alleghaniensis, 
is -a  larger  species  of  Black  Snake,  from  five  to  eight  feet  in 
length,  said,  however,  to  be  much  more  gentle  than  the  other, 
seldom  showing  any  disposition  to  bite,  which  the  Common  Black 
Snake  is  very  likely  to  do.  Both  of  these  species,  and  indeed 
all  the  Colubrines  in  North  America,  are  non-venomous  and 
harmless.  The  Black  Snakes  and  some  of  the  other  larger  spe- 


514  OPHIDIANS. 

cies  are  exceedingly  bold  and  resolute,  and  defend  themselves 
obstinately  when  attacked.  They  even  engage  in  deadly  con 
flict  with  the  Rattle  Snakes ;  and  owing  to  their  superior  agility, 
are  generally  victors,  evading  the  poisonous  thrusts  of  their  an 
tagonists,  and  seizing  the  opportunity  to  strangle  them  in  their 
folds,  like  the  Boa  or  Python ;  indeed,  the  specific  name,  Con 
strictor,  is  given  in  allusion  to  the  mode  in  which  the  Black 
Snake  kills  its  prey. 

The  snakes  of  the  genus  Tropidonotus,  differ  from  the  True 
Colubrines,  in  possessing  the  power  of  flattening  or  depressing 
the  body.  This  enables  them  to  swim  well,  and  hence,  they  are 
all  more  or  less  aquatic.  They  are  generally  viviparous,  the  eggs 
being  developed  previous  to  exclusion. 

Of  this  genus,  (1)  the  familiar  STRIPED  or  GARTER-SNAKE,  T. 
t&nia,  (Lat.  a  ribbon,)  or  T.  sirtalis,  (two  to  five  feet  long,)  is 
the  typical  representative.  Though  frequently  found  about  the 
water,  or  in  marshy  places,  it  is  as  often  on  high  dry  ground, 
and  has  been  noticed  at  an  elevation  of  two  thousand  feet  above 
tide  water.  When  irritated,  without  the  means  of  escape,  it 
raises  its  scales  so  as  to  give  the  body  a  roughened  appearance ; 
and  under  such  circumstances,  it  will  bite,  leaving  a  troublesome, 
though  not  dangerous  wound.  Its  fecundity  is  so  great,  that  in 
one  instance,  it  is  said,  eighty-one  young,  each  over  nine  inches 
in  length,  were  taken  from  a  single  female ;  (2)  the  Water- 
Snake,  T.  sipedon,  also  called  the  Water-Adder,  sometimes  the 
Moccasin-Snake,  and  erroneously  thought  to  be  poisonous,  is 
found  rather  abundantly  in  the  Northern  States,  and  also,  to  some 
extent,  in  the  Middle  States.  This  Snake  is  from  two  to  five 
feet  in  length  ;  it  moves  in  the  water  with  great  ease,  and  may  be 
said  to  live  in  it  habitually.  In  the  Southern  States,  its  place  is 
supplied  by  the  beautiful  GREEN-SNAKE,  Leptophis,  (Gr.  leptos, 
thin  ;  aphis,  snake,)  ceslivus,  about  two  feet  in  length.  Another 
species,  L.  saurtta,  is  found  in  the  Northern,  and,  to  some  ex 
tent,  in  Western  States.  It  is  the  Ribbon-Snake,  or  the  Little 
Garter-Snake,  as  it  is  called  in  New  York,  of  a  chocolate  brown 
color,  gentle  but  very  nimble,  climbing  trees  with  facility. 
Length  from  one  two  feet.  These  are  the  only  species  of  the 
genus  Leptophis.  Both  have  long  and  slender  bodies,  carinate 
scales,  and  very  long  tails. 

The  SAND-SNAKE,  Psammophis,  (Gr.  sand-snake,)j#tfge//7/br- 
mis,  (Lat.  of  whip-form.)  is  a  long,  slender,  and  exceedingly 
swift  species,  found  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida, — its  tail 
having  unimbricated  scales,  and  being  one-fourth  its  length. 

The- DIAMOND-SNAKE,  Coronella  Sayi,  is  conspicuous  for  its 


OPHIDIANS.  515 

minute  white  specks,  scattered  over  a  dark  ground.  It  is  one  of 
the  Snakes  that  often  engage  in  successful  conflict  with  the 
Rattle-Snake. 

The  HARLEQUIN  or  SCARLET-SNAKE,  Elaps  fulvus,  (Lat.  red 
or  tawny,)  is  found  in  Carolina,  Louisiana,  and  Upper  Missouri. 
It  is  distinguished  by  having  a  fang  permanently  fixed  on  each  side 
of  the  upper  jaw,  with  which  may  be  connected  a  rudimentary 
poisonous  gland;  but  the  animal  is  considered  entirely  harmless. 
The  head  is  scarcely  larger  than  the  body :  the  length  twenty 
inches. 

The  RED-SNAKE,  Calamaria  amoena,  (Lat.  delightful  to  the 
eye,)  is  a  beautiful  little  serpent,  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  from 
six  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  found  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  States,  under  stones  and  logs.  It  has  a  small  head, 
smooth  scales,  and  a  short,  abrupt  tail. 

The  HOG-NOSED-SNAKE,  Heterodon,  (Gr.  different  or  unequal 
teeth,)  platyrhinos,  (Gr.  broad-nosed,)  is  two  feet  in  length, — 
called  also  the  Buckwheat-nose,  (from  a  fancied  resemblance 
between  that  grain  and  its  rostral  plate,) — and  also  the  Deaf 
Adder  and  Yellow  Viper.  This  species  is  well  known,  through- 
out  the  United  States,  and  H.  niger,  (Lat.  black,)  is  known  as 
the  BLACK  VIPER,  about  three  feet  in  length,  and  found  in 
Georgia  and  Tennessee.  Both  present  a  formidable  appearance, 
from  flattening  the  head  and  whole  body  when  irritated  ;  but  are 
entirely  harmless.  Passing  over  many  colubrine  species  found 
in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere,  we  name  the  C.  quadrittnea- 
tus,  (Lat.  four  lined,)  which  is  the  largest  of  the  European  Ser 
pents,  often  attaining  to  six  feet  in  length,  and  found  in  Spain 
and  Italy.  This  formidable,  though  riot  venomous  snake,  is 
probably  the  Boa,  of  Pliny. 

We  must  also  not  omit  to  notice  an  African  genus,  Deirodon, 
(Gr.  deire,  neck ;  odous,  tooth,) — which  strikingly  illustrates 
the  special  adaptations  to  particular  uses  and  ends,  which  are 
presented  in  the  animal  kingdom.  This  snake  is  said  to  live 
almost  entirely  on  the  eggs  of  birds,  and  for  this  its  entire  organ 
ization  seems  expressly  designed.  The  mouth,  when  full  grown, 
has  no  teeth  whatever,  so  that  the  egg  is  readily  received  into 
the  open  jaw,  and  there  is  no  hazard  of  its  being  prematurely 
broken.  The  inferior  spinous  processes  of  the  seven  or  eight 
lower  cervical  vertebrae,  shoot  forward  with  the  gullet  or  sesopha- 
gus,  where  they  are  overspread  with  a  layer  of  hard  cement, 
and  made  to  resemble  long,  sharp  teeth.  The  eggs,  in  their  de 
scent,  press  against  these  teeth,  and  are  sawed  open  length 
wise, — then  crushed  by  the  contraction  of  the  gullet,  and  carried 


516  OPHIDIANS. 

into  the  stomach ;  the  shell,  as  well  as  its  contents,  subserving 
the  purposes  of  food. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     Boida.     BOAS  AND  PYTHONS. 

This  family  includes  species  which,  although  not  venomous, 
are  exceedingly  terrific  on  account  of  their  gigantic  size  and 
amazing  strength.  In  these,  the  ventral  shields  are  narrow, 
transverse,  and  often  six  sided  ;  the  pupil  is  oblong  and  erect, 
excepting  in  the  genus  Tortrix.  But  perhaps  the  most  marked 
peculiarity,  is  their  possession, — contrary  to  the  general  rule  in 
serpents, — of  hooked. like  claws,  connected  internally  with  a 
series  of  bones,  representing,  though  imperfectly,  those  of  the 
lower  limbs.  The  tail  is  prehensile,  and  can  be  firmly  twined 
around  any  object.  The  Boas  are  natives  of  South  America  ; 
the  Pythons  of  Asia  and  South  Africa.  Some  serpents,  kindred 
to  these,  are  also  seen  in  Australia. 

Imagination  finds  it  difficult  to  picture  more  formidable  objects 
than  the  reptiles  of  this  group ;  and  yet,  if  we  can  credit  the 
statements  of  ancient  writers,  serpents  far  more  terrific  than  these, 
were  once  found  in  the  Eastern  Continent.  Livy  refers  to, one 
which  "had  its  lair  on  the  banks  of  the  Bagradas,  near  Utica, 
and  swallowed  many  of  the  Roman  soldiers  in  the  army  of 
Regulus,"  and  which  was  finally  killed  by  stones  discharged  from 
military  engines.  The  skin,  afterwards  taken  to  Rome  by 
Regulus,  it  is  said,  "measured  one  hundred  and  twenty-three 
feet!"  This,  however,  may  be  an  exaggeration,  or  the  term 
"  feet,"  is,  perhaps,  to  be  understood  in  a  more  limited  sense  than 
that  which  we  assign  to  it. 

The  Boas,  properly  so  called,  sometimes  reach  the  length  of 
forty  feet.  In  their  entwining  folds,  acting  with  the  combined 
energy  of  thousands  of  muscles  for  crushing  their  victims,  they 
possess  a  power  which  no  man  or  animal  can  successfully  resist. 
To  climb,  to  swim,  to  dart  along  the  ground,  are  endowments  of 
these  powerful  reptiles,  and  they  avail  themselves  of  each  as 
occasion  requires. 

In  the  Boas,  the  head  is  covered  with  small  scales  to  the  muz 
zle  ;  and  the  scuta  of  the  tail  are  undivided.  In  the  Pythons, 
there  are  plates  over  the  anterior  part  of  the  head,  and  the 
scuta  of  the  tail  are  divided. 

The  EMPEROR  BOA,  Boa  constrictor,  (see  fig.  on  Chart,)  is 
characterised  by  a  broad  chain  extending  along  the  back,  and 
consisting  alternately,  of  large,  blackish,  and  somewhat  hexa 
gonal  marks,  and  of  pale,  oval  dashes  or  spots.  The  epithet 


OPHIDIANS.  517 

"  Emperor,"  given  to  this  Boa,  indicates  the  religious  veneration 
with  which  it  was  regarded  anciently  by  the  natives  in  Mexico 
and  South  America.  It  is  more  terrestrial  in  its  habits  than  the 
Anaconda;  resorting  to  dry  places,  among  bushes,  trees,  and 
rocks.  It  climbs  trees  with  great  facility,  and  hangs  suspended 
from  them  by  its  prehensile  tail,  ready  to  drop  upon  and  crush 
any  unfortunate  creature  that  may  pass  beneath.  Its  length  is 
from  thirty  to  thirty-five  feet. 

The  ANACONDA,  Boa  scytale,  (Gr.  skutale,  a  club  or  rod,)  or 
Eunectes,  (Gr.  a  good  swimmer,)  murinus,  (Lat.  from  mus, 
mouse.)  This  species  is  of  a  brownish  color,  with  a  double 
series  of  roundish,  black  blotches  running  along  the  back.  The 
spots  on  the  sides  are  annulated  and  ocellated,  the  disks  being 
white,  surrounded  by  blackish  rings.  The  trivial  specific 
name,  murinus t  is  given  to  it,  because  it  is  said  "to  lie  in  wait  for 
mice."  These,  together  with  fish,  frogs,  etc.,  are  truly  "small 
game"  to  this  creature,  which  constricts,  and  swallows  down 
whole  Sheep,  Peccaries,  Agoutis,  etc.  When  the  prey  is  dead, 
this,  and  the  other  Boas,  "thrust  out  their  tongue,  vibrating  in 
token  of  their  desire  of  food  ;  the  jaws  and  throat  become  lubri 
cated  with  saliva,  as  a  preparation  for  swallowing  the  enormous 
meal.  The  position  of  the  mass  in  the  alimentary  tube  indicates 
the  completion  of  the  process.  When  gorged  with  food,  the  ani 
mal  is  for  some  time  torpid  and  defenceless,  and  may  easily  be 
killed.  Occasionally,  it  is  destroyed  by  shooting,  lassoing,  etc. 
The  thick  skin  is  frequently  tanned,  and  converted  into  leather 
for  boots  and  saddles.  The  Anaconda  is  said  to  attain  the 
length  of  from  thirty  to  forty  feet ;  but  the  common  specimens 
seen  in  museums  and  menageries,  rarely  exceed  ten  or  fifteen. 
Among  the  other  species,  are 

The  ABOMA,  Boa  cenchris,  (Gr.  spotted,) — found  in  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  family, 
sometimes  attaining  a  gigantic  size.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  color, 
with  a  row  of  large  brown  rings,  running  the  whole  length  of  the 
back,  and  variable  spots  on  the  sides. 

The  BOJOBI  of  the  Brazilians,  or  the  GREEN  BOA,  B.  canina, 
or  Xiphosoma,  (Gr.  sword-body,)  caninum,  (Lat.  dog-like,)  having 
a  muzzle  which  shows  some  resemblance  to  that  of  a  dog. 

^  The  CORAL-SNAKE,  Tortrix  corallinus,  found  as  far  North  as 
Florida,  and  often  kept  tame  in  houses,  belongs  to  this  family. 

^  The  PYTHONS  are  natives  of  East  India  and  its  islands,  and  of 
Southern  Africa.  Two  species  are  distinguished  by  placing 
their  eggs  in  a  group,  and  covering  them  with  their  bodies. 
One  of  these,  is 


519  OPHIDIANS. 

The  TIGER  PYTHON  or  ROCK-SNAKE,  Python,  (Gr.  puthon,) 
tigris,  a  native  of  India  and  Java,  and  elegantly  marked.  It  is 
said  to  be  as  large  as  the  largest  Boa,  but  more  slender,  and 
greatly  to  be  feared.  Stories  are  told  of  the  tiger  falling  a  prey 
to  this  formidable  reptile. 

The  RETICULATED  PYTHON,  P.  reticulatus,  is  found  in  Hindos- 
tan,  Ceylon,  and  Java.  It  is  said  to  increase  until  it  reaches 
thirty  feet  in  length,  and  can  "  manage  a  buffalo,"  crushing  it 
in  its  huge  folds.  It  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  species  of  the 
entire  family,  "the  whole  body  being  covered  with  a  gay  lacing 
of  gold  and  black." 

The  Pythons,  in  the  British  Zoological  Gardens, "  are  fed  with 
rabbits,  which  they  destroy  by  winding  round  and  crushing 
them  ;  they  are  then  easily  swallowed  ;  the  expansive  power  of 
the  jaws  permitting  a  very  small  specimen  to  manage  such 
animals." 

THIRD  FAMILY.     MARINE  SNAKES. 
Hydrida,  (Gr.  t)%x,  hudra,  a  water- snake.) 

The  truly  Aquatic  or  Marine  Snakes,  are  all  confined  to  the 
intertropical  regions.  They  are  mostly  found  in  the  seas  and 
rivers  of  the  East  Indies.  These  singular  reptiles,  excepting 
that  they  are  destitute  of  fins,  are  not  unlike  the  eel,  particularly 
in  the  form  of  the  tail,  which  is  expanded  in  a  vertical  direction, 
and  flattened  laterally,  so  as  to  act  the  part  of  a  paddle.  Some 
species,  however,  have  conical  tails,  and  these  are  thought  to 
live  in  fresh  water.  In  the  Indian  Seas,  numbers  of  these  snakes 
collect  together,  forming  shoals,  which  may  be  seen  swimming 
about  in  pursuit  of  fishes  and  other  prey.  It  is  very  seldom 
that  the  true  sea  snakes  visit  the  land.  Sometimes  they  coil 
themselves  up  on  the  shore,  where  they  lay  their  eggs.  It  is 
supposed  that  they  live  on  sea-weed.  They  are  often  found 
asleep  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  when  they  are  easily  caught, 
as  they  are  unable  to  descend  without  throwing  themselves 
on  their  backs,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  expelling  the  air 
from  their  capacious  lungs.  They  are  frequently  thrown 
ashore  in  the  surf,  to  the  terror  of  the  natives.  Occasionally, 
they  are  carried  up  rivers  by  the  tide;  but  they  cannot  long  live 
in  fresh  water.  The  fishermen  of  the  Eastern  seas,  often  take 
them  in  their  nets,  and  greatly  dread  them  on  account  of  the 
poison  of  their  bite. 

The  species  are  said  to  be,  without  exception,  venomous.  Dr. 
Cantor,  who  was  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and 


OPHIDIANS.  -  519 

had  favorable  opportunities  of  studying  the  peculiarities  of  these 
serpents,  captured  by  him  in  fishing  nets,  refers  to  the  case  of  a 
British  officer,  who  "died  within  an  hour  or  two  after  the  bite  of 
a  serpent  caught  at  sea;"  and  also  to  numerous  experiments  of 
his  own,  "in  which  fowl,  fish,  and  other  animals,  invariably  died 
within  a  few  minutes  after  the  bite  had  been  inflicted."  We 
refer  to  these  facts,  because  it  has  been  stated,  that  "the  Marine 
Serpents  are  harmless." 

Rev.  John  Williams,  in  his  "Narrative  of  Missionary  Enter- 
prises  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,"  says :  "  That  in  the  Samoa 
group  are  water  snakes,  some  of  them  beautifully  marked  with 
longitudinal  stripes  of  yellow  and  black,  and  others  with  rings 
alternately  white  and  black."  He  adds,  "the  natives  esteem 
both  the  Land  and  Sea  Snakes  as  good  food." 

The  MARINE  SNAKES,  in  common  with  the  BOID^E,  have  nar 
row,  elongated  scales  on  the  belly,  nearly  resembling  those  on 
the  back;  the  ventral  shields  are  narrow,  hexagonal,  or  band- 
like, — the  eyes  and  nostrils  look  upwards,  the  latter  usually 
placed  in  the  middle  of  a  shield,  with  a  slit  or  groove  on  its  outer 
edge ;  the  fangs  are  of  moderate  size,  and  intermixed  with  the. 
maxillary  teeth  ;  the  pupil  is  small  and  round. 

Of  the  species  with  compressed  teeth,  or  true  Marine  Snakes, 
are  the  TWO-COLORED  PELAMYS,  Pelamys  bicolor,  with  hexagonal 
scales,  found  in  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  and  the  BANDED  SEA-SNAKE, 
Chersydrus,  (Gr.  chersudros,  an  amphibious  serpent,)/asczatas, 
(Lat.  banded,)  or  C.  granulatus,  found  in  meadows.  (For  figure 
of  which  see  Chart.) 

FOUETH  FAMILY.     VIPERS.     Sub-order  VIPERINA,  (venomous 
snakes.) 

Viperida,  (Lat.  vipera,  a  viper.)  . 

This  family  contains  nine  genera  and  twenty  species,  found 
chiefly  in  Asia  and  Africa;  none  of  them  have  been  discovered 
on  the  American  continent.  Unlike  the  Colubrine  Snakes,  these 
have  few  if  any  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw ;  but  they  have,  in  com 
mon  with  the  Crotalidae,  glands  secreting  a  poisonous  fluid,  which, 
on  occasion,  they  discharge  through  their  fangs  in  front.  These 
glands  are  connected  with  muscles  which  are  capable  of  exerting 
a  powerful  compression,  and  thus  of  ejecting  the  venom  with 
great  force  into  a  wound.  The  shields  of  the  muzzle  in  this 
family,  are  broad  and  band-like;  the  scales  keeled,  except  in 
the  genus  Acanthophis,  (Gr.  spiny-serpent ;)  the  tail  is  short 
and  tapering. 


520  OPHIDIANS. 

The  Common  Viper,  of  Europe,  Vipera  lerus  or  V.  communis, 
is  greatly  feared,  though  its  venom  is  said  not  to  be  as  virulent 
as  that  of  the  kindred  reptiles  found  in  hotter  regions  of  the 
globe.  It  does  not  often  happen  that  death  follows  the  bite  of 
this  species  in  the  case  of  human  beings.  Ammonia  or  harts 
horn,  given  internally,  and  fomentations  applied  to  the  part,  to 
be  gently  rubbed  afterwards  with  oil,  are  the  remedies  usually 
employed.  To  persons  laboring  under  general  debility,  or  to 
children  of  weak  and  irritable  constitution,  especially  if  the  rep 
tile  be  in  full  energy,  during  the  heat  of  summer,  the  bite  of  the 
Common  Viper  is  known  to  prove  fatal.  The  surest  remedies 
for  its  bite,  are  the  immediate  removal  of  the  poison  by  suction, 
washing,  excision  of  the  part,  &c.  The  Viper,  as  already  intima 
ted,  brings  forth  its  numerous  young  alive.  These,  though  but  a 
fewinchesin  length, crawl  about,  and  are  as" fierce  as  the  parent, — 
throwing  themselves  into  an  attitude  of  defence  when  molested, 
and  hissing  with  anger.  Mice,  lizards,  and  nestling  birds,"  are 
the  food  of  this  species. 

The  ESPING,  of  Sweden,  or  Aspic,  of  England,  V.  chersia,  is 
perhaps  only  a  variety  of  the  Common  Viper, — but  is  even  more 
virulent;  seldom,  however,  more  than  six  inches  in  length.  The 
rapid  reproduction  of  the  Common  Viper,  renders  ineffectual  the 
many  efforts  which  are  made  for  its  extermination. 

The  genus  Naja  contains  the  HOODED  or  SPECTACLED  SER 
PENTS,  Cobra  de  Capello, — characterized  by  having  the  head 
covered  with  large  plates,  and  the  skin  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
back  dilatable,  or  capable  of  such  expansion  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
hood,  impressed  with  a  mark  somewhat  like  a  pair  of  spectacles. 
(See  Chart.)  Their  bite  is  deadly  in  the  extreme.  They  are 
found  in  Ceylon,  from  six  to  fifteen  feet  in  length.  The  hood 
and  spectacles  show  themselves  when  the  reptile  is  enraged  and 
preparing  for  an  attack.  The  extension  of  the  membranous 
skin  serves  as  a  warning  to  those  who  are  within  reach  of  the 
animal.  The  Naja  tripudians,  (Lat.  dancing,)  IV.  larvat.a,  (Lnt. 
frightened,  distracted,)  are  species  of  India.  To  N.  tripudians, 
the  Portuguese  originally  gave  the  name  of  Cobra  de  CapelJo. 
The  Naja  haje,  (see  Chart,)  is  an  African  species,  and  indubita 
bly  the  one  which  the  ancients  have  described  under  the  title  of 
the  Asp,  or  Aspis  of  Egypt,  or  of  Cleopatra.  The  Nnjahs  of 
South  Africa  are  said,  when  irritated,  to  expel  poison  from  the 
points  of  their  fangs,  and  are  supposed  to  have  the  power  of 
ejecting  the  poison  to  a  distance. 

The  Cobras  are  the  serpents  upon  which  the  serpent  charmers 
in  India  and  Egypt  chiefly  practice  their  arts,  and  which  are 


OPHIDIANS.  521 

often  taught  to  dance  to  their  rude  music.  It  should  be  noted 
with  reference  to  the  contest  in  the-  presence  of  Pharaoh  between 
Moses  and  Aaron  and  the  magicians  of  Egypt,  (Exodus  viii., 
9 — 12,)  that  it  is  stated,  on  good  authority,  the  modern  Egyptian 
jugglers  possess  the  power  of  throwing  the  N.  liaje  into  a  state 
of  catalepsy,  and  rendering  it  still  and  immovable,  in  other  words, 
changing  it  into  a  rod,  by  pressing  the  nape  with  the  fingers. 

Dr.  Cantor  has  brought  to  notice  a  new  genus  of  snakes,  nearly 
allied  to  the  Cobras,  called  Hamadrydas,  (Gr.  hama,  together 
with  ;  drus,  an  oak  or  any  tree,)  which  has  a  few  maxillary 
teeth  beyond  the  poison  fangs,  thus  connecting  the  venomous 
serpents  to  the  harmless,  that  have  a  complete  row  of  maxillary 
teeth.  According  to  Dr.  C.,  the  Hamad rydas  feeds  upon  other 
serpents.  It  is  said  to  be  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  in  length,  and 
exceedingly  fierce,  not  merely  ready  to  defend  itself,  which  is  all 
the  common  Cobra  does  unless  greatly  provoked,  but  quick  to 
attack  and  to  pursue  when  opposed.  Its  poison  is  a  "pellucid 
tasteless  fluid,  in  consistence  like  a  thin  solution  of  gurn  arabic 
in  water,"  and  reddening  litmus  paper,  like  that  of  other  mem- 
bers  of  the  family. 

The  Cerastes  or  HORN  SNAKE,  (see  Chart,)  is  a  native  of 
Egypt  and  Lybia,  and  characterized  by  having  a  group  of  ele 
vated  horn-like  scales  over  each  eye.  Its  general  length  is  about 
two  feet.  The  color  is  sandy  red,  with  irregular  brownish 
markings  ;  hence  it  cannot  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  sands 
of  the  desert,  in  which  it  dwells  ;  so  that  it  may  be  trodden  upon 
unsuspectingly  by  man  or  cattle,  and  inflict  a  poisonous  wound 
before  its  presence  is  perceived.  It  moves  with  great  rapidity 
and  in  all  directions,  forwards,  backwards,  and  sidewise,  which 
makes  it  the  more  dangerous. 

Another  most  deadly  snake,  called  the  DEATH  ADDER,  and 
BLACK  SNAKE,  Acanthophis  tortor,  (Lat.  torturer,)  is  found  in 
Australia.  The  small  woods  and  sandy  heaths  around  Botany 
Bay  are  largely  infested  with  it,  and  every  where  it  is  greatly 
dreaded  by  the  colonists,  on  account  of  the  mortal  wounds  which 
it  inflicts.  It  is  hideous  in  its  aspect  and  thick  in  proportion  to 
its  length,  which  is  two  or  three  feet.  The  genus  Acanthophis 
links  the  Viperine  group  to  the  Rattle  snakes;  the  tail  terminat 
ing  in  a  single  horny  spine,  instead  of  being  invested  as  in  the 
Rattle  Snakes,  with  dry  scaly  pieces,  resembling  so  many  bell- 
like  appendages,  and  forming  a  rattle.  The  head  is  covered  in 
front  with  large  plates ;  the  scuta,  or  plates  beneath  the  tail,  are 
double. 

22 


522  OPHIDIANS. 

FIFTH  FAMILY.     RATTLE  SNAKES. 
Crotalida,  (Gr.  xgorakov,  krotalon,  a  rattle  or  bell.) 

The  Crotaline  group,  including  Rattle  Snakes,  exhibit  the  fol. 
lowing  characters :  the  face  has  a  large  pit  on  each  side ;  the 
head  is  large  behind,  crown  flat,  covered  with  scales  or  small 
shields ;  the  jaws  weak,  the  upper  with  long  fangs  in  front,  and 
no  teeth ;  the  belly  is  covered  with  broad  band-like  shields,  and 
there  are  no  spurs  or  rudimentary  feet.  The  species  are  all  more 
or  less  venomous  ;  a  part  of  the  family  are  viviparous,  the  rest 
ovo-viviparous. 

The  Crotalus,  or  Rattle  Snake,  is  the  type  genus  of  this  fam 
ily.  All  the  species  are  distinguished  from  the  others  of  the 
group  by  the  presence  of  a  rattle  at  the  end  of  the  tailj  (see 
Chart.)  This  consists  of  a  number  of  joints  of  a  horny  texture, 
loosely  joined  together,  so  that  when  rapidly  vibrated,  they  make 
a  distinct  whirring  noise,  which  has  been  compared  to  that  of 
peas  shaken  about  in  a  dry  bladder,  or  to  the  sound  produced  by 
the  locust,  and  is  heard  at  some  distance.  The  rattles  vary  in 
number  according  to  age ;  the  basal  bell  or  rattle  is  the  last 
formed  and  the  largest ;  one  is  erroneously  said  to  be  added 
every  year.  The  head  is  covered  with  scales,  but  in  one  sub- 
genus  with  plates. 

Rattle  Snakes,  especially  when  irritated,  exhale  a  disgusting 
odor.  The  peccary  is  said  to  destroy  and  devour  them,  as  does 
the  common  hog  also  ;  but  horses  and  dogs  avoid  them.  They 
are  sluggish  and  inactive  in  their  movements ;  and,  though 
highly  venomous,  seldom  attempt  to  inflict  any  injury  upon  man 
unless  molested  by  him.  His  approach  calls  forth  the  noise  of  the 
rattle,  which  usually  precedes  any  blow.  These  reptiles  never 
ascend  trees,  always  capturing  their  prey  upon  the  ground. 
Usually  they  rest  coiled  spirally,  in  paths,  or  clear  spots  in  the 
woods,  waiting  for  their  prey,  upon  which  they  dart,  when 
within  the  proper  distance.  In  mid-winter  and  during  hard  frosts 
these  serpents  intertwine  themselves  together,  in  ball-like  masses, 
and  become  totally  torpid.  At  that  season  they  may  be  handled 
without  danger.  They  eat  indifferently  all  kinds  of  birds,  but 
not  frogs,  to  which  the  Black  Snake  is  so  partial.  Their  food 
also  consists  of  small  animals,  such  as  rabbits,  squirrels,  rats, 
&c.,  and  sometimes  even  dogs  are  killed  by  them.  Two  or 
three  species  of  the  genus  Crotalus  are  found  in  North  America. 

The  COMMON  or  BANDED  RATTLE  SNAKE,  C.  durissus,  is  dis 
persed  abundantly  throughout  the  United  States,  though  rarely 

• 


OPHIDIANS.  523 

met  with  north  of  the  parallel  of  45o.  It  is  particularly  numer 
ous  in  the  region  of  the  Alleghany  mountains.  The  length  is 
not  often  more  than  four  feet. 

The  DIAMOND  RATTLE  SNAKE,  C.  adamanteus,  (Lat.  adaman 
tine,)  is  more  formidable  than  the  preceding  species.  This  is 
found  on  the  coast  of  the  States  south  of  North  Carolina.  It 
has  been  known  to  exceed  eight  feet  in  length,  and  in  thickness 
to  equal  that  of  a  stout  man's  leg.  Those  of  this  species  are 
seen  much  about  water,  and  are  therefore  called  WATER  RAT 
TLES,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  common  species,  which  keeps 
on  dry  land. 

The  CASCAVELLA,  C.  horridus,  is  common  in  South  America. 
The  kindred  genus  Crotalophorus,  (Gr.  krotalon,  a  rattle ;  phoreo, 
to  carry,)  has  several  species  in  North  America,  which  are  usu 
ally  termed  Ground  Rattle  Snakes.  These  have  the  head  cov 
ered  with  shields,  and  the  rattles  very  small.  The  Miliary  or 
LITTLE  CAROLINA  RATTLE  SNAKE,  C.  miliarius,  though  but 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  in  length,  is  dreaded  on  account  of  the 
intensity  of  its  venom. 

The  MASSASAGUA,  C.  Kirilandi,  is  another  species  found  in 
northern  Ohio  and  Michigan.  Length  twenty-seven  inches. 

The  BOIQUIRA,  or  as  the  natives  term  it,  the  Queen  of  Ser 
pents,  is  found  in  Brazil. 

The  MINIMARU,  or  Jergon,  Lachesis  (Gr.  name  of  one  of  the 
Parccz,  or  Fates)  picta,  is  a  species  found  in  Peru,  having  the 
head  heart-shaped  and  covered  with  scales,  and  a  thick  upper 
lip.  It  haunts  the  higher  forests,  while  in  those  lower  down  its 
place  is  filled  by  its  no  less  fearful  relative,  the  BUSH-MASTER, 
L.  rhombeata,  (Prince  Max,)  which  is  from  six  to  eight  feet  in 
length.  The  genus  is  characterized  by  double  scuta  beneath 
the  tail,  which  ends  in  a  short  horny  point. 

The  COPPERHEADS,  (genus  Trigonocephalus,  triangular-headed,) 
are  perhaps  even  more  to  be  dreaded  than  the  Rattle  Snakes, 
since  they  are  equally  venomous  and  give  no  warning  of  their 
presence. 

The  COPPER-HEAD,  T.  contortrix,  in  length  two  to  three  feet, 
is  most  extensively  distributed.  Damp  meadows  are  its  favorite  re 
sorts,  where  it  shows  itself  to  the  peril  of  persons  who  are  engaged 
in  mowing  or  passing  through  them.  It  sometimes  finds  its  way 
into  damp  cellars,  where,  however,  it  makes  itself  useful  by  des 
troying  rats  and  mice.  This  and  the  Banded  Rattle  Snake  are 
the  only  really  venomous  kinds  found  in  the  middle  and  north 
ern  States. 

The  WATER  MOCCASIN,  T.  piscivorus,  (Lat.  piscis,  fish ;  voro, 


524  OPHIDIANS. 

to  devour,)  is  the  pest  of  southern  plantations.  This  species, 
like  the  harmless  water  snakes  of  the  Middle  States,  may  be  seen 
lying  over  bushes  which  overhang  the  water,  into  which  they 
plunge  on  the  slightest  alarm. 

The  LANCE-HEADED  VIPER,  T.  lanceoJatus,  is  abundantly  dis 
tributed  through  several  of  the  West  India  Islands.  It  attains 
six  or  seven  feet,  and  sometimes  even  nine  feet  in  length,  and 
is  greatly  dreaded.  It  is  said  to  be  remarkable  for  its  activity, 
and  to  abound  among  the  sugar  plantations,  in  which  many  of 
the  laborers  fall  victims  to  its  bite. 

What  is  the  3rd  ORDER  of  REPTILES  ?  How  are  they  particularly  distin 
guished  ?  What  does  Cuv.  say  of  them  ?  What  is  said  of  their  form  ? 
What  of  their  covering  ?  Describe  the  upper  and  lower  scales.  State  the 
difference  in  their  arrangement  and  give  their  respective  names.  At  what 
time  and  in  what  manner  do  they  change  their  skin  ?  What  are  the  parts 
of  the  skeleton?  Describe  the  vertebral  column.  How  do  you  account 
for  the  flexibility  of  Serpents  ?  What  is  said  of  the  number  of  their  bones  ? 
What  are  their  agents  of  locomotion  ?  How  ?  To  what  may  the  ribs  be 
compared  ?  What  is  said  of  their  various  modes  of  progression  ?  Why 
do  the  bones  of  the  face  deserve  especial  notice?  How  is  the  lower  jaw 
articulated?  How  are  its  extremities  connected?  How  are  these  things 
related  to  the  serpent's  swallowing  its  food  ?  Have  they  two  lungs  ?  What 
is  said  of  their  teeth  ?  What  is  peculiar  to  the  venomous  species?  Describe 
the  action  of  the  poison  fang  ?  Does  the  serpent  sting  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  young  of  venomous  serpents?  What  of  the  non-venomous?  How,is 
the  goodness  of  the  Creator  herein  displayed?  Do  serpents  care  for  their 
young?  What  is  said  of  their  voice  or  hiss?  What  of  their  senses? 
What  of  their  growth  and  tenacity  of  life  ?  What  of  their  powers  of  fas 
cination?  How  were  they  regarded  by  the  ancient  Mexicans,  Egyptians 
and  Hindoos?  Into  how  many  families  does  Mr.  J.  E.  Gray  divide  this 
order?  In  what  family  are  the  last  two  included  on  the  Chart?  How 
many  sp.  are  enumerated?  What  proportion  is  venomous?  Have  any 
been  found  in  a  fossil  state  ? 

What  is  the  1st  FAMILY  ?  What  does  it  include  ?  What  family  compose 
the  SUB-ORDER  COLUBRINA  ?  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Colubridae  ? 
What  its  leading  gen.  ?  What  well  known  sp.  of  the  gen.  Coluber  is  found 
in  the  U.  S.  ?  Repeat  what  is  said  of  them  severally.  How  does  the  gen. 
Tropidonotus  differ  from  the  true  Colubrines  ?  State  what  is  said  of  the 
two  sp.  mentioned.  What  of  the  other  gen.  and  sp.  of  this  family? 

What  is  the  2nd  FAMILY?  Why  are  the  sp.  of  this  family  very  terrific? 
What  is  said  of  their  shields?  Name  a  more  marked  peculiarity.  Is  the 
tail  prehensile  ?  Where  are  the  BOAS  found  ?  Where  the  PYTHONS  ?  What 
statements  are  made  by  Livy  ?  What  is  said  of  the  size,  &c.,  of  the  Boa  ? 
Repeat  what  is  said  of  the  EMPEROR  BOA.  Of  the  ANACONDA.  Of  the 
ABOMA.  Of  the  BOJOBI  or  GREEN  BOA.  Of  the  CORAL  SNAKE.  What  two 
sp.  of  Pythons  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  them  ?  How  are  the  P. 
in  Zoological  gardens  of  London  fed  9 


AMPHIBIA.  525 

What  is  the  3rd  FAMILY  ?  Where  are  they  mostly  found  ?  In  what  re 
spects  do  they  resemble  the  Eel  ?  Do  true  SEA  SNAKES  visit  the  land  ? 
Are  they  easily  caught?  Can  they  live  in  fresh  water?  Are  they  venom 
ous?  What  is  said  by  Dr.  Cantor?  What  by  the  Rev.  I.  Williams? 
What  kind  of  scales  have  the  Marine  Snakes  ?  What  species  of  true  Ma 
rine  Snakes  are  mentioned  ? 


What  is  the  4th  FAMILY  ?  How  many  gen.  does  it  contain  ?  Are  any 
found  on  this  continent?  What  is  said  of  their  teeth  and  shields?  What 
is  said  of  the  bite  of  the  COMMON  VIPER  of  Europe  ?  What  remedies  for 
this  bite  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  young,  &c.,  of  the  Viper? 
What  of  the  Esping  or  Aspic  ?  What  gen.  contain  the  HOODED  or  SPEC 
TACLED  SERPENTS?  How  characterized?  What  is  said  of  their  bite? 
When  do  the  hood  and  spectacles  appear  ?  What  sp.  are  mentioned  ? 
Which  is  the  ASP  OF  CLEOPATRA  ?  What  is  said  of  the  powers  of  jugglers  ? 
What  new  gen.  has  Dr.  Cantor  brought  into  notice  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
Cerastes  or  Horned  Snake  ?  What  of  the  Death  Adder  ?  What  link  does 
this  form? 


What  is  the  5th FAMILY?  By  what  characteristics  are  they  distinguished? 
What  is  the  typ«  of  this  family  ?  How  is  it  distinguished  from  the  others  ? 
Describe  the  Rattle  Snake.  What  is  said  of  their  habits  and  movements  ? 
What  is  their  condition  in  mid-winter  ?  What  is  said  of  their  food  ?  Men 
tion  the  sp.  found  in  N.  A.,  also  those  of  S.  A. 

What  gen.  includes  the  Copper-heads  ?  Why  are  they  to  be  especially 
dreaded?  What  sp.  is  found  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States?  What 
are  its  favorite  resorts?  What  is  said  of  the  Water  Moccasin?  What  of 
the  Lance-headed  Viper? 


Name  and  trace  those  figured  or  mentioned  on  the  Chart. 
SECTION  VI. 


FOURTH  ORDER.     AMPHIBIA,  (Gr.  'a/wptfitos,  amphibios,  having 
a  double  life.) 

The  Reptiles  of  which  we  have  treated  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tions,  are  covered  with  plates,  shields,  or  scales.  In  those  of  the 
present  order,  the  skin  is  naked,  smooth,  and  often  moist,  or  lu 
bricated  with  a  fluid  secretion,  which,  in  some  cases,  is  acrid  and 
apt  to  irritate  the  skin  of  the  persons  who  handle  it.  As  in 
snakes  and  lizards,  the  skin  is  frequently  shed  ;  in  some  species 
in  shreds;  in  others  entire.  In  some,  as  in  the  frog,  the  blood, 
through  the  delicate  vessels  of  the  skin,  as  well  as  in  the  vessels 
of  the  lungs  and  gills,  undergoes  those  changes  which  are  nec 
essary  for  the  maintenance  of  animal  life.  This  cutaneous  res 
piration  can,  however,  take  place  only  while  the  skin  is  kept 
moist  ;  the  same  remark  may  be  made  respecting  the  gills  of 
fishes,  of  tadpoles,  and  various  Crustacea.  To  meet  this  exi- 


526  AMPHIBIA. 

gency,  the  Reptiles  have  a  skin  which  is  capable  of  secreting  a 
fluid  by  which  it  is  preserved  in  a  humid  condition.  The  healthy 
action  of  the  skin,  co-operating  with  that  of  the  lungs,  is  really 
essential  to  their  existence.  Dr.  Townson,  of  England,  in  his 
tracts  on  the  "  Respiration  of  the  Amphibia,"  states  from  actual 
experiment,  that  a  frog,  when  placed  on  blotting  paper  well 
soaked  with  water,  absorbed  nearly  its  own  weight  of  the  fluid 
in  the  short  time  of  an  hour  and  a  half;  and,  it  is  believed,  these 
reptiles  never  discharge  it,  except  when  they  are  disturbed  or 
pursued,  and  then  only  to  lighten  their  bodies  and  facilitate  their 
escape.  The  form  of  the  Amphibians  is  variable.  Besides  the 
naked  skin,  we  may  mention,  as  general  characters  of  the  pres 
ent  order,  that  the  skull  is  united  to  the  column  of  vertebrae  by 
two  condyles,  (Gr.  kondulos,  a  protuberance  or  knot  on  the  end 
of  a  bone,)  situated  on  the  back  of  the  head ;  the  teeth  are  gen 
erally  numerous,  of  small  and  equal  size  and  close  set ;  the  toes 
usually  unfurnished  with  claws ;  the  ribs  either  wanting,  (Plate 
XII.  fig.  4,)  or  rudimentary  and  not  attached  to  the  breast-bone ; 
and  the  animals  are  oviparous,  the  eggs  having  soft,  not  calcare 
ous  shells.  A  change  of  form  and  habit,  as  we  have  stated  in 
our  general  description  of  the  Reptiles,  occurs  in  many,  which 
begin  their  existence  with  branchiae,  or  gills,  that  afterwards  be 
come  obliterated  ;  while  in  others,  the  branchise  continue  through 
out  their  lives.  Several  prominent  naturalists,  including  Prof. 
Agassiz,  are  inclined  to  separate  the  Amphibians  from  the  Class 
of  Reptiles,  regarding  them  as  possessing  the  distinguishing 
characters  upon  which  classes  are  founded  ;  but  as  this  point 
seems  not  perfectly  settled,  and  they  have  usually  been  numbered 
with  the  Reptiles,  they  are  so  arranged  on  the  Chart. 

The  Amphibians  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-orders. 

FIRST  SUB-ORDER.  CADUCIBRANCHIATA,  (Lat.  caducus,  perish 
able  ;  branchice,  gills.) 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  this  sub-order  is  that  the 
Amphibia  which  it  includes,  commence  life  with  gills  for  the 
aeration  of  the  blood,  i.  e.,  the  air  effects,  through  the  medium 
of  the  gills,  a  change  corresponding  to  the  arterialization  of  the 
blood  through  the  medium  of  the  lungs,  in  other  animals.  The 
gills,  however,  are  possessed  only  in  the  early  or  tadpole  state  ; 
they  become  gradually  obliterated,  and  lungs  are  developed. 

This   sub-order   includes  five   families,  viz.:    (1)   Cceciliida, 
Ceecilia;  (2)  Ranida,  Frogs;  (3)  Bufoida,  Toads ;  (4)  Salaman- 
Salamanders ;  (5)  Ampliiumida,  Menopoma,  &c. 


AMPHIBIA.  527 


FIRST  FAMILY.     Caciliida,  (Lat.   catilia,  from  ccecus,  blind ;) 
Apodous,  (or  footless.) 

The    Reptiles  of    this   family,  Cuvier,   following   Linnaeus, 
placed  in   his  third  and   last   family  of  Ophidians,  calling  them 
naked  serpents,  and  observing  that  those  who  placed  it  among  the 
Batrachians,  "  did  not  know  whether  the  form  underwent  a  meta 
morphosis  or  not."     Miiller,  however,  has  proved  that  the  Csecilia 
has,   at   a  very    early  period,  gills,  which   are  soon  lost.     The 
name  Csecilia  was  given  to  these  Reptiles  on   account  of  their 
supposed  blindness.     The  eyes  are,  in  fact,  exceedingly  small, 
and  nearly  hidden  under  the  skin.     Cuvier  asserts  that  in  some 
species  the  eyes    are   wanting  altogether.       The   Caecilia    are 
named  by  Dumeril,  Ophiosomala,  (Gr.  ophis,  a  snake  ;  soma,  a 
body.)  They  have  a  snake-like  body,  destitute  of  limbs,  and  with 
vertebrae  resembling  those  of  fishes,  short  ribs,  and  no  sternum 
or  breast- bone.     They  are  undoubtedly  to  be  regarded  as  a  con- 
necting  link  between  the  Ophidians  and  the    Amphibia.     Their 
skin  is  smooth,  viscous,   and   marked  with  a  regular  series  of 
ring-like  furrows ;  and  the  scales,  which  are  very  minute,  are 
not  to  be  found,  except  by  an  examination  of  the  substance  of 
the  skin  itself.     The    head   is   depressed ;  the  tongue  is  thick, 
rounded  and  velvety;  the  skull  united  to  the  vertebrae  by  two 
tubercles  or  condyles,  as  in  the  other  Batrachians,  whereas  there 
is  only  one   in  snakes.     There   are   both   maxillary   and  palatal 
teeth.     In  their  intestines,  Cuvier  says  there   is  to  be  found  "a 
quantity  of  vegetable  matter,  vegetable  earth  and  sand."     Nine 
species  of  this  singular  group  are  described  as    belonging  to 
Asia  and  America.  These  Reptiles  are  ovoviviparous,  producing 
their  young  alive,  to  the  number  of  six  or  seven.     Not  much  is 
known  respecting  their  general  habits;  they  bury  themselves  in 
the  soft  mud  of  marshy  places,  piercing  through  it,  in  a  worm- 
like  manner,  often  to  the  depth  of  many  feet ;  they  creep  slowly 
on  the  ground,  and,  when  in  water,  swim  like  an  eel,  striking  to 
the  right  and  left  with  their  tail. 

The  RINGED  CJECILIA,  C.  annulata,  (Lat.  ringed,)  which  is 
figured  on  the  Chart,  is  an  inhabitant  of  Brazil,  Cayenne,  and 
Surinam.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  bluntness  of  the  tail,  the  dis 
tinctness  of  the  rings,  extending  from  the  head  over  its  whole 
length  to  the  tail,  and  for  the  position  of  the  false  nostrils,  be 
low  and  a  little  before  each  eye. 


528  AMPHIBIA. 


ANOURA,  OR  TAILLESS  AMPHIBIA. 

This  group  comprises  the  Frogs,  the  Toads,  with  their  allied 
forms,  constituting,  in  the  whole,  a  numerous  assemblage.  In 
these  animals,  the  form  of  the  body  is  short  and  broad.  During 
the  tadpole  state,  there  are  no  limbs,  but  a  long  compressed  tail, 
is  their  organ  of  locomotion,  (Plate  XIII.  figs.  1,  2,  3,  4;)  in  this 
state  it  is  called  a  tadpole  ;  subsequently  fourlirnbs  are  developed, 
(figs.  5  and  6,)  and  the  tail  disappears,  (fig.  8.)  The  skull  is  very 
short  and  broad.  Ribs  are  wanting  ;  the  seven  or  eight-anterior 
vertebrae  only  are  distinct ;  the  tympanic  orifice  is  open  ;  the 
breathing  is  at  first  effected  by  gills,  and  afterwards  by  lungs. 
Warm  and  temperate,  but  moist  climates  are  the  localities  most 
favorable  to  the  Anourous  Amphibia. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     Ranida,  (Lat.  rana,  a  frog.)     FROGS. 

In  this  family  of  tailless  Batrachians,  the  posterior  legs  are 
long  and  formed  for  leaping  ;  the  hind  toes  are  webbed  ;  teeth 
are  found  both  on  the  upper  jaw  and  on  the  palate ;  the  mouth 
is  wide  ;  the  tongue  folded  back,  broad,  soft,  fleshy,  and  notched  ; 
the  eyes  are  prominent,  and  they  are  protected  by  a  movable 
membrane  well  adapted  to  guard  them  against  those  injuries  to 
which,  from  the  Frogs'  mode  of  life,  they  would  be  peculiarly 
liable.  In  the  tailless  Frogs,  which  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
the  pupil  is  linear.  The  ears  are  extremely  small,  yet  by  the 
answers  which  the  Frogs  make  to  each  other,  even  at  a  great 
distance,  by  croaking,  they  show  that  they  have  powers  of  hear- 
ing  which  meet  their  wants.  To  enter  into  a  more  minute  des 
cription  of  these  harmless,  and  in  gardens,  highly  useful  Reptiles, 
seems  unnecessary.  All  are  familiar  with  their  croak,  their 
mode  of  leaping  and  swimming,  their  bright  eyes  and  their  col- 
oring.  The  Frogs,  like  other  Reptiles,  pass  the  colder  months  of 
the  year  in  a  state  of  torpor,  buried  deep  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom 
of  ponds  or  sluggish  streams,  and  so  mingled  together  as  to  form 
almost  a  continuous  mass.  In  the  spring  they  emerge,  when 
they  begin  their  singing,  which  has  some  meaning  besides  mere 
noise,  each  male  frog  having  a  different  note  from  his  neighbor. 

The  RanidsR  are  more  or  less  accustomed  to  dwell  in  the 
water  or  its  neighborhood,  voraciously  consuming  the  larger  in 
sects,  and  especially  slugs,  which  are  a  favorite  food.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  opinion  of  some,  that  instead  of  being  wantonly 
and  cruelly  destroyed,  they  ought  to  be  protected.  The  Frog 


AMPHIBIA.  529 

seizes  its  food  with  great  rapidity,  using  its  tongue  for  that  pur- 
pose,  which,  being  quite  as  long  as  the  animal's  body,  darts  at 
prey  with  arrow-like  speed,  and  it  is  swallowed  entire,  secured 
by  the  glutinous  adhesive  secretion  which  lubricates  the  extrem 
ity  of  that  organ.  This  raprd  swallowing  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  taste  is  not  very  acute.  The  focal  axis  of  a  Frog's  eye 
is  precisely  as  far  distant  as  the  length  of  each  Frog's  tongue, 
and  at  that  angle  these  animals  catch  their  prey. 

The  eggs  of  Frogs  are  gelatinous  and  numerous ;  some  natu 
ralists  represent  the  number  as  thirteen  hundred,  and  even  as 
many  as  fourteen  hundred.  The  black  points  discernible  in  the 
eggs  are  the  germs  of  the  Tadpole,  or  immature  young.  The 
development  is  rapid,  but  few  days  elapsing,  in  some  places,  be 
fore  the  young  is  hatched,  though  where  the  climate  is  less  mild 
it  is  not  hatched  before  the  expiration  of  a  month  or  more.  The 
tadpole  state  is  quickly  passed,  and  the  metamorphosis  becomes 
complete.  With  the  disappearance  of  the  gills  and  tail,  the 
habits  of  the  animal  are  changed  ;  atmospheric  air  now  becomes 
the  sole  element  of  respiration.  While  yet  tadpoles,  they  were 
the  prey  of  fishes;  now  they  become  the  prey  of  the  weasel,  the 
snake,  and  various  kinds  of  water-fowl,  which  feed  eagerly  upon 
them.  Very  few  out  of  every  thousand  that  are  hatched  survive 
the  summer.  Frogs  are  capable  of  being  tamed,  and  instances 
are  related  of  their  visiting  houses  regularly  at  the  hour  of  meal 
time,  and  partaking  of  offered  food.  A  story  is  related  by  Mr. 
Bell  of  one  which  had  such  strong  partiality  for  warmth,  that 
during  the  winter  seasons,  he  "  regularly  and  contrary  to  the 
cold-blooded  tendency  of  his  nature,  came  out  of  his  hole  in  the 
evening  and  directly  made  for  the  hearth  in  front  of  a  good 
kitchen  fire,  where  he  would  continue  to  bask  and  enjoy  himself 
till  the  family  retired  to  rest  .  .  .  frequently  nestling  under  the 
warm  fur  of  the  cat,  whilst  the  cat  appeared  extremely  jealous 
of  interrupting  the  comforts  and  convenience  of  the  frog." 

Besides  the  change  of  form  in  the  Frogs,  and  the  power  of  the 
naked  skin  to  act  upon  the  air  in  such  a  way  as  to  fulfil,  in  a 
great  degree,  the  office  of  lungs,  and  the  fact  that  aerated  water 
may  be  made  to  subserve  this  process  of  cutaneous  respiration ; 
besides,  also,  their  power  of  long  abstinence  from  food,  their  hy- 
bernation,  and  their  age,  as  great  as  thirty-six  years,  in  the  case 
of  the  tailless  species,  startling  stories  are  told  of  their  issuing 
forth  alive  from  the  heart  of  trees,  or  the  solid  rock,  after  the 
confinement  of  centuries.  The  experiments  of  Dr.  Buckland, 
however,  favor  the  idea  that  frogs  and  toads  cannot  live  more 


530  AMPHIBIA. 

than  one  or  two  years,  completely  excluded  from  air  and  desti. 
tute  of  food. 

Sixteen  genera  of  these  Amphibia  have  been  enumerated, 
three  of  which  are  found  in  North  America.  It  is  worthy  of 
being  noted  that  Frogs  were  introduced  into  Ireland  from  Eng. 
land,  as  late  as  the  year  1696,  by  Dr.  Gwythers,  a  fellow  of  the 
University  of  Dublin,  (and  we  add  here  that  still  more  recently 
were  snakes  imported  into  that  country.) 

The  BULL  FROG,  or  Croaker,  Rana  pipiens,  (Lat.  chirping,) 
is  peculiar  to  North  America,  and  found  throughout  the  Union. 
It  is  very  large,  the  body  being  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long, 
and  a  half  pound  or  more  in  weight.  Sometimes  they  have 
been  known  to  "  measure  two  feet  from  one  extended  extremity 
to  the  other."  This  species  are  noted  for  their  bull-like  bellow, 
ings,  which  may  be  heard  to  a  great  distance.  They  are  vora 
cious  and  predatory,  devouring  insects,  fish,  and  even  snakes. 
Their  hind  legs  are  used  for  food  and  are  "  excellent  eating." 
These  Frogs  are  sometimes  reared  specially  for  the  table. 

The  MARSH  FROG,  R.  paluslris,  (Lat.  marshy,)  is  one  of  our 
most  beautiful  frogs,  and  extremely  active.  Length,  three 
inches. 

The  EDIBLE,  or  GREEN  FROG,  R.  esculenta,  found  in  Conti 
nental  Europe  and  in  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  is  essentially 
aquatic,  inhabiting  either  running  or  stagnant  streams.  The 
croak  of  the  male  in  the  summer  months,  where  the  numbers  are 
large,  is  said  to  be  almost  intolerable.  The  meat  of  these  frogs 
is  described  as  delicate  and  well  flavored.  In  Vienna,  (Austria.) 
they  are  considerably  used,  being  preserved  for  eating,  and  fat 
tened  in  "  froggeries." 

The  WOOD  FROG,  R.  silvatica,  (Lat.  woody.)  is  found  from 
Massachusetts  to  Virginia  ;  it  is  in  length  two  and  a  half  inches. 
It  may  be  at  once  known  in  the  woods  by  its  wonderful  and  rap 
idly  repeated  leaps,  which  render  its  capture  very  difficult.  To 
this  nearly  corresponds  the  Red  or  Common  European  Frog,  R. 
temporaria,  (Lat.  temporary  or  changeable.  ) 

In  the  West  Indies  and  South  America  is  a  species  Cystignatlms 
(Gr.  vesicated  jaw,)  ocellatus,  called  Bull  Frog,  and  distinguished 
by  the  entire  absence  of  a  web  on  the  hind  feet,  which  can  clear  a 
wall  five  feet  in  height.  The  palm  of  the  hand  is  provided  with 
quite  large  tubercles  ;  that  at  the  base  of  the  inner  finger  is  the 
largest  of  all.  The  first  phalanges  are  marked  beneath  by  similar 
tubercles.  Small  tubercles  also  appear  under  the  articulations  of 
the  first  and  second  phalanges,  except  under  the  inner  toe.  In 


AMPHIBIA.  531 

the  Antilles  these  frogs  are  reared  in  a  state  of  domestication, 
and  said  to  become  familiar. 

The  genus  Ceraloplirys,  (Gr.  horned  eye-lid,)  includes  frogs 
of  beautiful  colors,  found  in  South  America,  having  a  granular 
or  tuberculous  skin,  with  the  edge  of  the  upper  eye-lid  prolonged 
to  a  point,  resembling  a  horn.  The  species  C.  granosa,  (Lat. 
full  of  grains,)  is  figured  on  the  Chart. 

The  PAINTED  FROG,  Discoglossus,  (Gr.  orb-like  tongue,)  pic- 
tus,  is  somewhat  remarkable  for  its  rounded  tongue,  and  the 
markings  of  its  skin. 

The  THIMBLE  FROGS,  Dactylethrce,  are  a  peculiar  kind  of 
Frogs  found  in  Africa,  and  deriving  their  name  from  having 
some  of  their  toes  enveloped  at  their  tips  by  a  conical  horny 
claw  or  cap. 

The  TREE  FROGS,  (Hyladcz,)  are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  and 
capable  of  leaping,  like  birds,  among  the  branches.  They  are 
described  as  beautiful,  both  in  form  and  coloring.  The  foot  of 
these  Frogs  differs  in  its  structure  from  that  of  the  other  animals 
that  make  their  home  in  trees  ;  it  is  not  a  grasping  organ,  nor  is 
it  furnished  with  claws  for  clinging,  but  has  suckers  somewhat 
like  those  we  have  described  as  belonging  to  the  Gecko.  The 
enlarged  and  rounded  tip  of  each  finger,  both  of  the  fore  and 
hind  paws,  has  an  apparatus  consisting  of  a  little  cushion  moist 
with  a  thick  glutinous  fluid,  and  applying  itself  so  closely  to  the 
surface  it  touches,  as  to  support  the  animal's  weight.  It  disen 
gages  or  fixes  its  fingers  at  will.  The  cushioned  apparatus  is  like 
an  air-pump  at  the  extremities  of  the  fingers,  giving  the  animal 
the  ability  to  walk  on  the  ceiling,  on  the  polished  surface  of  a 
mirror,  even  to  suspend  itself  by  one  finger,  if  so  disposed. 
Tree  Frogs  are  numerous  in  some  of  the  Southern  and  Western 
States.  The  frogs  of  the  genus  Hyla,  (Gr.  huh,  a  wood,)  differ 
from  the  common  frog,  (Rana,)  in  the  greater  length  of  the  hind 
legs,  and  also  in  the  male  having  a  membranous  sac  under  the 
throat,  which  is  distended  during  their  hoarse  and  oft-repeated 
croaking.  So  alert  are  these  Frogs  that  they  have  been  Jknown 
to  clear  an  interval  of  twelve  feet  in  descending  from  one  branch 
to  another.  Their  leaps  are  also  made  with  much  address  and 
precision,  indicating  great  distinctness  and  power  of  vision. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  these  Frogs  pass  all  their  lives 
on  trees.  On  the  contrary,  like  others  of  the  race,  they  are  at 
first  aquatic  animals,  and  when  adult,  visit  the  water  to  deposit 
their  eggs,  which  is  generally  done  in  April.  They  also  hyber- 
nate  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  lakes  and  marshes.  At  this 
time  their  croakings  are  so  loud  and  discordant,  that  "  they  might 


532  AMPHIBIA. 

be  taken  for  the  cry  of  a  pack  of  hounds  in  full  chase ;"  and 
in  the  stillness  of  night,  "the  din  of  their  united  voices  may  fre 
quently  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  a  league,  especially  on  the 
approach  of  rain."  After  the  young  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Common  Frog,  they  continue  in 
the  tadpole  state  about  two  months,  swimming  in  the  water  and 
feeding  upon  insects  and  worms.  When  the  tail  and  gills  have 
disappeared,  they,  with  unerring  instinct,  take  to  the-  woods. 
The  Tree  Frog  lives  about  thirty-six  years.  It  is  slow  in  attain 
ing  its  full  growth,  which  does  not  take  place  until  the  fourth 
year;  nor  does  it  breed  before  this  period.  Its  fine  green  color 
is  not  perpetual  ;  after  the  breeding  season,  the  animal  becomes 
of  a  reddish  brown,  which  soon  changes  to  gray,  mottled  with 
reddish  ;  the  color  next  assumed  is  blue,  and  this  again  changes 
to  green,  which  is  the  summer  tint.  The  agreeable  colors  and 
sprightliness  of  this  frog,  occasion  it,  not  unfrequently,  to  be  kept 
in  cages. 

The  NORTHERN  TREE  FROG,  H.  versicolor,  (Lat.  changing 
color,)  is  spread  over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States.  This 
Frog  is  particularly  clamorous  in  rainy  weather.  Dr.  DeKay 
says  he  has  been  assured  "that  it  possesses  ventriloquial  powers 
in  no  inconsiderable  degree."  It  appears  to  assimilate  its  color 
to  that  of  the  tree  on  which  it  rests.  This  species  is  very  simi 
lar  to  H.  viridis,  of  Europe,  (see  Chart.) 

THIRD  FAMILY.     Enfold®,  (Lat.  lufo,  a  toad.)     TOADS. 

In  the  Toads,  the  tailless  Batrachian  structure  has  its  highest 
development.  Cuvier  distinguishes  them  as  having  an  inflated 
body,  a  warty  or  tuberculous  skin,  and  a  tumor  of  variable  size 
behind  each  eye,  consisting  of  a  gland  from  the  pores  of  which 
exude  an  unctuous  and  offensive  fluid.  They  have  no  teeth  ;  the 
hind  limbs  do  not  much  exceed  in  length  the  fore  pair.  They 
crawl  rather  than  leap,  and  after  passing  from  the  tadpole  state, 
retire  from  the  neighborhood  of  water  to  dry  situations.  Their 
saliva  has  been  supposed  to  be  poisonous;  but  this  is  a  mistake. 
There  are,  however,  glands  on  the  skin  of  the  back  and  sides, 
that  give  out  a  fluid  which  in  some  species  is  acrid,  capable  of 
producing  irritation  in  a  very  sensitive  skin,  and  probably  intend 
ed  for  the  defence  of  the  Toad  against  the  attacks  of  carnivorous 
-animals. 

Toads  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  evening  and  night  being 
the  principal  season  of  their  activity,  and  their  favorite  slugs  then 
also  creeping  abroad.  They  hibernate  in  holes  in  the  ground, 


AMPHIBIA.  533 

the  interstices  of  walls,  or  other  similar  retreats,  in  the  spring 
emerging  from  their  state  of  rest  and  seeking  the  water  in  order 
to  deposit  their  eggs,  in  the  form  of  strings  of  jelly  three  or  four 
feet  long,  with  a  double  row  of  black  dots,  when  their  loud  croak 
may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  They  are  two  or  three 
weeks  later  than  the  Frogs  in  depositing  their  eggs,  after  which 
process  they  return  to  the  land.  In  August,  the  tadpoles,  having 
completed  their  transformation,  leave  their  native  element  for  the 
land,  dispersing  themselves  in  all  directions. 

Of  the  genus  Bufo,  about  twenty  species  are  enumerated  ; 
several  are  found  in  the  United  States,  but  only  one  is  seen  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  Union.  These  have  simple  toes  and  a 
distinct  tympanum. 

The  COMMON  AMERICAN  TOAD,  B.  Americanus,  (B.  vulgaris, 
Storer,)  is  about  three  inches  in  length.  It  is  furnished  with  a 
sac  for  holding  the  water  which  it  obtains  through  the  skin.  The 
skin,  shed  at  certain  intervals,  is,  according  to  Mr.  Bell,  swal 
lowed  as  soon  as  it  is  detached. 

The  NATTER  JACK,  or  RUNNING  TOAD,  B.  calamita,  is  a  spe 
cies  of  toad  of  a  yellowish  brown  color,  with  a  bright  yellow  line 
running  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  It  never  leaps,  nor  does 
it  crawl  with  the  usual  toad-pace,  but  its  motions  are  more  like 
running.  This  species  is  found  in  Ireland. 

The  BAHIA  TOAD,  Pliryniscus  nigricans,  is  a  species  noticed 
by  Mr.  Darwin,  at  Bahia  Blanca.  He  graphically  says  of  it, 
"If  we  imagine,  first,  that  it  had  been  steeped  in  the  blackest 
ink,  and  then,  when  dry,  allowed  to  crawl  over  a  board  freshly 
painted  with  the  brighest  vermilion,  so  as  to  color  the  soles  of  its 
feet  and  parts  of  its  stomach,  a  good  idea  of  its  appearance  will 
be  gained."  Instead  of  being  nocturnal,  like  other  toads,  it 
crawls  about  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  over  dry  sand-hillocks 
and  arid  plains. 

The  MITRED  TOAD,  B.  margaritifer,  (Lat.  pearl-bearing,)  re 
ceives  its  name  from  the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  head.  It  is 
an  American  species. 

The  SURINAM  TOAD,  (see  Chart.)  Pi-pa  Surinamensis  or  mon- 
strosa,  is  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  four  to  five  in 
breadth.  It  has  a  large  and  triangular  head,  is  without  teeth  or  a 
tongue  ;  its  tympanum  is  concealed  beneath  the  skin  ;  its  eyes  are 
small  and  placed  near  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  skin 
is  of  dirty  brown  color,  thickly  studded  with  reddish  tubercles. 
The  general  uncouthness  of  its  appearance  is  increased  by  a 
phenomenon  almost  unexampled  in  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
female  has  the  back  pitted  with  a  great  number  of  small  cells, 


5H4  AMPHIBIA. 

and  in  these  the  male  carefully  places  the  eggs  which  she  has 
deposited.  When  this  has  been  done,  she  repairs  to  the  water  : 
the  skin  of  the  back  now  swells  ;  the  pits  deepen,  and  in  due 
time  the  Tadpoles  appear;  on  the  back  they  pass  the  Tadpole 
state,  and  do  not  emerge  till  they  have  lost  their  tail  and  their 
limbs  are  developed.  The  female  then  returns  to  the  land. 
f  This  Toad  is  not  unfrequently  found  in  houses.  Tfie  Pipa  is 
not  restricted  to  Surinam,  but  is  found  in  various  parts  of  South 
America. 

TAILED  AMPHIBIA.     URODELA.     (Gr.  o^d,  oura,  a  tail;   drfio?, 
delos,  manifest.) 

This  division  is  one  of  peculiar  interest  to  the  naturalist,  as 
well  from  the  variety  of  forms  which  it  includes,  as  from  the 
successive  changes  which  these  forms  exhibit.  They  are  charac 
terised  by  their  permanent  tail,  their  rudimentary  ribs,  the  pos 
session  of  four  or  two  limbs,  the  absence  of  a  breast  bone,  the 
simple  lungs,  the  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  the  want  of  an  external 
ear.  These  amphibia  are  widely  dispersed  over  the  northern 
temperate  portions  of  both  continents.  North  America  and 
Japan  possess  the  largest  variety  of  forms. 


FOURTH  FAMILY.     Salamandrida,  (Gr.  cralafi&vdga^  salamandra, 
a  salamander.) 

NEWTS. 

Of  these,  some  species  are  terrestrial,  visiting  the  water  only 
in  the  breeding  season  ;  others  make  it  their  permanent  or  nearly 
permanent  abode.  The  Tadpoles,  or  young  of  the  Newts,  un 
dergo  a  transformation,  essentially  resembling  that  of  the  Toads 
and  Frogs,  with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  tail  merely 
changes  its  form,  and  is  never  lost.  In  their  general  appearance, 
they  resemble  Lizards.  The  jaws  have  minute  teeth,  and  a 
double  row  also  extends  down  the  palate. 

LAND  NEWTS.     (Occasionally  found  in  water.) 

The  Land  Newts,  included  in  the  genus  Salamandra,  have  the 
tail,  when  the  animals  are  adult,  round  and  tapering;  on  each 
side  of  the  head  is  a  gland,  similar  to  that  of  Toads  ;  the  tongue 
is  short  and  thick,  enlarged  above,  and  attached  by  a  slender 
root  in  the  center.  The  breathing  in  the  first  aquatic  or  tad 
pole  state,  is  by  external  gills;  afterwards  atmospheric  by  lungs. 

These  reptiles  frequent  humid  places,  and  take  up  their  abode 


AMPHIBIA.  535 

in  the  soft  ground,  among  decayed  trees  in  wooded  districts, 
in  ditches  and  shady  spots,  and  in  caves  and  old  crumbling 
buildings.  They  are  sluggish  and  slow  in  their  movements,  not 
often  quitting  their  retreat,  except  during  rainy  weather,  and  at 
night.  The  courage  in  danger  for  which  they  have  been  re 
nowned,  is  nothing  more  than  stupidity.  Flies,  worms,  slugs,  &c., 
constitute  their  food.  Their  size  varies  from  two  to  seven  inches, 
and  they  also  show  great  varieties  of  color.  For  example,  we  have 
the  Yellow-bellied  Salamander,  with  the  upper  parts  reddish 
brown  ;  the  Violet-colored  ;  the  Red-backed  ;  the  Slate-colored, 
(with  orange  beneath  ;)  the  Salmon-colored  ;  the  Blotched,  (gray, 
with  large  bluish-black  blotches ;)  the  Yellow,  (spotted  with  black,) 
otherwise  the  Long-tailed  Salamander;  the  Granulated,  (greenish 
above,  varied  with  gray  and  brown  beneath ;)  the  Red ;  the  Scar 
let  ;  the  Black;  the  Spectacled  Salamander,  &c.  The  number  of 
species  is  very  large,  even  as  found  in  the  United  States,  and 
this  general  reference  to  them  must  suffice. 

They  are  said  to  pass  the  winter  in  a  kind  of  underground 
burrow,  numbers  assembling  together,  and  intertwining  them 
selves  for  the  sake  of  mutual  warmth.  Like  other  reptiles,  they 
shed  their  cuticle  ;  they  are  ovoviviparous,  forty  or  fifty  being  the 
produce  at  the  same  time,  of  a  single  female.  Though  tenacious 
of  life,  a  little  salt  or  vinegar  thrown  on  the  Salamander,  pro 
duces  convulsions  and  death.  From  some  species,  there  exudes 
a  milky  or  glutinous  secretion,  which  is  occasionally  projected 
several  inches;  it  is  acrid,  and  of  a  powerful  odor,  and  is  de 
scribed  as  fatal  to  small  animals.  In  this  fact,  we  perhaps  have 
the  origin  of  Pliny's  statement,  that  the  Salamander  "infects 
with  its  poison,  the  vegetables  of  a  vast  extent  of  country,  and 
even  spreads  death  around,  like  a  pestilence."  This,  arid  the 
ancient  stories  of  its  being  a  body  of  ice,  and  uninjured  by  the 
strongest  heat,  and  of  its  having  a,  deadly  bite,  are  now  regarded 
as  utterly  groundless.  It  may  be,  however,  that  larger  and 
more  formidable  species  formerly  existed. 

The  TRITON  is  distinguished  by  its  fish-like  tongue,  which  is 
attached  more  or  less  at  its  borders,  and  has  only  the  front  ex 
tremity  free.  Of  this  genus,  there  are  several  species  found  in 
brooks  and  marshy  places, — varying  in  length  from  three  to  six 
inches.  The  TIGER  TRITON,  T.  tigrinus,  is  of  a  bluish-black 
color,  with  numerous  irregular  blotches  over  the  head,  body, 
tail,  and  extremities.  The  length  is  from  six  to  seven  inches, 
including  the  tail,  which  is  longer  than  the  body.  Specimens 
of  this  Newt  have  been  obtained  from  the  vicinity  of  Oneida 
Lake,  (N.  Y.) 


536  AMPHIBIA. 

The  largest  Water  Newt  of  England,  is  the  CRESTED  TRITON, 
T.  cristatus,  about  six  inches  in  length,  and  which  feeds  on 
aquatic  insects,  the  Tadpole  of  the  Frog,  and  even  the  smaller 
species  of  Water  Newts.  The  manner  in  which  the  female  de 
posits  her  eggs,  is  very  singular.  When  present,  she  chooses 
the  leaf  of  the  smart-weed,  (Polygonum  Persicaria.}  as  the  place 
for  the  deposit.  "She  first  applies  her  head  to  the  edges  of  a 
leaf,  and  turns  it  with  her  snout  in  such  a  way  that  the  lower 
surface  of  the  leaf  is  turned  towards  her  breast;  then,  with  her 
fore -paws,  she  passes  the  turned  leaf  beneath  her  body,  seizes 
it  with  her  hind-paws,  and  conducts  it  beneath  the  vent,  folding 
it,  at  the  same  time,  and  forming  with  it  an  angle,  the  opening 
of  which  is  directed  towards  the  tail.  The  egg,  in  escaping 
from  the  vent,  would  thus  pass  through  the  middle  of  the  angle 
formed  by  the  leaf,  but  the  Salamander  (or  Newt)  stops  it  in  its 
fall  by  her  hind  feet,  shuts  up  this  angle  with  them,  and  thus 
forms  in  the  leaf  a  fold  in  which  the  egg  is  held.  Still,  on  the 
removal  of  the  feet,  the  egg  would  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  water; 
but  the  careful  parent,  before  she  quits  the  leaf,  folds  it  so  firmly 
with  her  hind  feet,  that  the  gluten  with  which  the  envelop  of  the 
egg  is  surrounded,  spreads  from  the  pressure  on  the  two  internal 
surfaces  of  the  leaf,  and  prevents  the  folds  from  opening."  (See 
Plate  XIII.  fig.  9,  which  represents  the  Triton  on  the  leaf;  also, 
for  the  figures  in  the  same  plate,  representing  the  animal  as  it 
appears  in  the  transition  from  the  tadpole  to  the  perfect  state,  and 
the  explanations  of  these  figures,  as  attached  to  the  plate.) 

AQUATIC  NEWTS. 

These  are  distinguished  by  having  the  tail  flattened  on  the 
sides,  and  by  the  absence  of  glands  from  the  sides  of  the  head. 
The  body  is  covered  with  watery  excrescences. 

These  reptiles  spend  nearly  all  their  lives  in  water.  They 
are  remarkable  for  the  facility  with  which  they  successfully 
reproduce  their  tail  when  it  is  cut  off. 

The  males,  during  the  breeding  season,  are  distinguished  by 
a  high  membranous  crest  upon  the  back,  and  another  one  along 
the  upper  side  of  the  tail.  The  limbs  are  short  and  feeble,  and 
progression  in  water  is  effected  by  the  paddle-like  action  of  the 
tail.  It  should  be  remarked,  that  as  the  Land  and  Water  Newts 
are,  some  of  them,  at  least,  closely  alike  in  anatomical  structure, 
some  naturalists  reject  this  division,  and  have  introduced  other 
distinctive  terms. 


AMPHIBIA.  537 

FIFTH  FAMILY.     Amphiumidce,  or  Menopomida. 

These  tailed  Batrachians  are  nearly  all  found  in  North  Amer 
ica.  The  gills,  after  a  short  time,  suddenly  disappear,  leaving 
orifices  upon  the  neck,  and  the  respiration  is  performed  by  the 
lungs  alone.  They  are  not  known  to  undergo  any  transforma 
tions.  Among  them  are  included  the  genus  Menopoma,  charac 
terised  by  having  a  robust  and  flattened  body,  with  the  head 
distinct  from  the  neck,  and  the  skin  wrinkled  into  numerous 
folds.  The  tail  is  broad  and  much  compressed,  and  the  soles  of 
the  feet  have  a  marginal  fold  of  skin,  qualifying  the  animal  for 
rapid  movement  in  the  water.  It  rarely  leaves  that  element 
except  at  night.  These  creatures,  sometimes  twenty  or  twenty- 
four  inches  in  length,  are  extremely  voracious,  feeding  on  in 
sects,  fish,  and  in  some  instances,  on  small  mammals.  They  are 
of  a  slate  or  blackish  color.  As  they  bite  at  a  hook,  they  are 
sometimes  caught  by  the  angler,  to  his  disappointment,  and  per 
haps  terror,  though,  as  their  teeth  are  very  small,  they  are  not 
capable  of  doing  him  any  serious  injury. 

The  GROUND  PUPPY,  ALLEGHANY  HELL-BENDER,  M.  Alleglia- 
niensis,  is  a  species  found  in  the  Alleghany  river,  corning  from 
the  Mississippi  waters.  Its  tail  is  nearly  as  long  as  its  body. 

The  AMPHIUMA  has  an  eel-shaped  body,  with  the  head  and 
neck  continuous.  The  limbs  are  exceedingly  minute,  and  di 
vided  in  one  species  into  two,  in  another,  into  three  jointless  toes. 

The  THREE-TOED  AMPHIUMA,  A.  tidactylum,  (three-toed,)  is 
found  in  Alabama  and  Arkansas.  The  largest  member  of  the 
present  family  Megalobatrachus,  (Gr.  great  batrachian,)  is  found 
in  Japan.  Specimens  of  it  have  been  seen  more  than  three  feet 
in  length,  and  weighing  eighteen  pounds  or  upwards. 

SECOND  SUB-ORDER.     PERENNIBRANCHIATA.     (Lat.  perennis, 
enduring ;  branchi<E,  gills.) 

The  name  of  this  sub-order  is  applied  to  Amphibians,  respect 
ing  some  of  which  diversity  of  opinion  has  been  entertained, 
and  still  exists.  Though  they  acquire  lungs,  at  least  rudiment 
ary  ones,  respiration  is  aquatic  by  means  of  gills  which  are 
external  and  persistent, — the  animals  continuing  in  a  perfect 
tadpole  state,  by  an  arrest  of  development.  These  singular 
forms  the  Chart  arranges  in  one  family. 

FAMILY.     Proteida,  (Gr.  iTjowrei;?,  Proteus,  a  proper  name.) 

The  name  which  DeKay  gives  to  these  reptiles,  is  Sirenida, 
(Gr.  siren.)  More  recently  they  have  been  included  in  a  sub- 


538  AMPHIBIA. 

order  of  the  Urodelan  Batrachians,  termed  Trematodera,  a  name 
referring  to  the  perforations  or  apertures  on  the  side  of  the  neck, 
which  remain  through  life. 

The  first  genus  we  shall  notice,  is  Proteus,  of  which  there  is  a 
single  species,  P.  anguinus,  (Lat.  snaky.)  Few  reptiles  have 
excited  more  interest  than  this  curious  species, — an  apparent 
link  between  the  amphibia  and  fishes.  Its  branchiae  are  not, 
indeed,  covered  as  in  fishes,  but  are  exposed,  presenting  the  form 
of  a  beautiful  pink  tuft  on  each  side  of  the  head ;  the  body  is 
eel-like,  as  are  all  its  movements ;  the  tail  is  compressed ;  the 
eyes  are  rudimentary, — with  small  black  dots  under  the  skin,  (as 
has  been  discovered  by  dissection ;)  the  jaws  are  furnished  with 
minute  teeth.  The  limbs  are  very  small  and  feeble,  and,  in 
fact,  almost  useless;  the  toes  are  three  on  the  front,  and  two  on 
each  hind  limb.  The  skin  is  smooth  and  delicate. 

The  Proteus  dwells  in  the  subterraneous  waters  of  the  great 
cavern  of  Adelsburg  or  "Grotto  of  the  Maddalena,"  situated  near 
the  main  road  from  Trieste  to  Vienna,  (Austria.)  "  These  sub- 
terranean  waters  communicate  with,  and  supply  a  small  lake  in 
the  celebrated  cavern;  and  it  is  in  this  lake,  where  no  sunlight 
ever  enters,  inclosed  by  barriers  of  piled  up  rock,  deep  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  that  the  Proteus  is  found,  reposing  in  the 
soft  mud,  precipitated  by  the  fluid,  and  lining  the  rocky  basin." 
At  Sittich,  which  is  about  thirty  miles  from  the  cavern,  it  is  also 
noticed,  though  rarely,  being  "  thrown  up  by  water  from  a  sub- 
terranean  cavity." 

According  to  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  the  Protei  are  seldom 
found  in  dry  seasons,  but  are  often  abundant  after  great  rains. 
The  length  of  a  moderate-sized  one,  is  about  a  foot ;  the  thick 
ness  varies  from  that  "of  a  quill,  to  that  of  the  thumb."  The 
nature  of  its  food  is  not  certainly  known  ;  though  its  numerous 
teeth  would  indicate  it  to  be  carnivorous.  The  skin  is  of  a  pale 
flesh  color,  but  when  exposed  to  the  light,  it  approaches  olive 
brown.  The  light  appears  to  act  upon  it  with  a  power  that  is 
too  stimulating,  and  the  animals,  when  exposed  to  it,  creep  under 
any  object  that  may  shelter  them  from  its  influence.  In  the 
mysterious  nature  of  the  Proteus,  and  its  singular  dwelling-place, 
how  manifest  is  the  hand  of  the  Creator,  assigning  to  everything 
the  bounds  of  its  habitation,  and  so  organizing  every  thing,  that 
it  shall  nccomplish  its  allotted  destiny. 

The  Menobranchus,  (Gr.  enduring  gills,)  or  Phanerobranchus, 
(Gr.  manifest  gills,)  of  Fitzinger,  is  clearly  allied  to  the  Proteus. 
It  has  a  body  moderately  elongated  ;  the  tail  is  deep  and  flat 
tened  at  the  sides ;  the  head  is  flat  and  large.  There  are  two 


AMPHIBIA.  539 

rows  of  small  conical  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  one  row  be- 
neath.  The  branchial  tufts  are  large.  The  toes  are  four  on  each 
foot.  The  species  called  the  BANDED  PROTEUS,  or  Big  Witch 
Lizard,  M.  lateralis,  (Neclurus  lateralis,)  is  of  a  brownish  color, 
with  blackish  spots,  and  often  a  dark  lateral  line.  It  is  stouter 
and  longer  than  the  Proteus,  the  length  varying  from  one  to 
three  feet.  It  is  found  in  the  great  northern  lakes  of  this 
continent.  A  spotted  species,  M.  maculatus,  is  found  in  Lake 
Champlain  and  Lake  George  ;  and  a  third  species,'  M.  punctatus, 
having  more  uniform  markings  than  the  others,  lives  in  Santee 
River,  South  Carolina.  The  Menobranchus  has  been  found  in 
the  Erie  Canal,  (N.  Y.)  The  animal  appears  to  move  slowly 
in  the  water,  but  the  powerful  tail  must  render  it  able  to  move 
with  much  celerity.  Though  its  flesh  is  white,  and  perhaps 
savory,  it  is  looked  upon  by  fishermen  with  disgust  and  aversion. 

The  term  Siren  represents  eel-like  animals,  having  three  gill- 
tufts  on  each  side,  and  utterly  destitute  of  hinder  limbs.  The 
front  limbs  are  feeble;  the  toes  are  four  in  number,  small  and 
clawless.  The  lower  jaw  has  teeth,  the  upper  none  ;  but  there 
are  ranges  of  teeth  on  the  palate.  The  eye  is  very  small,  and 
the  ear  hidden  from  view.  The  gills  in  these  animals  have  less 
external  development  than  in  the  Menobranchus;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  lungs  perform  their  part  more  completely. 

The  LACEI.-TINE  SIREN,  (S.  lacertina,)  is  probably  the  largest 
species,  reaching  the  size  of  three  feet.  It  is  black  above ; 
dusky  beneath ;  and  found  in  the  muddy  marshy  grounds  of 
South  Carolina  and  Florida. 

The  AXOLOTL,  Siredon  pisciformis,  of  Mexico,  is  common  to 
the  lakes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  It  is  found  in  the 
coldest  mountain  waters.  The  length  of  the  Axolotl  is  eight  or 
ten  inches  ;  its  general  color  green,  spotted  with  black.  The  flesh 
resembles  that  of  an  eel,  and  is  considered  quite  agreeable.  The 
gills  and  gill-openings  of  this  animal  are  highly  developed ;  a 
continuous  flap  extends  across  the  throat ;  the  tail  is  compressed 
and  fin-like. 

Respecting  this  creature  naturalists  have  been  much  per. 
plexed.  Many  doubt  whether  the  gills  be  permanent,  and  are 
of  the  opinion  that  the  Axolotl  is  nothing  more  than  the  tadpole 
of  a  large  species  of  Salamander,  or  else  of  some  species,  the 
perfect  form  of  which  is  yet  to  be  discovered. 

Fossil  remains  of  Amphibia  have  been  found  both  in  Europe 
and  America.  Traces  of  batrachian  foot-marks  are  thought  to  be 
discernible  in  the  new  red  sand-stone  of  Massachusetts  and  Con- 


540  AMPHIBIA. 

necticut;  and  in  the  coal  measures  of  Westmoreland  county, 
Pennsylvania,  are  found  foot-prints  which  are  regarded  as  those 
of  airbreathing  vertebrates. 

What  is  the  4th  Order  of  Reptiles?  Describe  their  skin.  How  is  it  ex 
uviated?  With  what  furnished?  What  kind  of  changes  do  the  vessels  of 
the  skin  undergo?  What  is  necessary  in  order  to  their  action?  How  is 
the  skin  moistened  ?  What  is  said  of  its  healthy  action  ?  What  is  the  re 
mark  of  Dr.  Townson  ?  What  is  said  of  the  form  of  the  Amphibians  ? 
What  other  characteristics  are  mentioned  besides  their  naked  skin  ?  What 
changes  of  form  and  habit  do  they  undergo  ?  How  do  some  naturalists 
regard  them?  Into  how  many  orders  are  they  divided?  What  is  the  1st  ? 
Name  its  distinguishing  characteristics.  How  many  families  does  it  include? 
What  is  the  1st  Family?  Where  did  Cuv.  place  it?  What  has  been  proved 
by  Miiller?  Why  was  the  name  Case-ilia  given  to  these  reptiles?  How 
are  they  characterized?  What  is  said  of  their  habits?  What  sp.  is  men 
tioned  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ? 

What  do  the  TAILLESS  AMPHIBIANS  include  ?  What  characters  of  this 
group  are  given  ?  Name  the  2nd  Family.  Give  its  characters.  In  what 
condition  do  they  spend  the  colder  months?  Upon  what  do  they  feed? 
How  do  they  secure  their  food?  What  is  said  of  their  eggs?  What  changes 
do  these  animals  undergo  9  Can  they  be  tamed  ?  How  long  do  they  prob 
ably  live  without  air  or  food?  At  what  time  were  they  introduced  into 
Ireland  ?  What  Frog  peculiar  to  N.  A.  is  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of 
it?  What  other  sp.  are  named?  Give  some  account  of  them.  Describe 
the  Tree  Frogs.  In  what  respects  do  they  differ  from  common  frogs?  Do 
they  never  leave  the  trees?  What  is  said  of  their  young,  &c.  ?  What 
sp.  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  the  next  Family  ?  How  does  Cuv.  distinguish 
them?  Is  their  saliva  poisonous?  What  is  said  of  their  skin?  Of  their 
habits  ?  How  many  sp.  of  them  ?  Which  are  named  ?  State  what  is  said 
of  them?  How  are  the  TAILED  AMPHIBIA  characterized?  What  is  the 
4th  Family  of  Amphibians?  What  division  is  made  of  the  Newts?  Des 
cribe  the'Land  Newts?  What  places  do  they  frequent?  What  is  said  of 
their  size  and  color  ?  Of  the  number  of  species  ?  What  else  is  said  of 
them  ?  How  are  the  Tritons  distinguished  ?  In  what  places  are  the  sp. 
found?  What  is  said  of  their  size?  Describe  the  Tiger  Triton?  Which 
is  the  largest  Water  Newt  of  England  ?  In  what  manner  does  the  female 
deposit  her  eggs  ?  What  are  the  characteristics  and  habits  of  the  AQUATIC 
NEWTS?  What  is  the  5th  Family?  Where  are  they  nearly  all  found? 
Do  they  undergo  any  transformation?  How  is  the  gen.  Menoppma  char 
acterized?  What  further  is  said  of  these  animals?  What  sp.  is  referred 
to?  Describe  the  Amphiuma  ?  What  sp.  are  mentioned  and  what  is  said 
of  them?  What  is  the  2nd  Sub-order?  Repeat  what  is  said  of  it.  In 
what  family  does  the  Chart  include  these  Amphibians?  Has  it  received 
any  other  'name?  What  genus  is  first  noticed?  Can  you  give  its  char 
acter?  What  is  said  of  its  places  of  abode?  What  does  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy  remark  respecting  it?  What  is  its  size,  &c.?  Give  the  characters 
of  the  genus  Menobranchus ?  What  is  said  of  the  Banded  Proteus? 
What  other  sp.  are  mentioned?  Describe  the  animals  included  in  the  gen 
eric  term  Siren.  Which  is  the  largest  sp.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Axolotl? 
What  of  Fossil  Amphibians  ? 


Name  and  trace  the  Amphibians  figured  on  the  Chart. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


PL.XHT. 


May  ZSttv. 


JufytStJi. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE 

THE    FROG    IN    ITS   DIFFERENT    STAGES. 

1.  Just  emerged  from  the  egg,  a  tadpole,  fishlike  creature. 

2.  Gills,  in  branching  tufts,  on  each  side. 

3.  The  blood  is  seen  to  course  through  the  gill  filaments. 

4.  The  gills  begin  to  disappear,  the  eyes  are  formed,  and  the  little  tadpole 
or  pollywog  begins  to  devour  vegetable  matter  with  voracity. 

5.  Ceases  to  respire  water  and  the  hind  legs  begin  to  show  themselves. 

6.  The  fore  legs  appear  and  the  tail  is  being  absorbed. 

7.  It  breathes  by  lungs,  the  tail  has  disappeared,  and  the  legs  are  perfected. 

8.  The  full  grown  Frog,  living  upon  insects,  mice,  birds,  &c. 

GREAT  WATER    NEVfT    IN    DIFFERENT    STATES. 

May  6th.  The  young  Salamander  Tadpole  or  Newt  just  escaped  from  the  egg- 
May  18th.  The  fore  feet  have  lengthened,  and  the  eyes  are  perceived. 
May  28th.  The  hind  feet  begin  to  appear,  and  the  fore  feet  are  well  devel 
oped. 
June  12th.  The  hind  feet  almost  developed,  and  lungs  extend  half  way 

down  the  trunk. 
July  18th.  It  has  arrived  at  the  maturity  of  its  tadpole  state,  and  after  the 

27th  respires  atmospheric  air,  having  attained  its  perfect  state. 
9.  The  Great  Water  Newt  depositing  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  smart- 
weed,  or  amphibious  knot-weed,  (polygonum  persicaria.)  She  is  folding 
the  leaves  over  to  protect  the  eggs. 


FOURTH   BRANCH   OF   ZOOLOGY. 


ICHTHYOLOGY.     (Gr.  **0as,  ichthus,  a  fish  ;  Myog,  Zogos,  a 
discourse.) 


Class,  Pisces.     FISHES.     COLD-BLOODED  VERTEBRATES. 


SECTION  VII. 

WE  come  now  to  that  part  of  Zoology  which  treats  of  Fishes, 
their  structure  and  form,  their  habits  and  uses,  and  their  classi 
fication.  The  Fishes,  as  a  class,  possess  a  greater  number  of 
species  than  any  other  of  the  primary  divisions  of  the  Vertebrates  ; 
and,  indeed,  the  species  not  improbably  exceed  in  number  those  of 
the  Mammals,  Birds,  and  Reptiles  taken  together.  Our  limits 
will  therefore  allow  us  to  do  nothing  more  than  present  a  gen- 
eral  view  of  this  part  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  followed  by  suc 
cinct  notices  of  the  orders  and  families. 

The  most  prominent  characteristics  of  Fishes  are  (1)  that  they 
generally  have  cold  red  blood;  (2)  they  breathe  by  gills  instead 
of  lungs;  (3)  they  have  a  two-chambered  heart;  (4)  they  use 
fins  as  organs  of  progression  ;  (5)  they  have  the  skin  naked  or 
covered  with  scales  of  varied  structure;  (6)  they  are  almost 
incredibly  prolific. 

The  blood,  generally  cold,  assumes  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  element.  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  in  some 
of  the  swift  Oceanic  Fishes  of  the  Mackerel  family,  such  as  the 
Tunny  and  the  Bonito,  the  blood  is  found  to  be  10o  higher  than 
that  of  the  surface  of  the  sea,  even  within  the  tropics.  The 
blood-disks  are  sometimes  circular,  and  sometimes  oval ;  they 
are  larger  than  those  of  the  mammalia  and  birds,  smaller  than 
those  of  reptiles,  especially  the  amphibia.  The  gills  consist  of 
bony  or  cartilaginous  spines,  usually  placed  parallel  with  each 


ICHTHYOLOGY.  545 

other  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  but  sometimes  arranged  in  bunches. 
These  organs  are  analogous  to  lungs  in  terrestrial  animals,  being 
adapted  to  extract  from  the  air  contained  in  the  water,  the  oxy 
gen  which  is  needed  for  the  renewal  of  the  blood.  The  breath 
ing  apparatus  formed  by  the  gills  is  double  in  form,  placed  on 
each  side  of  the  neck.  Most  commonly  it  consists  of  several 
series  of  laminse,  or  membranous  plates,  fixed  upon  slender 
arches  of  bone.  Over  these  thin  membranous  plates  branch  out 
innumerable  blood  vessels,  whose  walls  are  so  thin  as  to  permit 
the  fluid  contained  in  them  to  absorb  the  oxygen  with  which  they 
are  brought  in  contact  when  the  fish  takes  in  water  through  the 
mouth.  In  order  to  carry  off  the  water  when  deprived  of  its  oxy 
gen,  and  to  bring  in  fresh  portions  to  be  successively  respired, 
a  constant  current  is  produced  over  the  surface  of  the  gills,  by 
the  action  of  the  fish  while  taking  in  water  at  the  mouth,  and 
throwing  it  out  on  each  side,  behind  the  gills,  through  orifices  which 
it  has  for  the  purpose,  called  the  gill-openings.  The  apparatus  for 
breathing  is  protected  by  large  bony  plates,  or  opercular  bones, 
making  up  the  chief  portion  of  the  sides  of  the  head.  These  are 
four  in  number,  and  are  termed  the  operculum,  the  sub-oper- 
culum,  the  pre-operculum,  and  the  inter -operculum.  The  first 
of  these  covers  the  gills.  The  branchiostegous  rays,  often 
mentioned  in  descriptions,  are  situated  under  the  opercular 
bones.  In  the  Sharks,  Squalida,  (Lat.  squalus,  a  sea-fish,)  and 
the  Rays,  Raida,  (Lat.  raia,  a  ray,)  the  gills  are  attached  at 
their  outer  margin,  with  a  separate  orifice  to  each,  through  which 
the  water  escapes.  The  orifices,  usually  five  in  number,  are, 
with  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  on  the  under  surface,  and  completely 
hid  when  the  fish  is  laid  on  its  belly. 

The  heart  consists  of  but  one  auricle  and  one  ventricle.  The 
blood  collected  from  the  venous  system,  is  accumulated  in  the 
single  auricle,  thence  it  is  sent  into  the  ventricle,  and  this  drives 
it  into  the  gills  where  it  is  changed  from  venous  to  arterial  blood, 
and  thence  circulated  through  the  body  in  arteries,  aided  by  the 
contraction  of  the  surrounding  muscular  fibres.  Hence  it  will 
be  perceived  the  heart  never  contains  any  but  venous  blood,  the 
arterial  first  proceeding  from  the  gills. 

Most  of  the  bony  fishes  have  a  membranous  bladder,  com 
monly  of  a  lengthened  form,  placed  along  the  body  between  the 
spine  and  the  bowels,  and  having  a  structural  relation  to  the 
lungs  in  the  higher  Vertebrates.  This  is  filled  with  air,  and 
well  known  as  the  air-bladder,  or  swimming-bladder.  When 
ever  possessed,  it  aids  more  or  less  the  process  of  respiration.  It 
also  serves  another  important  purpose,  which  is  to  enable  the  fish 


546  ICHTHYOLOGY. 

to  vary  its  specific  gravity,  and  thus  float  at  any  desired  eleva 
tion  in  the  water.  In  appearance  it  varies ;  sometimes,  as  in  the 
Sea-Porcupines  or  Hedge-Hog  fishes,  (Diodon,  double  toothed,) 
and  their  allies,  it  is  two-lobed  ;  in  the  Electric  Eels  and  the  Carp 
fishes,  Cgprinida^Gr.  kuprinos,  a  carp,)  it  is  divided  by  a  trans 
verse  partition,  which  in  the  latter  allows  of  inter-communication, 
through  a  narrow  orifice.  In  the  (Pimdodus  catus,)  or  Com 
mon  Cat-fish,  Family  Silurida,  (Gr.  silouros,  a  sheat-fish,)  it  is 
divided  into  four  cavities  or  compartments.  In  many  species  there 
are  closed  or  blind  tubular  processes  proceeding  from  various  parts 
of  the  surface ;  in  others  the  bladder  is  sub-divided  into  as  many 
irregular  cells;  all  this  showing  it  to  possess  the  rudimentary  re 
mains  of  the  lungs  of  air-breathing  animals.  In  marine  fishes  the 
bladder  usually  contains  a  gas  having  in  it  a  greater  proportion  of 
oxygen  than  of  atmospheric  air,  while  in  those  of  fresh  water,  ni 
trogen  predominates.  The  species  which  are  without  the  air-blad 
der,  or  have  it  only  in  a  rudimentary  state,  are  generally  Ground 
Fishes,  keeping  close  to  the  bottom.  Sometimes  the  possession 
of  an  air-bladder  exposes  fishes  to  danger;  Gurnards,  Triglidce, 
(Gr.  trigla.)  and  Conger  Eels,  (Anguilla  conger,)  at  times  ap 
pear  to  distend  the  air-bladder  so  much  that  it  loses  its  elas 
ticity  or  power  of  contraction,  or  as  fishermen  say,  these  fishes 
"  blow  themselves,"  becoming  unable  to  sink  or  to  make  their 
escape.  The  Sea-Porcupine,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  7.)  has  the  habit  of 
filling  its  body  with  air,  and  of  fl  >ating  helplessly  in  this  condition 
at  the  surface  ;  but  in  the  case  of  this  fish,  the  air  is  taken,  not 
into  the  bladder,  but  into  the  huge  stomach. 

A  writer  speaks  "  of  a  gentleman  of  his  acquaintance  who 
had  a  Gold-fish  which  swam  about  for  more  than  two  months, 
with  its  bell'y  upwards,  appearing  perfectly  healthy  and  lively," 
and  who  attributed  this  change  in  the  natural  position  of  the  fish 
to  an  enlargement  or  defect  in  the  air-bladder. 

Water  is  the  well  known  sphere  of  life  and  motion  to  fishes. 
The  Flying  fishes,  Exoccetus  volitans,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  3,)  and 
some  of  the  Gurnards  can  indeed  raise  themselves  into  the  air  and 
keep  their  position  there  for  a  few  seconds  ;  some  of  the  Frog-fishes, 
Lophidce,  (Gr.  lopJws,  a  neck  or  crest,)  and  Eels,  Anguiindce,  (Lat. 
anguilla,  an  eel,)  can  crawl  upon  the  exposed  mud  or  sand  in  the  in 
terval  occurring  between  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  ;  and  the  An- 
abassidse,  or  Climbing  Perches  leave  the  water  in  order  to  obtain 
food  ;  but  these  are  only  deviations  from  a  general  rule.  Some  in 
habit  fresh  water  only ;  some  only  the  sea  ;  others  can  exist  in  both, 
either  by  periodical  migration,  or  at  pleasure.  Near  the  city  of 
Bristol,  (Eng.,)  the  Eels  are  known  annually  to  ascend  the  trees 


ICHTHYOLOGY.  547 

whose  branches  hang  into  a  pond,  pass  over  to  the  opposite 
branches  and  drop  into  an  adjoining  stream,  and  thus  migrate  to 
far  distant  waters.  The  trees  at  such  times  appeared  to  be  quite 
alive  with  the  eels.  (Gosse.)  Eels  descend  rivers  to  spawn  in  the 
brackish  waters  of  estuaries.  Salmon  ascend  rocky  rivers  from 
the  sea,  leaping  cascades  and  overcoming  various  obstacles  to  de 
posit  their  eggs  in  fresh  water. 

The  form  of  the  fishes  is  decidedly  the  one  best  adapted  to  facili 
tate  progression  through  such  a  medium  as  water,  being  commonly 
that  of  a  spindle,  swelling  in  the  middle  and  tapering  to  each 
extremity.  To  this,  however,  there  are  exceptions.  The 
Skates,  Raiida,  and  Flat-fishes,  Planidcz,  are  flattened  horizon 
tally;  the  Chaetodons,  or  Hair-Tooths,  Chaelodontidce,  and  the 
famed  Dories,  Zeina,  (Gr.  from  Zeus,  Jupiter.)  a  branch  of  the 
ScombridcB,  (Lat.  scomber,  a  mackerel.)  are  flattened  vertically  ; 
some  are  of  a  globe-like  form,  as  the  Diodon  and  the  Sun-fish, 
Orthagoriscus,  (Gr.  a  sucking-pig :)  some  of  serpent-like  form, 
as  the  Eels  and  Lampreys,  Pefromyzon,  (Gr.  stone-sucker ;)  and 
some,  as  the  Ribbon-fishes,  Cepolidcz,  resemble  in  length  and 
thinness  the  fabric  after  which  they  are  named. 

The  organs  of  motion  in  this  class  are  fins.  These  have 
the  form  of  a  delicate  membrane,  investing  a  series  of  bony 
or  cartilaginous  rays,  and  which  is  more  or  less  transpar 
ent.  These  rays  are  slender  bones,  consisting,  in  some  cases,  of 
a  single  piece,  stiff  and  spinous ;  in  other  instances,  they  are 
made  up  of  several  pieces  jointed  together,  and  hence  flexible  ; 
the  latter  are  frequently  divided  each  into  two  or  more  branches 
at  the  tip.  The  bony  character  of  the  fin  rays  affords  a  basis  for 
two  of  the  orders,  viz. :  ACANTHOPTERYGII,  Spiny-finned  Fishes, 
and  MALACOPTERYGII,  Soft-fin ned  Fishes. 

The  fins  of  Fishes  are  of  five  kinds,  which  have  received 
their  names  from  their  position  upon  the  body,  viz.  :  (1)  the 
dorsal  or  back  fins,  (Plate XII.  fig.  3a,)  usually  single,  but  some 
times  divided  into  two  or  three  fins,  at  varying  distances  from 
each  other ;  (2)  the  caudal  or  tail  fins,  (c;)  which  in  the  true 
fishes  are  vertical,  but  in  the  fish-like  mammalia  are  horizontal  ; 
(3)  the  anal  or  vent  fins,  (d  ;)  (4)  the  pectoral  or  breast  fins,  (f;) 
(5)  the  ventral  or  belly  fins,  (e.) 

The  pectorals  and  ventrals  are  arranged  in  pairs,  and  corres 
pond  to  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  in  other  vertebrate  animals ;  the 
pectorals,  for  instance,  representing  the  wings  in  birds ;  the  ven 
trals  the  feet.  The  dorsal  or  medial  fin  aids  in  keeping  the  body 
in  a  perpendicular  position  in  the  water;  scarcely  any  fishes  are 
without  this  fin,  many  have  two  dorsal  fins,  and  a  few,  as  the 


548  ICHTHYOLOGY. 

Haddock  and  Cod,  have  three  dorsals.  The  anal  fin  corres 
ponds  to  the  dorsal,  but  is  placed  beneath  the  body,  just  behind 
the  vent.  The  principal  instrument  of  motion  is  the  tail  fin. 
In  those  fishes  which  swim  most  swiftly,  the  tail  is  forked,  each 
division  being  pointed,  as  are  also  the  pectorals ;  while  in  those 
of  less  active  or  sluggish  habits,  the  tail  fin,  as  well  as  the  pec 
torals,  is  commonly  short,  even  or  rounded.  The  rapid  and 
powerful  strokes  of  this  fin,  given  obliquely  right  and  left  upon 
the  water,  urge  the  fish  rapidly  on  in  a  straight  course.  The 
pectorals  and  ventrals  do  not  appear  to  be  much  used  for  com 
municating  motion  ;  their  chief  office  is  to  balance  the  body,  or 
for  turning,  and  for  rising  and  sinking  in  the  water. 

Fins  without  distinguishable  rays,  or  in  which  the  rays  are 
covered  with  a  mass  of  fatty  matter,  or  else  entirely  absent,  are 
called  adipose.  A  fin  of  this  description  is  found  on  the  back 
of  the  Brook  Trout,  (Salmo  fontinalis,)  in  the  rear  of  the  main 
dorsal  fin. 

The  bones  are  less  dense  and  compact  in  their  structure  than 
those  of  the  other  Vertebrates,  yet  some  of  the  Spiny-rayed 
Fishes  possess  considerable  hardness.  In  the  third  group,  CHON- 
DROPTERYGII,  or  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES,  (see  Chart,)  which  in 
cludes  the  formidable  Rays  and  Sharks,  the  skeleton  is  com 
posed  of  gristle  or  cartilage  instead  of  bone.  Some  of  the  species 
of  this  order  seem,  however,  to  make  an  approach  to  the  osseous 
divisions.  This  is  especially  true,  (1)  of  the  SPOONBILL,  Polydon 
reticulatus,  an  extraordinary  fish,  two  feet  or  more  long,  found  in 
the  Mississippi,  known  at  once  by  its  snout,  which  is  excessively 
prolonged,  very  flat  and  lanceolate,  and  in  length  nearly  equal  to 
the  whole  body ;  (2)  the  COMMON  or  SHORT-NOSED  STURGEON, 
Acipenser  (Lat.  a  sturgeon,)  brcvirostris,  which  has  the  body 
covered  by  hard  bony  tubercles ;  (3)  the  Chimarida,  or  SEA 
MONSTERS,  so  named  from  the  fantastic  shape  of  their  heads, 
which  have  a  singular  hoe-shaped  appendage,  tipped  with  spines 
and  somewhat-like  a  crest,  upon  their  snout,  (see  Chart.)  The  body 
of  one  species,  Chimara  borealis,  which  looks  almost  as  much  like 
a  reptile  as  a  fish,  terminates  gradually  in  a  long  slender  filament. 

The  cone-shaped  cavities  of  the  vertebra,  or  joints  of  the  spine, 
are  in  the  Fishes  filled  with  a  jelly-like  substance,  continued 
through  the  whole  spine,  by  means  of  a  hole  pierced  through  the 
center  of  each  vertebral  joint.  Though  the  tubular  perforation 
is  usually  small,  yet  in  many  of  the  gristly  or  cartilaginous 
fishes,  it  is  of  so  great  a  diameter  as  to  reduce  the  vertebrse  to 
mere  cartilaginous  rings. 

Connected  with  the  vertebrae  above  and  below  are  spinous 


ICHTHYOLOGY  549 

processes  for  the  attachment  of  muscles.  Within  the  cavity  of 
the  belly  the  inferior  processes  are  absent,  but  are  replaced  by 
lateral  ones,  to  which  the  ribs  are  attached.  These  are  usually 
numerous,  slender  and  flexible  bones,  each  of  which  sends  off  a 
branch  of  almost  equal  length  and  thinness.  Some  species,  as 
the  Herring  and  Pilchard,  Clupida,  (from  clupea.  a  shad  or  her- 
ring,)  send  off  thread-like  branches  from  each  of  the  vertebrse, 
so  that  the  bodies  of  these  fishes  seem  to  be  filled  with  long  and 
slender  bones. 

The  form  of  the  skull  varies  much  in  the  different  orders,  but 
generally  it  consists  of  pieces  corresponding  to  those  which  form 
the  head  in  other  vertebrates.  The  line  of  distinction  between 
the  head  and  body  it  is  difficult  to  draw,  in  consequence  of  the 
entire  absence  of  a  neck. 

Teeth  are  very  numerous,  sometimes  being  found  in  almost 
all  the  bones  of  the  mouth.  They  are  usually  simple  spines, 
curved  backwards,  but  the  form  is  often  much  modified.  The 
teeth  of  the  voracious  SHARKS,  for  example,  are  flat  and  lancet- 
like,  the  cutting  edges  being  notched  like  a  saw.  In  some  spe 
cies  of  these  terrible  fish  they  are  so  numerous  that  upon  open 
ing  the  mouth  "  the  eye  sees  nothing  but  a  forest  of  pointed  teeth, 
any  one  of -which,  if  detached,  would  be  sufficient  to  inflict  a 
most  severe  wound."  In  the  Sharks  of  the  genera  Pristis,  (Gr. 
Saw-fish,)  and  Mustelus,  (Hound-fish,)  the  teeth  differ,  being  flat, 
blunt,  and  tesselated.  It  is  a  remarkable  provision  that  in  some 
species  the  teeth  are  arranged  in  series  of  rows  of  which  the  outer 
one  only  is  in  use,  the  others  remaining  flat  in  the  mouth  until 
called  into  exercise  by  the  injury  or  destruction  of  the  outer  row. 
The  front  teeth  of  the  FLOUNDERS,  (Platessa,)  are  compressed 
plates;  the  WRASSES,  Labridce,  (from  Gr.  labros,  greedy,) 
have  flat  grinding  teeth  ;  the  SHEEP'S-HEADS,  (Sargus,  or  Spams 
ovis.)  have  the  grinding  surface  convex  ;  the  Gilt-heads,  Chry- 
sophrys,  (Sea-Breams,)  have  round,  flat  grinding  teeth,  ar 
ranged  like  the  stones  of  a  pavement,  and  often  with  strong 
pointed  canines  in  front,  able  to  crush  and  grind  to  powder  the 
shells  of  the  crustaceans  and  mollusks  upon  which  they  feed ; 
the  beautiful  Chaetodons  of  warm  climates,  have,  as  the  name 
denotes,  teeth  which  resemble  bristles;  the  Perches  have  teeth 
on  the  upper  and  lower  jaw,  slender,  minute,  numerous  and 
closely  set ;  the  bold  and  fierce  Pikes  have  teeth  scarcely  less 
formidable  in  size,  form  and  sharpness  than  the  canines  of  car 
nivorous  animals. 

The  number  as  well  as  the  form  of  the  teeth  greatly  varies. 
While  the  Pike,  the  Perch,  the  Cat-fish,  and  many  others  have 


550  ICHTHYOLOGY. 

the  mouth  crowded  with  almost  numberless  teeth,  the  Carp  and 
the  Roach,  Cyprinida,  have  only  a  few  strong  ones  in  the  throat 
and  a  single  flat  one  above ;  and  the  Sturgeon,  the  Pipe-fish, 
Syngnathus,  and  the  Sand-launce,  Ammocates,  (Gr.  sand-bedded,) 
are  entirely  toothless. 

The  skin  is  either  naked  or  covered  with  scales  which  appear 
in  various  .states  of  development,  as  true  imbricated  scales,  as 
isolated  scales,  as  spiny  bristles,  hard,  bony,  enamelled  plates. 
Most  of  the  fishes  have  on  their  sides  a  longitudinal  row  of  scales, 
in  each  of  which  is  a  perforation.  These  perforations  were  for- 
merly  thought  to  secrete  mucus  ;  but  Prof.  Agassiz  has  proved 
them  to  be  the  openings  of  tubes,  which  together  with  similar 
tubes  opening  on  the  skull,  penetrate  all  parts  of  the  frame  and 
freely  admit  water,  which  serves  to  counterbalance  the  external 
pressure. 

The  colors  of  Fishes,  including  as  they  do  all  shades  and  lus 
tres,  are  not  surpassed  even  by  those  of  the  Birds.  The  hues 
are,  however,  evanescent,  disappearing  immediately  after  death. 
The  effect  of  fear  in  changing  the  color  of  the  human  hair  is  well 
known.  From  the  statement  of  a  writer  in  the  "New  Sporting 
Magazine,"  it  would  appear  to  have  a  similar  effect  upon  some 
Fishes,  particularly  Trout. 

The  brain  is  small  and  the  face  has  not  much  expression  ;  the 
tongue  is  mostly  cartilaginous,  and  sometimes  covered  with  teeth. 
This,  connected  with  the  fact  that  the  food  is  almost  always  swal 
lowed  whole  as  soon  as  it  is  seized,  seems  to  warrant  the  infer 
ence  that  Fishes  have  not  acute  taste.  The  sense  of  smell  they 
probably  possess  in  considerable  perfection,  the  olfactory  nerves 
being  very  large,  and  distributed  over  a  great  extent  of  surface. 
There  is  no  external  ear,  nor  even  an  auditory  orifice,  yet  there 
is  a  complex  internal  apparatus  of  large  size  for  the  reception 
of  sounds. 

The  eyes  are  distinguished  by  their  almost  immovable  posi 
tion  ;  the  cornea  is  flat,  but  the  crystalline  lens  is  perfectly  spher 
ical ;  the  latter  is  familiar  in  the  form  of  a  white  globule  in  a 
boiled  fish,  the  transparency  being  destroyed  by  heat ;  eye-lids 
are  not  present.  From  the  density  of  the  watery  medium  inhab 
ited  by  Fishes,  a  large  number  of  the  rays  of  light  are  absorbed 
and  lost  in  passing  through  it ;  hence  the  eyes  of  fishes  are  very 
large,  so  as  to  collect  as  many  of  the  remaining  rays  as  possible  ; 
they  are  also  of  brilliant  hues.  These  hues  are  owing  to  a 
membrane  called  the  choroid,  spread  around  the  back  of  the  eye, 
composed,  to  a  large  extent,  of  highly  reflecting  microscopic 
crystals.  The  eyes  of  some  species  gleam  like  quadrupeds. 


ICHTHYOLOGY. 


55  J 


Generally  they  are  placed  opposite  to  each  other  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  head,  so  as  to  look  sidewise,  but  in  species  that  ha 
bitually  live  in  deep  water,  they  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  look  upward.  In  one  genus  of  Sharks,  called,  on  this 
account  Hammer-heads,  the  head  is  enormously  widened,  so  as 
to  present  two  long  lateral  processes,  at  the  extremities  of  which 
the  eyes  are  placed;  the  shape  of  the  head,  much  resembling 
that  of  the  hammer  used  in  caulking  ships,  (see  Hammer-headed 
Shark  on  the  Chart.)  We  must  not  omit  here  to  notice  the  fact 
that  a  species  of  blind  fish,  Amblyopsi.s,  (Gr.  amblus,  dim.  opsis, 
vision,)  spelaus,  (Gr.  spelaion,  a  cave.)  has  been  found  in  the 
Mammoth  Cave  in  Kentucky.  The  Saw-fishes  have  the  snout 
prolonged  into  a  straight  bony  blade,  along  the  edges  of  which 
are  set  pointed  teeth  directed  outward. 

Some  of  the  species  are  endowed  with  a  property  quite  pecu 
liar  to  this  class  of  Vertebrates.  This  is  the  power  of  giving 
electric  shocks,  at  will,  to  other  creatures,  possessed  by  the  Tor 
pedo,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  13  ;)  and  the  Gymnotus,  or  electric 
eel.  The  electric  organs  consist  of  numerous  six  sided  cells 
containing  a  number  of  delicate  membranous  plates,  sepa 
rated  from  each  other  by  a  transparent  jelly-like  fluid.  In 
the  Torpedo,  the  plates  are  placed  vertically,  and  form  two  masses 
one  on  each  side  of  the  head  ;  in  the  Gymnotus,  they  are  hori 
zontal  and  form  four  sub-organs,  one  pair  on  each  side  of  the 
body. 

The  organs  of  voice  are,  in  fish,  entirely  wanting.  The  Cat 
fish,  Pimelodus,  is,  however,  said  to  make  a  peculiar  sound  by 
the  vibration  of  its  cirri,  or  barbels,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  8.)  The 
WEAK  FISH,  Ot.oluhus  regalis,  makes  a  peculiar  and  seemingly 
abdominal  grunting  when  caught,  as  does  also  the  BLACK  DRUM, 
Pogonias  chromis. 

The  food  of  fishes  is,  for  the  most  part,  animal.  Some  browse 
the  sea- weeds  that  wave  around  the  rocks  of  the  coast,  and  oth 
ers  nibble  the  soft  parts  of  fresh  water  vegetation  ;  but  the  great 
majority  are  carnivorous.  The  soft-bodied  animals  of  the  sea, 
such  as  the  Actinia,  the  Medusa,  the  Annelida,  and  the  naked 
Mollusca,  afford  food  to  multitudes  ;  others  are  furnished  with 
strong  teeth  to  grind  down  the  newly  formed  parts  of  coral,  and 
devour  the  living  polyps  ;  and  a  large  number  feed  greedily  on 
Star-fishes,  Crustacea,  and  the  Shelled  Mollusca.  In  fresh  wa 
ter,  worms,  leeches,  and  the  larvae  of  insects  satisfy  the  appe 
tite  of  many.  Besides  these  sources  of  supply,  Fishes  every 
where  feed  upon  Fishes,  the  larger  upon  the  smaller.  Their 
voracity  is  extremely  great,  no  limit  to  their  appetite  appearing 


552  ICHTHYOLOGY. 

but  the  actual  capacity  of  the  stomach.*     Some,  as  the  Trout, 
act  the  part  of  tyrants  over  their  fellows. 

Fishes  are  almost  incredibly  prolific.  One  species,  the  Blenny, 
produces  its  young  alive,  sometimes  two  or  three  hundred  at  a 
time,  and  able  to  provide  for  their  own  support.  A  species  of 
viviparous  fish,  but  two  inches  in  length,  inclusive  of  the  caudal 
fin,  and  containing  twenty-two  perfect  fish,  has  also  been  found 
in  a  canal  connecting  with  Lake  Pontchartrain.  Larger  speci 
mens  have  been  received  by  Agassiz  from  Lake  Erie,  and  also 
from  California.  But,  generally,  the  continuation  of  the  race  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  eggs,  called,  in  the  aggregate,  spawn  ; 
and  before  exclusion,  roe.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  various 
places,  on  sticks,  stones,  grass,  furrows  in  the  sand,  etc.  In  rare 
cases,  as  the  Goby  of  the  Mediterranean,  some  North  Amer 
ican  CyprinidcB  or  Carps,  and  the  HASSARS,  Callichthys,  of  Dem- 
erara,  a  nest  for  the  reception  of  the  spawn  is  built,  consisting 
of  a  single  pile  of  stones,  or  else,  as  in  the  last  named  fishes,  a 
more  complicated  structure  of  grass  and  sticks.  The  Stickle 
back,  (Gasterosteus,}  forms  of  sea-weed  and  common  coralline, 
pear-shaped  nests,  which  hang  from  the  rocks,  variously  inter 
mingled  with  each  other.  The  Shark,  instead  of  depositing 
almost  innumerable  eggs  in  a  season,  like  the  Cod  or  the  Her 
ring,  produces  two  eggs,  of  a  square  or  oblong  form,  (see  fig.  on 
Chart,)  the  coat  of  which  is  composed  of  a  tough,  horny  and 
semi-transparent  case  ;  each  corner  is  prolonged  into  a  tendril, 
of  which  the  two  which  are  next  to  the  tail  of  the  enclosed  fish, 
are  stronger  and  more  prehensile  than  the  other  pair.  The 
use  of  these  tendrils  appears  to  be  their  entanglement  among  the 
stalks  of  sea-weeds,  and  the  consequent  mooring  of  the  egg  in  a 
situation  of  protection  and  comparative  security.  The  part  of  the 
skin  near  the  head,  is  weaker  and  more  easily  broken  than  any 
other  part, — a  provision  for  the  easy  exclusion  of  the  animal, 
which  occurs  before  the  entire  absorption  of  the  yolk  of  the 
egg, — the  remainder  being  attached  to  the  body  of  the  young 
fish,  enclosed  in  a  capsule,  which  for  a  while  it  carries  about. 
The  position  of  the  animal  while  within  the  egg,  is,  with  the 
head,  doubled  back  towards  the  tail, — one  very  unfavorable  for 
the  process  of  breathing  by  internal  gills.  But  as  a  provision 

*  "At  a  lecture  delivered  before  the  Zoological  Society  of  Dublin,  Dr. 
Houston  exhibited,  as  '  a  fair  sample  of  a  fish's  breakfast,'  a  Frog-fish  two 
feet  and  a  half  long,  in  the  stomach  of  which  was  a  Cod-fish,  two  feet  in 
length ;  the  Cod's  stomach  contained  the  bodies  of  two  Whitings  of  ordi 
nary  size  ;  and  the  Whitings,  in  their  turn,  held  the  half  digested  remains  of 
many  smaller  fishes,  too  much  broken  up  to  be  identified." 


ICHTHYOLOGY. 


553 


for  this  emergency,  on  each  side  a  filament,  of  the  substance  of 
the  gills,  projects  from  the  gill-opening,  containing  vessels  in 
which  the  blood  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  water.  These 
processes  are  gradually  absorbed  after  the  fish  is  excluded,  until 
which  the  internal  gills  are  incapable  of  respiration.  This  pre 
sents  an  analogy  with  the  Frogs  and  Newts.  We  advert  to  it 
thus  particularly  as  impressively  manifesting  the  Divine  benevo 
lence  when  the  object  of  so  much  contrivance  and  care,  is  the 
dreaded  and  hated  SHARK  !  The  horny  cases  just  referred  to 
are  frequently  found  on  the  sea-shore,  and  are  called  Sea-Purses, 
Mermaids'-Purses,  &c.  Some  species,  as  the  PENNY  DOG,  Galeus 
vulgaris,  and  the  SMOOTH  HOUND,  (Mustelus  lavis,)  bring  forth 
their  young  alive,  without  any  capsule  or  covering  at  all. 

Some  species,  as  the  Pipe-fishes,  (Syngnathus,)  are  ovo- vivipa 
rous.  What  is  very  singular,  the  male  Pipe-fish  is  provided  with 
a  pouch,  into  which  he  receives  the  spawn  as  it  is  deposited  by  his 
mate,  and  in  which  he  carries  it  about  until  the  young  are 
hatched.  And,  as  if  to  make  the  resemblance  to  the  Marsupials 
complete,  the  young  are  in  the  habit  of  retiring  for  shelter  into 
the  paternal  pouch,  for  sometime  after  they  are  able  to  leave  it 
and  roam  at  their  own  pleasure.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable, 
that  it  is  the  male,  generally,  who  assumes  the  care  of  the  eggs, 
and  the  construction  of  the  nest.  Instances  are  not  wanting,  of 
striking  parental  devotedness  and  foresight. 

The  following  Table  of  Mr.  Harmar,  (Phil.  Trans.,)  shows 
the  different  degrees  of  fecundity  in  different  species  of  fishes. 


NAME  OF  FISH. 

Weight  of 
Fish. 

Weight  of 
spawn. 

Number  of 
Eggs. 

Carp,    . 

ozs.      drs. 
25       5 

grs. 
2.571 

205  109 

Cod      

12  540 

3  686  760 

24      4 

2.200 

1  357  400 

5     10 

480  * 

36,960 

18 

1.223 

546  681 

Perch,  

8       9 

765i 

28,323 

Pike,    

56       4 

5.100J 

49,304 

10       6£ 

361 

81,586 

Smelt    

2       0 

149|- 

32  278 

Sole,     

14       8 

542i 

100,362 

Tench. 

40       0 

383.252 

But  far  more  productive  than  these,  is  the  Salmon,  (Salmo 
Salar,)  for  "  the  ovarium  of  one  female,  has  been  -known  to  pro 
duce  20,000,000  eggs!" 

Prof.  Dana  estimates  the  greatest  number  of  eggs  in  the  Thick- 


554  ICHTHYOLOGY. 

lipped  Grey  Mullet,  (Mugil  Chelo,)  to  be  13,000,000;  in  the 
Cod-fish,  (Gadus  Morrhua^  11,000,000;  in  the  Turbot,  (Pleu- 
ronectes  maximus,)  9,000,000  ;  in  the  Plaice,  (P.  platessa,) 
6,000,000;  in  the  Carp,  (Cyprinus  carpio,)  600,000  to  700,000; 
in  the  Perch,  (Perca  jluviatilis,  )  71,000. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  progeny  of  a  single  Herring,  if 
allowed  to  multiply,  undisturbed  for  thirty  years,  would  not  only 
be  sufficient  to  meet  every  demand  for  this  fish,  but  become  even 
inconveniently  numerous;  and  that,  too,  notwithstanding  hardly 
one  among  the  millions  of  young  Herrings  comes  to  maturity,  in 
consequence  of  the  ravages  made  by  rapacious  fish,  and  by  other 
means.  Although  so  extensively  used,  the  supply  of  this  fish  is 
always  found  equal  to  the  demand.  The  same  might  be  said  of 
the  Cod,  the  Mackerel,  the  Tench,  &c. 

The  longevity  of  fishes  seems  to  be  undoubted,  however  it  be 
true  that  few  reach  their  natural  term  of  years.  Pike  and  Carp 
kept  in  fish  ponds,  have  been  known  to  live  to  a  great  age.  A 
Pike  taken  in  Prussia,  in  1754,  bore  a  ring  which  testified  to  its 
having  been  placed  in  the  pond  two  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
years  before  ;  how  old  it  was  when  put  in  was  unknown.  Carp, 
it  is  clearly  shown,  have  attained  the  age  of  a  century.  BufFon 
speaks  of  one  that  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  old. 

"Cartilaginous  fishes,"  says  Swainson,  "continue  to  grow  all 
their  lives;  and  as  many  of  these,  particularly  the  Rays,  habitu 
ally  live  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the  ocean,  and  thus  seldom  run 
the  risk  of  being  captured  by  man,  we  may  probably  attribute 
their  enormous  and  almost  incredible  size  to  their  great  age." 
It  is  thought  to  be  "a  rare  thing  for  a  fish  to  die  of  natural  de 
cay."  But  owing  to  the  ravages  made  among  them,  the  actual 
average  of  life  is  with  fishes  of  comparatively  short  duration. 
They  are  capable  of  enduring  great  extremes  of  temperature, — 
a  fact  which  may  be  regarded  as  indicating  their  low  place  in 
the  scale  of  organization.  Experiments  have  shown  that  several 
species  of  fresh-water  fish  can  live  many  days  in  water  so  hot 
that  the  hand  could  not  be  held  in  it  a  single  minute.  Eels  have 
been  alive  in  hot  springs,  in  which  the  temperature  is  pretty 
regularly  113o  Fahr.  But  such  cases  are  far  less  wonderful 
than  that  recorded  by  Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  who  "saw  living 
fishes,  apparently  in  health  and  vigor,  thrown  up  from  the  bottom 
of  a  volcano,  with  water  and  hot  vapor  that  raised  the  thermom 
eter  to  210o  Fahr., — a  heat  only  two  degrees  less  than  that  of 
boiling  water !  " 

On  the  other  hand,  the  cold  of  freezing  does  not  always  destroy 
the  life  of  fishes.  Eels  and  Perch  are  conveyed  from  place  to 


ICHTHYOLOGY.  £55 

place  in  a  frozen  state,  which  revive  on  being  thawed.  So  is  it, 
according  to  Dr.  Richardson,  with  the  Grey  Sucking  Carp. 
Gold  fishes  which  have  been  thawed  out  of  a  solid  body  of  ice, 
have  completely  revived. 

Species  which  live  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  have  less 
tenacity  of  life  than  those  which  seek  the  deep  waters.  Mack 
erel,  Salmon,  Trout,  and  Herrings,  of  the  former  kind,  die  almost 
as  soon  as  they  are  taken  out  of  the  water;  while  Carp,  Eels, 
Tenches,  Skates,  and  the  Flat-fishes,  which  live  near  the  bottom, 
and  have  a  low  standard  of  respiration,  and  a  high  degree  of  mus 
cular  irritability,  with  less  necessity  for  oxygen,  sustain  life  for 
sometime  after  they  are  taken  out  of  the  water,  and  their  flesh 
continues  good  for  several  days. 

The  Eels,  Muraenidce,  and  the  Blade-eels,  Ophidiadcz,  show 
extraordinary  tenacity  of  life  ;  even  removal  of  the  skin,  and  the 
division  of  the  body  into  parts,  not  immediately  producing  death. 

The  flesh  of  the  larger  part  of  fishes  is  useful  for  food  ;  though 
that  of  some  species  is  somewhat  indigestible.  Fish  of  fresh- 
water  are  more  generally  edible  than  those  of  the  sea;  but  as  a, 
whole,  are  not  so  savory.  Fishes  are  also  valuable  for  other 
purposes:  some  for  the  oil  which  they  yield;  the  air-bladder  of 
the  Sturgeon  furnishes  the  isinglass  of  commerce ;  the  roes  of 
the  Sturgeon,  Pike  and  some  other  fish,  furnish  caviar;  the  sha 
green  skin  of  some  Placoids  is  employed  for  polishing  and  for 
making  ornamental  coverings.  The  bones  are  used  for  fish 
hooks  and  other  purposes. 

The  first  scientific  CLASSIFICATION  of  Fishes  is  that  of  Artedi, 
which  was  made  in  1738 ;  the  next,  that  of  Linnaeus,  made  be 
tween  twenty  and  thirty  years  later. 

The  Classification  of  Cuvier  is  generally  adopted,  and  the  one 
to  which  the  Chart  most  nearly  conforms.  The  entire  class 
of  Fishes  is  first  divided  into  OSSEOUS  and  CARTILAGINOUS. 

The  OSSEOUS  FISHES  are  sub-divided  into  SPINE-RAYED  and 
SOFT-RAYED. 

They  are  also  arranged  into  three  sections, — I.  Pectinilran- 
chii,  which  have  the  branchice,  or  gills,  in  continuous,  comb-like 
ridges,  and  include  all  the  ordinary  and  typical  fishes.  This 
section  is  comprehended  in  two  orders. 

I.  ACANTHOPTERYGII,  (Gr.    spine-rayed,) — distinguished     by; 
having  the  anterior  part  of  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  ventral  fins, 
furnished  with  simple,  spiny  rays.     The  Perches,  Mullets,  Gur 
nards,  Mackerels,  &c.,  belong  to  this  order. 

II.  MALACOPTERYGII  (Gr.  soft-rayed,)  having  all  the  fin  rays 


ICHTHYOLOGY. 

soft  and  flexible,  with  the  exception,  sometimes,  of  the  first  ray 
of  the  dorsal  and  pectoral  fins.  There  are  also  three  Sub-or 
ders,  founded  either  upon  the  position  of  certain  fins,  or  their 
absence,  as  (1)  the  Abdominales,  in  which  the  ventral  fins  are 
situated  far  behind  the  pectorals,  as  in  the  Carp,  Tench,  Bream, 
Dace,  Roach,  Pike,  Salmon,  etc. ;  (2)  the  Sub-brachials,  or  Sub- 
brachiati,  (terms  derived  from  the  Latin  sub,  under;  brachialis, 
armlet,  or  brachium,  arm.)  in  which  the  ventral  fins  are  immedi 
ately  beneath  the  pectoral  fins  or  armlets,  (or  even  a  little  before 
them,) — as  in  the  Codfish,  Haddock  and  Whiting.  To  this 
group  also  belong  the  Flat-fishes, — such  as  the  Plaice,  Flounder, 
Turbot,  Sole,  etc.;  (3)  the  Apodes,  (Gr.  footless,)  including  the 
Eels,  which  receive  this  name  from  their  possessing  no  ventral  fins. 

The  other  sections  of  the  Osseous  division  are,  (2)  Lopho- 
branchia,  (Gr.  tuft-gills.)  including  Bony  Fishes  which  have  the 
gills  in  tufts,  (not  pectinated,)  and  arranged  in  pairs  along  the 
branchial  arches ;  (3)  Plectognathi,  those  in  which  the  bones  of 
the  head  are  closely  combined,  including  the  Gymnodontida  or 
Naked-toothed  Fishes,  the  Balistida,  or  File-fishes,  and  the  Os- 
tracionidfB,  or  Trunk-fishes. 

The  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES  are  sub-divided  (1)  into  those 
which  have  the  gills  free,  Eleutheropomi,  (Gr.  free-covers  or 
operculce.)  The  gills  in  these,  are  pectinate  or  comb-like,  and  there 
is  only  a  single  gill  opening.  Of  these,  the  Sturgeons  furnish 
an  example;  (2)  those  with  fixed  gills,  (Branchiis  Jixis,)  and 
which  have  more  than  one  gill  opening  on  each  side, — including 
the  Sharks,  (Squattda,)  the  Rays,  (Raiidce,)  and  the  Stone-Suck 
ers,  (  Petromyzonida . ) 

The  division  Plagiostomi  includes  those  Cartilaginous  Fishes 
which  have  on  the  under  side  of  the  face,  and  at  a  greater  or 
less  distance  from  the  extremity,  the  broad  transverse  mouth, — 
such  as  the  Sharks  and  the  Rays.  The  gills  in  all  are  fixed 
with  five  or  six  gill-openings. 

Trie  Cyclostomi,  (Gr.  with  circular  mouths,)  are  those  Cartila 
ginous  Fishes  which  breathe  by  a  "series  of  cells,"  the  gills 
not  being  comb-shaped  fringes,  but  forming  sacs  or  pouches  by 
the  union  of  two  opposite  ones  along  their  edges.  Here  are 
found  the  Stone-Suckers,  so  called  because  the  animal  applies  its 
circular  lip  to  the  surface  of  a  stone  or  other  solid  body  in  the 
water,  and  drawing  in  the  piston-like  tongue,  produces  a  vacuum 
in  the  mouth,  while  the  pressure  of  the  super-incumbent  body 
of  the  water  causes  the  lip  to  adhere  to  the  stone  with  immense 
tenacity,  until,  by  the  protrusion  of  the  tongue,  the  vacuum  is 
voluntarily  destroyed. 


ICHTHYOLOGY.  557 

The  lowest  and  most  anomalous  of  all  the  species  of  Fishes, 
is  the  BRANCHIOSTOMA  or  LANCELET,  (Amphioxus  lanceolatus,) 
usually  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  seas  of  Europe  and  North  Africa.  So  unique  is 
the  structure  of  this  minute  creature,  that,  on  the  Chart,  it  is 
dissevered  from  the  Stone-Suckers.  "  A  vertebrated  animal 
without  a  brain,  a  fish  with  the  respiratory  system  of  a  mollusk, 
and  the  circulatory  system  almost  of  an  Annelide," — presents  a 
combination  of  characters  which  has  challenged  its  right  to  a 
place  among  the  Vertebrates,  and  seems  to  justify  its  separation 
from  the  Lampreys,,  with  which  some  naturalists  have  ranked  it. 

The  Myxines,  or  GLUTINOUS  HAGS,  of  the  most  Northern  and 
Southern  seas,  are  almost  equally  strange  in  form  and  structure, 
having  been  classed  by  Linnaeus  and  other  writers,  among  the 
WORMS. 

Their  place  is  filled  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  Southern  hem 
isphere,  by  the  equally  curious  and  nearly  allied  genus,  Hepta- 
Irema.* 

The  Lepidosiren,  (Gr.  scaly-siren,)  is  the  connecting  link  be 
tween  FISHES  and  Reptiles,  being  so  dubious  in  its  organization, 
that  its  true  position  is  disputed.  Most  naturalists  of  Continental 
Europe  consider  it  to  be  a  reptile,  while  Prof.  Owen  confidently 
maintains  its  claim  to  a  place  among  the  Fishes.  If  assigned  to 
the  Reptiles,  its  position  would  be  as  a  fourth  order  of  the  Batra- 
chians. 

Prince  Bonaparte  divides  the  Fishes  into  four  orders,  viz  : 
Acanthopterygii,  Malacopterygii,  Plectognathi,  and  Cartilaginei. 
His  arrangement  is  by  many  highly  esteemed. 

Agassiz  names  the  orders  of  Fishes  from  their  scales,  (his 
classification  being  applicable  to  the  fossil  as  well  as  the  living 
forms,)  viz  : 

(1)  CTENOIDS,  (from  Gr.  ktenos,  a  comb,)  in  which  the  scales 
consist  of  plates  whose  posterior  or  free  margin  is  pectinated,  or 
comb-like,  as  in  the  Perch,  Bass,  Pumpkin-seed,  &c. 

*  The  name  ffeptatrema  (meaning  seven  apertures  or  perforations)  was 
given  to  this  genus  by  Dumeril.  It  is  found,  however,  that  the  number  of 
apertures  varies.  Mr.  C.  Girard  describes  one  of  these  fishes  of  the  South 
ern  Hemisphere,  as  having  fourteen  breathing  holes.  (See  "  U.  S.  Naval 
Astronomical  Expedition"  published  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  1855.)  He  adopts 
the  generic  name  of  Mailer,  Bdellostoma,  (Gr.  Bdello,  I  suck;  stoma, 
mouth,)  founded  on  the  structure  of  the  mouth,  and  calls  the  speci 
men  which  he  figures,  Bdellostoma  polytrema,  (Gr.  many  perforations.) 


558  ICHTHYOLOGY. 

(2)  CYCLOIDS,  (from  Gr.  kuklos,  a  circle,)  those  whose  scales 
are  entire,  as  in  the  Salmon,  Trout,  Shiners,  &c. 

(3)  GANOIDS,   (from  Gr.  ganos,  splendor,)  having   scales  of 
an  angular  form,  composed  of  horny  or  bony  substances,  covered 
with  a  thick  coat  of  enamel,  so  that  they  become  teeth-like  in 
their  structure,  as  in  the  Gar-pike. 

(4)  PLACOIDS,  (from  Gr.  plax,  a  plate  or  slab.)  thus  named  from 
the  irregularity  which  the  scaly  coverings  exhibit,  so  that  the  skin 
resembles  shagreen  as  in  the  Sharks,  Rays,  &c. 

What  is  the  fourth  branch  of  Zoology  ?  Of  what  does  it  treat  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  number  of  fishes?  What  are  their  most  general  characteristics? 
What  is  said  of  their  blood?  Describe  the  breathing  apparatus  and  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  What  have  they  analogous  to  the  lungs  in 
higher  vertebrates?  What  purposes  does  it  subserve?  State  its  variation 
in  different  fishes.  Of  what  kind  are  the  fishes  which  have  not  the  air- 
bladder?  How  does  its  possession  expose  to  danger?  What  habit  has  the 
Sea-Porcupine?  What  is  related  of  the  Gold-fish?  What  fishes  sometimes 
leave  their  proper  element?  Relate  facts  respecting  the  migration  of  Eels. 
What  is  the  usual  form  of  fishes?  What  exceptions  are  mentioned?  What 
are  the  organs  of  motion  ?  Of  what  do  they  consist  ?  What  orders  are 
based  upon  differences  in  their  structure  ?  Of  how  many  kinds  are  the 
fins  ?  Name  them,  and  describe  their  uses.  What  additional  fin  is  men 
tioned?  How  do  the  bones  compare  in  structure  Avith  those  of  other  verte 
brates?  What  forms  the  skeleton  of  the  Cartilaginous  Fishes?  What  is 
said  of  the  vertebrae  of  fishes?  What  of  the  bones  of  the  Herring  and 
Pilchard?  What  of  the  head?  Describe  the  teeth,  with  their  variations  as 
to  form  and  number?  What  is  said  of  the  skin?  What  of  its  color 
ings?  Of  the  senses  of  taste,  smell,  and  hearing?  Of  their  eyes?  What 
causes  their  brilliant  hues?  Where  are  the  eyes  placed  ?  Are  these  organs 
wanting  in  any  species  of  fish?  What  power  is  peculiar  to  some  of  this 
class?  Describe  the  electrical  organs.  Have  they  a  voice?  Do  any  give 
forth  sound?  Describe  their  food.  Are  any  fish  viviparous?  What  are 
the  eggs  in  the  mass  called?  What  before  exclusion?  Where  are  they 
deposited?  What  fish  construct  nests?  Are  any  ovo-viviparous?  What 
singular  facts  are  mentioned  in  regard  to  the  male  fishes?  What  of  the 
Shark's  eggs?  Which  is  the  most  prolific  fish?  Give  other  instances  from 
the  table.  What  facts  show  the  longevity  of  fishes?  What  their  capacity  to 
endure  heat  and  cold?  Which  species  show  the  greatest  tenacity  of  life? 
What  is  said  of  their  flesh?  Explain  the  classification  of  Fishes  as  given 
on  the  Chart.  Which  is  the  most  anomalous  of  all  the  species?  What 
other  strange  fish  are  mentioned?  Which  connect  the  Fish  and  Reptiles? 
Into  how  many  orders  are  the  Fishes  arranged  by  Prince  Bonaparte  ?  .Give 
their  name,  and  also  the  orders  of  Agassiz  and  Miiller  ? 

Which  of  Agassiz'  orders  of  fish  figured  on  the  Chart  has  a  hetero-circal 
or  uneven  tail  or  caudal  fin?  How  has  this  order  been  otherwise  divided? 
Upon  what  are  these  divisions  based  ?  Name  the  prominent  fish  in  each. 
Trace  each  family  upon  the  Chart,  giving  some  prominent  characteristic  of 
each.  Name  some  of  the  fish  in  each  family,  giving  both  the  common, 


ICHTHYOLOGY.  559 

generic,  and  specific  names  when  they  are  mentioned.     "Which  is  the  most 
numerous  family?     Which  is  the  smallest?     Which  most  useful  for  food? 

NOTE. 

M tiller's  classification  of  fishes  (made  in  1846)  is  the  most  recent,  but  it 
has  since  been  somewhat  modified.  This  gives  eleven  orders,  viz:  1.  DER- 
MOPTERI,  in  which  he  includes  the  Amphioxidas  or  Lancelots,  placed  in  the 
sub-order  Pharyngobranchii  ;  and  the  Myxinoidei,  (Myxines, )  and  Petro- 
myzontidae,  (Stone-Suckers,)  in  the  sub-order  Marsipobranchii ;  II.  MAL- 
ACOPTERI,  with  sub-orders  Apodes,  Abdominales ;  III.  Pharyngognathi, 
with  sub-orders  Malacopterygii,  (including  Scornberesocidaa,  and  Acanthop- 
terygii,  (including  Chromidae,  Cyclo-Labridae,  Cteno-Labridae  ;)  IV.  ANACAN- 
ITHINI,  with  sub-orders  Apodes,  (including  Ophididas,)  and  Thoracici,  (in 
cluding  Gadidae,  Pleuronectidae,  and  Echineida? ;)  V.  ACANTHOPTERI  ;  VI. 
PLECTOGNATHI  ;  VII.  LOPHOBRANCHII  ;  VIII.  GANOIDEI  ;  IX.  PROTOPTERI, 
which  includes  the  one  family  Sirenoidei,  made  up  of  Lepidosiren  paradoxa, 
of  Brazil,  and  Lepidosirtn  or  Protopterus  annectens,  of  the  Gambia  River, 
Africa;  X.  HOLOCEPHALI,  (including  Chimasroidei  and  Edaphontidre;)  XI. 
Plagiostomi. 

Agassiz,  in  the  "Essay  on  Classification,"  contained  in  his  recently  pub 
lished  work,  thus  remarks, — '-'I  am  satisfied  that  the  differences  which  exist 
between  the  Selachians,  (the  Skates,  Sharks  and  Chimaeraa,)  are  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  which  distinguish  the  Amphibians  from  the  Reptiles  proper, 
and  justify  their  separation,  as  a  class,  from  the  Fishes  proper.  I  consider 
also  the  Cyclostomes  as  a  distinct  class,  for  similar  reasons ;  but  I  am  still 
doubtful  whether  the  Ganoids  should  be  separated  also  from  the  ordinary 
Fishes.  This,  however,  cannot  be  decided  until  their  embryological  devel 
opment  has  been  thoroughly  investigated,  though  I  have  already  collected 
data  which  favor  this  view  of  the  case.  Should  this  expectation  be  realized, 
the  branch  of  Vertebrata  would  contain  the  following  classes : — 

1st  class:  Myzontes;  with  two  orders,  Myxinoids  and  Cyclostomes. 

2d  class:  Fishes  proper;  with  two  orders,  Ctenoids  and  Cycloids. 

3d  class :  Ganoids ;  with  three  orders,  Coelacanths,  Acipenseroids  and 
Sauroids;  and  doubtful,  the  Siluroids,  Plectognaths  and  Lophobranches. 

4th  class:  Selachians;  with  three  orders,  Chimaaraa,  Galeodes  andBatides. 

5th  class:  Amphibians;  with  three  orders,  Caecilise,  Ichthyodi and  Anura. 

6th  class :  Reptiles ;  with  four  orders,  Serpentes,  Saurii,  Rhizodontes  and 
Testudinata. 

7th  class:  Birds;  with  four  orders,  Natatores,  Grallae,  Rasores,  Insessores, 
(including  Scansores  and  Accipitres.) 

8th  class:  Mammalia;  with  three  orders  Marsupialia,  Herbivora  and 
Carnivora." 


530  ACANTHOPTERYGIL, 

SECTION  VIII. 

OSSEOUS  FISHES 

FIRST  ORDER.    ACANTHOPTERYGII,  (Gr.  'cixavOa,  dkantha^  a  spine  ; 

pteron,  wing.) 


The  CTENOIDS,  or  ACANTHOPTERYGIIANS,  including  three- 
fourths  of  all  known  fishes,  are  almost  all  marine.  They  are 
ornamented  with  hard,  shining,  tooth-like  scales  of  beautiful 
colors.  The  spiny  fins  of  most  of  them  are  constructed  for  long 
continued  motion. 

FAMILIES. 

(1)   Percida,  (Gr.  perke,  a  kind  of  fish.) 

THE  PERCHES.  These  comprise  one-seventh  of  all  spine- 
rayed  Fishes.  Most  of  them,  including  the  Gropers  or  Mailed 
Perches,  are  marine,  but  the  typical  species,  the  Common  Perch, 
of  Europe,  (Perca  fluviatilis,)  with  two  separated  dorsal  fins, 
the  rays  of  the  first  spinous,  of  the  second  flexible,  is  found  only 
in  fresh  water.  To  this  nearly  corresponds  the  YELLOW  Perch, 
P.  flavescens,  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  numerous  North 
American  species,  and  found  both  in  salt  water  and  fresh.  In 
1825,  Yellow  Perch  were  transported  from  Skaneateles  to  Otisco 
Lake  and  Onondaga  Lake,  and  appeared  to  thrive  after  the  trans 
fer.  They  are  common  in  ponds  and  streams,  and  in  all  the 
great  lakes.  The  eggs  of  the  Perch  are  of  the  size  of  a  poppy 
seed,  and  joined  together  by  a  viscid  substance,  in  long  strings. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  fishes  of  this  group  are  those  in 
cluded  in  the  genus  Polynemus,  (Gr.  polus,  many;  nema,  a 
thread  or  filament,)  distinguished  by  having  the  ventral  fins  in 
serted  farther  back  than  the  pectorals,  and  also  for  having  nu 
merous  long  flexible  filaments  placed  near  the  latter  fins,  from 
four  to  ten  on  each  side,  and  sometimes  twice  the  length  of  the 
body.  Interest  attaches  to  these  fishes  from  the  fact  that  the 
bladders  of  several  species  yield  pure  isinglass.  The  SULEAH 
Fish  of  India,  P.  sele,  is  the  one  from  which  it  is  said  to  have  been 
first  procured.  Shoals  of  this  species  are  found  in  the  estu 
aries  of  the  river  Ganges  ^  they  are  three  to  four  feet  in  length. 
and  eight  to  ten  inches  in  depth.  The  species  P.  Americanus 
has  several  rays  attached  to  the  pectoral  fin.  It  is  about  a  foot 
in  length,  and  of  a  silvery  color.  All  the  fishes  of  this  family 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  501 

agree  in  the  toothed  or  comb-like  edges  of  the  scales,  and  in 
having  serrated  or  spined  gill-covers,  and  fins  destitute  of  scales. 

The  ROCK-FISH,  or  STRIPED-BASS,  Labrax  hneatus,  is  a  fish 
that  has  the  tongue  covered  with  teeth  or  prickles;  the  oper- 
cula  are  somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  Perches  proper, 
but  in  other  respects  it  closely  resembles  them.  It  is  much  es 
teemed,  especially  when  taken  in  autumn.  These  fishes  are 
brought  into  market,  (dead,)  during  the  winter,  and  sold  in  great 
numbers.  Like  the  shad,  with  which  they  are  taken,  they  run 
from  the  salt  waters  into  the  fresh  for  the  purpose  of  spawning. 
(For  other  genera  and  species  of  this  numerous  family,  see 
Chart.) 

(2)    Triglida,  (Gr.  trigla,  a  surmullet.) 

The  GURNARDS,  or  MAILED  CHEEKS.  These  have  enormous 
pectoral  fins,  yet  live  near  the  shore.  The  name  Gurnard  is 
supposed  to  he  derived  from  the  French  word  grander,  to  grumble 
or  emit  sounds.  Cuvier  called  them  "  Fishes  with  hard  cheeks," 
referring  to  the  encasement  of  the  head  and  face  in  a  solid  buck 
ler  of  bone,  which  is  their  most  obvious  character.  Like  other 
bottom  fish,  they  live  for  some  time  out  of  the  water. 

The  PIPER,  Trigla  lyra,  is  rather  an  uncommon  European 
species.  The  RED  GURNARD,  T.  cucuhis,  a  well  flavored  fish, 
occurs  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  Other  American  spe 
cies  are  found  in  the  genus  Prionotus,  which  closely  resembles 
Trigla.  Among  the  Gurnards  is  included  the  Flying-fish,  Dac- 
tylopterus  (Gr.  finger-wings)  voHtans,  (Lat.  flying,)  having  very 
large  pectoral  fins  divided  into  two  portions  and  serving  as  wings; 
but  it  is  not  so  good  a  flyer  as  the  Flying-fish,  Exoccetus,  belong 
ing  to  the  Pike  family.  To  this  family  also  belongs  the  genus 
G 'aster ost.eus,  (Gr.  bony-belly,)  including  quite  small,  but  very 
active  and  voracious  fish,  found  in  both  fresh  and  salt  water,  and 
popularly  called  STICKLEBACKS.  They  are  only  from  one  to  two 
and  a  half  inches  long,  butso  elastic  is  the  Three-spined  Stickle 
back,  (represented  half  the  usual  size,  Plate  XIV.  fig.  2,)  that-, 
it  leaps  nine  times  its  length,  in  perpendicular  height,  from  the 
water.  Its  extraordinary  voracity  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it 
has  been  known  to  devour  in  five  hours,  seventy-four  young  dace, 
and  on  the  following  day,  sixty-two  ;  (some  dace,  it  should  be 
mentioned,  are  exceedingly  small.)  Several  species  of  Stickle 
backs  are  found  in  the  waters  of  the  United  States.  In  some' 
parts  of  England,  these  fish  are  so  numerous  as  to  be  used  for 
manure.  They  are  so  pugnacious  as  to  destroy  each  other  ;  and 
yet  some  of  them  manifest  great  care  in  building  and  watching 
their  nests. 


562  ACANTHOPTERYGII. 

(3)  Scanidce,  (Gr.  sJciaina,  a  sea-fish.) 

The  Maigres.  These  resemble  Perches,  but  live  in  the  sea, 
and  attain  to  a  great  size.  They  make  a  sort  of  purring  sound. 
The  air-bladder  is  long,  tapering,  and  fringed  along  each  side, 
giving  it  a  singular  appearance  ;  the  head  is  generally  enlarged 
with  cavernous  swellings.  Among  the  American  fishes  of  this 
family  are  the  WEAK-FISH,  Otolithus  regalis,  abundant  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  an  excellent  salt-water  fish.  It  is  called 
Salt-water  Trout  on  the  southern  shores.  The  RED-BASS,  or  Sea- 
bass,  Corvina  ocellaia,  is  taken  off  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Long 
Island  Sound,  and  for  food,  is  highly  prized.  The  LAFAYETTE, 
or  CHUB,  Leiostomus  obliquus,  abounds  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mid 
dle  States,  and  is  in  some  estimation  for  food.  A  species,  L. 
xanthurus,  (Gr.  yellow-tail,)  known  as  the  YELLOW  JACK,  or 
YELLOW  TAIL,  is  found  off  the  coast  of  South  Carolina.  The 
KING-FISH,  Umbrina  nebulosa,  distinguished  from  others  of  the 
family  by  a  cirrus  or  tuft  on  the  under  jaw,  is  thought  by  many 
to  be  the  best  fish  which  appears  in  the  New  York  market. 
The  Drum,  Pogonias  chromis,  (Gr.  pogonias,  bearded  ;  chromis, 
a  fish,)  is  a  large  and  fine  flavored  fish. 

(4)  Sparida,  (from  Lat.  sparus,  gilt-head.) 

The  SEA  BREAMS.  These  fishes  have  flat  grinding  teeth, 
sometimes  strong  pointed  canines  in  front.  The  common  Gilt- 
head,  chrysophris,  (Gr.  chrusophrus,)  aurata,  can  crush  such 
thick  stony  shells  as  the  Periwinkles,  Whelks  and  Turbos,  (or 
Tops  ;)  a  more  voracious  fish  is  scarcely  known.  The  famed 
SHEEPSHEAD,  Sargus  ovis,  abundant  on  the  coast,  and  much  es 
teemed  for  food,  is  of  this  family. 

(5)  MaenidcB,  (Gr.  ?naine,  a  small  sea-fish.) 

The  MENDOLES.  This  is  comparatively  a  small  family,  (not 
mentioned  on  the  Chart.)  The  common  Mendole,  Maena  vulga- 
ris,  is  considered  so  utterly  worthless  that  the  name  is  used  at 
Venice  as  a  term  of  derision.  A  West  India  species  decom 
poses  with  remarkable  rapidity,  the  flesh  becoming  soft  almost 
immediately  after  it  is  dead.  The  species  of  the  genus  Smarts, 
(Gr.  a  sea-fish,)  are  sought  for  in  the  Mediterranean.  One  spe 
cies  is  called  the  KING-FISHER  of  the  Sea,  S.  alcedo,  in  allusion 
to  its  beautiful  tints. 

(6)  Chaetodojitidtz,  (Gr.  chaite,  hair  or  bristle  ;  odous,  tooth.) 
The  Chaetodons.     These  are  thus  named  because  their  teeth 

are  so  long,  fine  and  slender  as  to  resemble  the  bristles  of  a 
brush.  Cuvier  called  them  Squamipennes,  to  express  the  man 
ner  in  which  their  fleshy  fins  are  covered  with  scales,  like  the 
rest  of  the  body,  which  is  flat  or  round,  and  thin,  with  long  bat- 


ACANTHOPTERYGII.  563 

like  fins,  The  scales  reflect  the  most  brilliant  hues.  The  spe 
cies  are  numerous  and  tropical.  The  ARCHERS,  Toxotes,  (Plate 
XIV.  fig.  4,)  eject  water  out  of  the  tubular  mouth  with  such  pre 
cision  as  to  bring  down  any  insect  within  their  reach.  In  Java, 
they  are  kept  in  glass  vessels  for  amusement,  an  insect  being 
suspended  by  a  thread  above  for  the  fish  to  shoot  at. 

(7)  Anabassida,  (from  Gr.  anabaino,  to  ascend.)     CLIMBING 
PERCHES. 

This  family  includes  but  one  genus,  Anabas,  fishes  whose  res 
piratory  organs  are  so  constructed  as  to  enable  them  to  sustain 
life  for  a  space  of  time  out  of  water,  by  having  small  apertures 
or  some  receptacle  where  they  can  preserve  sufficient  water  to 
moisten  their  gills.  There  is  but  one  species,  A.  scandens,  (Lat. 
climbing.)  When  a  pond  is  dried  up  in  which  these  Perches 
are  found,  it  is  said  they  are  guided  by  a  remarkable  instinct  in 
traveling  towards  the  nearest  water.  Swainson  says  the  Climb 
ing  Perch  "quits  the  water  and  ascends  the  roots  of  the  man 
grove  trees,  (in  East  India,)  an  effort  it  accomplishes  by  using 
its  ventral  fins  as  little  feet."  (These  fish  are  by  some  natu 
ralists  included  in  the  family  Labyrinlhibranchia,  a  name  refer 
ring  to  the  vascular  membrane,  folded  together  in  a  number  of 
laminae,  and  occupying  the  upper  part  of  the  front  branchial 
arches,  and  which  serves  to  retain  water  for  moistening  the  gills 
during  the  travels  of  these  fishes  on  the  land.) 

(8)  Scombridce,   (Lat.  scomber,  a  mackerel.)     This  includes 
the  Mackerels,  an  important   as  well  as  numerous  family  of  al 
most  entirely  marine  fish,  found  in  all  seas.     Many  are  pelagic, 
(roving  far  from  land.)     They  are  taken  in  such  quantities  as  to 
prove  them  to  be  inexhaustible.     They  live  near  the  surface  and 
are  among  the  fishes   which  quickly  decompose.     The  TUNNY, 
Thynnus,  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  from  three  to  four  and  even 
fifteen  feet  in  length.     Fried  in  cutlets,  this  fish  resembles  veal, 
the  flavor  being  quite  as  much  like  that  of  flesh  as  offish.     The 
BONITA,  (Scomber  pelamys,)  found  on  our  coast,  is  a  species  of 
Tunny,  which  in  the  tropics  pursues  the  Flying-fish. 

The  SWORD-FISH,  Xiphias  gladius,  the  largest  of  the  order,  be 
ing  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long,  has  the  beak  lengthened 
into  a  long,  powerful  weapon,  which  it  sometimes  drives  with 
such  violence  as  to  penetrate  to  a  great  depth  into  the  timbers  of 
ships.  The  PILOT  FISH,  Naucrates  ductor,  follows  vessels,  and 
thus  acts  as  a  guide  to  the  Sharks.  Among  the  other  American 
fishes  of  this  family  found  on  our  coast,  are  the  following  ;  the 
SPANISH  MACKEREL,  Cymbium,  (Gr.  kumbion,  a  small  bowl ;) 
the  CRAB-EATER,  Elacate,  (Gr.  a  distaff;)  the  CAROLINA  LTCHIA, 


534  ACANTHOPTERYGII. 

Lichia  Carolina;  the  TRACHINOTE,  Trachinolus ;  the  YELLOW 
and  SPOTTED  MACKERELS,  Caranx  crysos,  (Gr.  yellow  or  golden,) 
and  C.  punctatus,  (Lat.  spotted :)  the  HAIK-FINNED  BLEPHARIS, 
(Blepharis  crinitus,)  which  is  the  Zeus  crinitus  of  Akerly,  kin 
dred  to  the  well  known  Dory  or  John  Dory,  Z.  faber,  an  Euro 
pean  species  much  esteemed  by  epicures,  and  of  which  strange 
things  have  been  often  recited  ;  the  SHINER,  Vomer,  (Lat.^a 
plough-share;)  the  SERIOLE,  Serio/a,  (Lat.  a  small  jar;)  the 
BLUE  FISH,  or  GREEN  FISH,  Temnodon,  (Gr.  temno,  to  cut ; 
odous,  tooth  ;  so  named  from  the  very  sharp  teeth,)  sometimes 
called  HORSE  MACKEREL;  the  principal  species,  T.  saltator,  be 
ing  the  TAILOR,  or  SKIP-JACK  of  the  more  southern  waters, 
"  twenty  of  which,"  it  was  formerly  said,  "  would  fill  a  barrel ;  " 
the  BOTTLE-HEADED  DOLPHIN,  Coryphana,  (Gr.  korus,  a  helmet  ; 
phaino,  I  display,)  globiceps,  (globe- headed.)  The  fishes  of  this 
genus,  including  the  fishes  generally  known  as  dolphins,  and 
celebrated  for  their  beauty,  are,  however,  rarely  found  off  the 
coasts,  being  mostly  inhabitants  of  mid-ocean.  The  species  C. 
hippuris,  is  famed  for  its  beautiful  play  of  colors  when  dying. 
The  Dolphins  are  conspicuous  enemies  of  the  Flying-fish.  Other 
fishes  of  this  family  are,  the  Lampugus,  a  rare  and  exceedingly 
beautiful  fish,  and  the  Harvest-fish,  Rhombus. 

(9)   Cepolidcz,  or  Tceniadcz,  (Lat.  t&nia,  a  ribbon.) 
This  is  a  small  family  of  fishes  allied  to  the  Mackerels.  They 
are  chiefly  distinguished  by  an  elongated,  flattened  shape ;  their 
general  appearance  being  that  of  a  bright  silver  ribbon.     They 
have  the  popular  names  of  Ribbon-fish,  Lath  or  Deal  fish.     The 
body  is  not  thicker,  except  in  the  middle,  than  a  sword.     Most 
of  the  species  inhabit   the  Mediterranean.     The  eleven-rayed 
Band-fish,  Cepola  rubescens,  (Lat.  turning  red,)  is  seen   on  the 
coasts  of  England  ;   it  displays  brilliant  colors ;     sometimes  is 
called  Fire-flame  and  Red-ribbon.  As  showing  the  appropriate 
ness  of  the  name   Ribbon-fish,  it  is  related,  that  a  specimen  of 
this  species,  "  though  nineteen  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  hav 
ing  been  carefully  folded  up  like  a  ribbon,  passed  to  Belfast,  (Ire 
land,)  in  a  franked  letter  of  the  ordinary  size  and   legal  weight, 
viz.,    less  than   an  ounce."     (Magazine  of  Nat.   Hist.)      The 
Silvery   Hair-Tail,     Trichiurus,    (Gr.   hair-tail,)   lepturus,   (Gr. 
thin-tail,)  having  a  tapering  tail,  ending  in  a  filament,  is  found 
off  the  coast  of  the  U.  S. 

(10)   Teuthida,  (Gr.  Teuthis,  a  kind  of  fish.) 
This  is  another,  not  numerous  family,  sometimes  called  Lan 
cet-fish,  resembling  the  Mackerels  in  appearance  and  some  other 
respects,  but  peculiar  for  the  cutting  spines  in  each  side  of  the 


1CANTHOPTERYGIL  5(35 

tail,  and  a  horizontal  spine  before  the  dorsal  fin.  They  have  but 
one  row  of  teeth,  and  are  among  the  small  number  of  the  class 
that  feed  entirely  on  vegetable  substances.  The  DOCTOR-FISH, 
Acanthurus,  (Gr.  spine-tail,)  cceruleus,  (Lat.  dark  blue,)  has 
caudal  lancets  which  are  short,  hard,  and  glassy,  and  are  en 
closed  in  a  yellow  membranous  sheath.  It  is  common  on  the 
coasts  of  the  West  India  islands,  South  Carolina  and  Florida. 
The  SURGEON-FISH,  A.  phlebolomus,  (Gr.  vein-cutting,)  is  another 
species  found  off  the  coasts  of  the  United  States.  The  caudal 
lancets  of  these  fishes  are  analogous  to  the  horns  of  ruminating 
animals,  and  to  be  regarded  rather  as  defensive  than  offensive 
weapons. 

(11)  Atherinida,  (Gr.  atherina,  from  ather,  a  thorn.) 

This  is  a  family  sometimes  included  in  the  Mttgitidte,  called 
Silver-sides,  from  the  silvery  band  on  the  side  ;  the  two  dorsal 
fins  are  far  apart ;  the  anterior  one  spinous.  The  genus  Atherina  is 
represented  by  several  species  of  small  fishes.  Silver-sides  used  to 
be  caught  in  New  York  Harbor,  and  sold  for  bait,  under  the 
name  of  Anchovies  and  Sea-smelts.  These  small  fishes  were  for 
merly  supposed  to  be  all  included  in  the  genus  Atherina,  but 
Mr.  Charles  Girard,  (see  "  United  States  Astronomical  Expedi 
tion,")  has,  within  a  few  years,  proposed  three  additional  genera, 
of  which  several  species  are  found  in  S.  A. 

(12)  Mugilida,  (Lat.  mugil,  a  mullet.) 

The  Mullets  are  lengthened,  and  often  cylindrical  in  form,  with 
a  somewhat  projecting  snout,  and  an  extremely  small  mouth, 
placed  beneath.  They  inhabit  both  salt  and  fresh  water;  indeed, 
a  change  from  salt  to  fresh  water  seems  necessary  to  them.  A 
number  of  species  of  the  genus  Mugil  are  found  in  the  United 
States.  The  Common  Mullet,  M.  atbula,  is  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  taken- in  large  numbers  on  our  Southern 
coast.  These  fishes  have  not  been  considered  carnivorous;  but 
the  shells  obtained  from  the  stomach  of  one  of  them  by  Mr. 
Thompson,  of  Belfast,  (Ireland,)  filled  a  large  sized  cup.  They 
swim  in  large  shoals  near  the  surface  ;  Gosse  says  that  the  Grey 
Mullets,  M.  capita,  assemble  to  feed  every  evening  at  a  certain 
knocking,  and  are  the  only  fish  with  which  he  is  acquainted, 
that  select  for  food  nothing  that  has  life,  except  that  they  some 
times  swallow  the  Sand-Worm. 

(13)  The  Gobida,  GOBIES,  and  Blennida,  BLENNIES,  are,  on 
the  Chart,   included    in    one  family,  both    having    flexible  and 
slender-dorsal  spinous  rays.     They  have  no  swimming  bladder. 
Some  of  the  Gobies  proper,  have  no  visible  scales.     This  numer 
ous  family  of  small  unimportant  fishes,  have  not  even  beauty  to 


586  ACANTHOPTERYGII. 

recommend  them.  They  are  soft  to  the  touch,  being  invested 
with  a  mucous  slime;  hence  the  generic  name,  Blenna.  (Gr. 
mucus.) 

The  WoLF-Fisii,  or  Sea-Cat,  Anarrldcas  lupus,  is  much  larger 
than  others  of  this  family,  being  a  formidable,  voracious  fish, 
from  three  to  eight  feet  in  length,  with  a  broad  cat-like  face,  and 
a  grinning  mouth,  bristling  with  stout,  sharp  teeth,  so  strong  as 
to  crush  the  hardest  shells,  and  even  stone. 

The  genus  Zoarces,  (with  three  American  species,)  has  the 
dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  fins  united. 

The  Butter-fish,  Gunnellus  mucronatus,  (pointed,)  has  a  long 
compressed  body,  and  the  ventral  fins  rudimentary. 

The  GERMAN  DRAGONET,  CaUionymus  lyra,  is  an  exception  to 
others  of  the  family,  in  having  beautiful  colors.  It  has  no  visi 
ble  scales. 

In  Italy,  Blennies  are  fried  in  numbers,  like  Sprats  in  Eng 
land,  and  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes.  Some  species  of  the 
genus,  Zoarces,  and  probably  others,  produce  their  young  alive 
by  dozens.  The  SHANNY,  Pholis,  (Gr.  a  scale,)  deposits  its 
eggs  on  the  roofs  or  sides  of  cavities  in  rocks,  near  the  low  water 
mucks,  and  being  of  a  bright  amber  color,  with  a  polished  sur 
face,  it  appears  as  if  paved  with  round  stones.  The  Physis,  of 
the  Mediterranean,  forms  a  nest  of  sea- weed  in  which  to  deposit 
its  spawn,  and  attends  upon  the  young. 

(14)  Lopkida,  (Gr.  lophos,  a  crest.) 

These  are  distinguished  by  the  lengthening  of  the  carpal 
bone,  by  which,  as  on  an  arm,  the  pectoral  fin  is  supported. 
The  family  includes  some  of  the  most  singular  looking  fishes  in 
the  entire  class,  such  as  Frog,  or  Toad  Fishes,  &c.,  grotesque 
and  reptile-like;  without  scales ;  hiding  themselves  in  the  mud, 
and  attracting  their  prey  by  agitating  the  filamentary  processes 
on  the  head.  The  feet-like  pectoral  fins  assist  them  to  crawl  on 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  also  upon  land.  These,  on  account  of 
the  soft  and  yielding  nature  of  the  skeleton,  were  formerly  classed 
with  other  Cartilaginous  or  Soft-rayed  Fishes,  (see  Lophius 
Americanus,  Squalidce,  on  the  Chart;)  but  Cuvier  demonstrated 
its  fibrous  structure,  and  fixed  its  position  among  the  bony 
fishes. 

The  AntennariuSy  (Lat.  from  antenna,)  is  found  in  tropical 
seas.  It  is  said  to  crawl  about  the  fields  for  two  or  three  days 
at  a  time.  So  tenacious  of  life  are  the  fishes  of  this  genus,  that 
they  have  been  transported  alive  from  tropical  seas  to  Holland, 
and  sold  "  for  twelve  ducats  a  piece."  Their  voracity  is  great, — 
in  fact,  they  seem  to  be  mostly  mouth  and  stomach.  On  the 


MALACOPTERYGII.  567 

coast  of  Scotland,  these  "Sea-Devils"  are  met  with,  four  and 
even  five  feet  long.  The  Mouse-fish  and  Toad-fish  are  small 
species  of  this  family. 

(15)  Labrida,  (Lat.   labrum,   a  lip,) — a   family  deriving  its 
name  from  the  fleshy  lips  appended  to  the  jaws.     It  has  been 
divided  into  two  sections,  Cyclo-labridce,  having  cycloid-scales, 
and    Cteno-labrida,   having  a   dorsal   fin  supported  in  front  by 
spines.     This  family  includes  the  WRASSES  or  ROCK-FISHES, — 
numerous  small   fishes  of  brilliant   orange  and  blue  color,  ar 
ranged  in  stripes  with  wavy  lines.     The  genus  Ctenolabrus  is 
represented  by  the  NIBBER  or  COMMON  BERGALL,  C.  caruleus, 
found  on  the  coast  from  New  Jersey  northward.     On  account  of 
its  prevailing  color,  it  is  also  called  the  BLUE-FISH,  BLUE  PERCH, 
GUNNER  or  CONNER,  and  CHOGSET  ;  the  last  mentioned  name  being 
derived  from  the   Mohegan  tongue.      The  flesh  is  insipid  and 
watery.      The    Tautoga  Americana,   the   COMMON    BLACK-FISH 
or  TAUTOG,   (in    the    Mohegan    dialect,)  much    valued    for   the 
table, — is  found  on  the  coast  between  Massachusetts  and  Ches 
apeake  Bay. 

SECOND  ORDER.     MALACOPTERYGII,  (Gr,  fiakaxog,  malakos,  soft ; 
msQbv,  pteron,  wing. 

The  CYCLOIDS.  These  fishes  are  a  step  lower  in  organization. 
Soft-fins  or  rays  distinguish  them  from  those  of  the  preceding 
order.  The  genera  and  species  are  less  numerous,  but  as  fur 
nishing  food  for  man,  the  order  is  the  most  important  of  all,  in- 
eluding  such  fish  as  Salmon,  Pike,  Herring,  Cod,  Carp,  Turbot, 
Halibut,  &c.  The  order  comprises  all  the  Ground  Fishes, — 
those  which  are  restricted  to  fresh  waters,  and  lie  in  wait  for 
their  prey. 

SUB-ORDER.     ABDOMINALES. 

The  fishes  of  this  sub-order  have  the  ventrals  behind  the  pec 
toral  fins,  and  not  attached  to  the  humeral  or  shoulder-bone. 

(16)  Silurida,  (Gr.silouros  from  seio,  I  move;  oura,  the  tail.) 
This  is  a  family  represented  by  the  Cat-fish,  Bull-pouts,  Bull 
heads,  and    Horned-pouts,  (Pimelodus,) — the  last   name    being 
derived  from  the  fleshy  filaments,  (cirri  or  barbels,)  floating  from 
the  mouth.     These  cirri  are  supposed  to  aid  them  in  obtaining 
food,  while  groping  in  the  mud.     They  are  without  scales,  and 
covered    with  a  slimy  coat  of  mucus.     Some  South  American 
species  have  large  angular,  bony  plates,  and  are,  therefore,  said 
to  be  mailed.     The  Oceanic  Cat-fish  has  only  six  barbels. 


508  MALACOPTEIIYGII. 

The  Sheat-fish  or  Sly  Silure,  (see  Chart,)  Silurus  glanis,  (Gr. 
a  kind  of  shad,)  is  the  only  species  of  Europe,  and  perhaps  the 
largest  of  European  fresh-water  fishes, — attaining  the  length  of 
ten,  twelve,  or  even  fifteen  feet. 

One  species,  Silurus  electricus,  (the  Malapterurus  electricus, 
of  later  writers,)  an  inhabitant  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  rivers  of 
Central  Africa,  has  electric  properties  similar,  or  intermediate 
to  those  of  the  Torpedo  and  Gymnotus,  though  the  organs  are 
of  much  finer  texture. 

Of  the  American  fresh- water  forms  the  most  noted  are  included 
in  the  genus  Pimelodus,  (Gr.  Pimele,  fat,)  distinguished  by  having 
an  adipose  dorsal  fin.  One  species,  found  in  the  Mississippi,  has 
been  known  to  weigh  one  hundred  pounds.  The  genus  Noturus, 
(Gr.  back-tail,)  includes  the  Stone  Cat-fish.  It  has  its  generic 
name  from  having  the  back  fin  confluent  with  the  tail-fin. 

The  Pimelodus  cyclopum,  (Humboldt )  of  South  America,  in 
habits  the  highest  regions  in  which  fish  are  known  to  live, 
occurring  at  Quito,  16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They 
are  found  in  subterranean  lakes,  and  sometimes  are  ejected  from 
the  craters  of  the  Cotapaxi  and  Tunguaraga  volcanoes. 

In  this  family  are  included  the  BLIND  FISHES,  Ambtyopsis 
spel&us,  (DeKay,)  of  the  Mammoth  Cave,  (Kentucky,)  in  which 
the  eyes  are  invisible,  or  appear  in  a  rudimentary  state,  on  the 
dissection  of  the  fish.  It  is  said  "they  are  acutely  sensitive  to 
sounds,  as  well  as  to  undulations  produced  by  other  causes  in 
the  water."  (Sillirnan's  Journal,  second  series,  Vol.  XVII.) 

(17)  Cyprinida,  (Gr.  kuprinos,  a  carp.)  This  family  includes 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  fresh-water  fishes,  though  the  flesh  of 
not  very  many  is  valuable  for  food.  Few  of  them  are  found  in 
tropical  waters.  The  Carps  have  no  teeth  in  the  mouth,  but 
they  appear  in  various  kinds  upon  the  posterior  branchial  arch,, 
(or  pharyngeal  bone.) 

The  species  Cyprinus  Carpio,  (Lat.  a  carp,)  is  highly  prized 
for  food.  It  is  particularly  abundant  in  Europe,  and  has  been 
naturalized  in  waters  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the 
Hudson  River.* 

The  GOLD-FISH,  Cyprinus  auratus,  of  our  parlors,  so  conspic- 

*  These  fish  were  first  successfully  introduced  by  H.  Robinson,  of  New- 
burgh.  The  spawn  is  deposited  among  the  grass  along  the  sides  of  the 
ponds  or  rivers  which  they  inhabit.  These  fishes  reach  the  size  of  three  or 
four  inches  the  first  year,  and  sometimes  become  quite  large,  though  the 
size  varies  considerably.  The  Breams  are  from  five  to  seven  inches  long; 
the  Chubsuckers  from  seven  to  twelve;  the  Suckers  from  seven  to  eighteen. 
They,  together  with  the  Dace,  Sheepshead,  Killi-fish,  Red-fin,  &c.,  are  found 
in  the  waters  of  New  York. 


MALACOPTERYGII.  569 

uous  among  fresh -water  fish  for  the  beauty  and  variations  of  their 
colors,  are  of  this  family.  The  true  home  of  these  fish  is  a  lake 
in  China,  whence  they  have  been  taken,  and  introduced  to  other 
countries.  When  kept  in  globes,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
give  them  more  food  than  they  can  eat  at  a  time,  as  the  uncon- 
surned  portion,  dissolving  in  the  water,  may  affect  their  breath 
ing.  The  eggs  should  be  removed  to  another  vessel,  or  else  the 
fish  will  eat  them. 

The  GUDGEONS,  C.  gobio,  appear  to  delight  in  slow  rivers,  and 
swim  together  in  shoals.  They  seize  the  bait  with  avidity,  and 
hence  afford  excellent  amusement  to  anglers. 

The  SLIMY  TENCH,  Tinea  vulgaris,  is  common  in  lakes  of  the 
European  continent,  and  sometimes  found  in  ornamental  waters 
and  ponds,  but  is  seldom  found  in  rivers,  being  fond  of  still  and 
muddy  waters.  It  is  considered  a  very  prolific  fish,  and  of  quick 
growth.  The  Tench  ranks  among  the  most  useful  fresh- water 
fish  of  Europe. 

The  BLEAK,  Cyprinus  alburnus  or  ATburnus  lucidus,  is  another 
European  species,  from  the  scales  of  which  is  chiefly  obtained 
the  silvery  matter  used  in  the  preparation  of  artificial  pearls. 

The  VARIEGATED  or  CARP  BREAM,  Air  amis  versicolor,  is  a 
savory  fish,  sometimes  called  the  Yellow-bellied  Perch  and  Wind- 
Fish ;  found  in  the  Connecticut  and  Hudson  Rivers,  and  in  other 
waters.  When  a  light  breeze  ruffles  the  water,  thousands  of" 
these  fish  are  sometimes  seen  darting  to  the  surface.  Near 
Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  it  is  called  the  Dace,  from  its  resemblance  to 
Dace  of  Europe,  C.  leuciscus. 

The  BARBEL,  of  Europe,  Barlus,  (Lat.  from  larla,  a  beard  ;) 
vulgaris. — named  from  the  cirri  or  barbs  attached  to  its  mouth, — 
frequents  the  deep  and  still  part*  of  rivers, — is  very  numerous 
in  the  Thames,  Eng.  Its  flesh  is  coarse  and  unsavory,  and  held 
in  little  estimation. 

Several  species  of  Dace  are  found  in  North  America.  Among 
them  are  the  Black-nosed  Dace,  Leuciscus  atronasus,  (Lat.  black- 
nosed  ;)  the  SPAWN-EATER,  L.  Hudsonius,  supposed  by  fisher 
men  to  live  entirely  on  the  spawn  of  other  fishes, — first  described 
by  DeWitt  Clinton,  formerly  governor  of  the  State  of  New  York  ; 
the  SHINER,  L.  chrysopterus,  (Gr.  yellow-finned ;)  the  SILVERY 
DACE,  L.  argenteus,  found  in  Massachusetts;  the  PIGBIY  DACE, 
L.  pygmcEus,  which  is  only  an  inch  long.  Other  species  are 
sometimes  quite  small. 

The  SUCKERS,  Catastomus,  (Gr.  kata,  against;  sloma^  mouth,) 
embrace  many  species  known  by  their  very  fleshy  lips,  which 
can  be  applied  to  any  object  like  a  sucker.  Different  names  are 


570  MALACOPTERYGII. 

applied  to  the  several  species,  such  as  Mullet,  BufFalo-fish,  Red- 
Horse,  &c.,  &c. 

The  species  of  Cyprinida  are  extremely  numerous  in  Ameri 
can  waters,  and  many,  no  doubt,  are  yet  to  be  described.  But 
we  must  not  omit  to  notice  two  singular  species;  the  first,  Cy- 
prinodon  umbra,  remarkable  as  being  one  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  subterranean  lakes  in  Austria,  where  darkness  perpetually 
reigns;  the  second,  the  FOUR-EYED  LOACH,  Anableps  tetrophthal- 
mus,  (Gr.  four-eyed,)  found  in  the  Brazilian  rivers.  "It  is,"  says 
Mr.  Edwards,  in  his  "Voyage  up  the  Amazon,"  "always  seen 
swimming  with  the  nose  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  pro 
pelling  itself  by  sudden  starts.  The  eye  of  this  fish  has  two 
pupils,  although  but  one  crystalline  and  one  vitreous  humor  and 
but  one  retina.  It  is  the  popular  belief  that,  as  it  swims,  two  of 
its  eyes  are  adapted  to  the  water,  and  two  to  the  air." 

(18)  Esocidce,  (Gr.  isox,  a  kind  of  pike.)  The  PIKES,  (Esox.) 
are  the  most  voracious  and  destructive  of  all  fresh-water  fish. 
Their  lengthened  form  enables  them  to  live  in  shallow  waters, 
and  even  when  considerably  large  they  sometimes  are  found  in 
small  brooks.  The  Trout  alone  can  compete  with  these  fishes, 
and  not  often  are  both  found  in  the  same  waters.  Lacepede  calls 
them  the  Sharks  of  our  ponds  and  rivers.  Only  one  species,  E. 
lucius,  is  found  in  Europe  ;  sometimes  attaining  a  length  of 
nineteen  feet,  and  a  weight  of  seventy  pounds.  A  skeleton  of 
one  has  been  preserved  at  Manheim,  which  weighed  three  hun 
dred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  was  probably  between  two  hundred 
and  three  hundred  years  old.  The  species  are  numerous  in  the 
waters  of  this  Continent.  Those  of  Lake  Erie  and  other  Northern 
lakes,  as  the  Muskalonge  or  Muskellunge,  E.  nobihor,  E.  ester, 
are  very  large.  The  more  Southern  species  are  smaller.  The 
American  species  form  two  divisions;  one  of  which  has  the  oper- 
cular  or  gill  covers  entirely  scaly,  and  dark  reticulated  mark 
ings;  the  other  having  scales  only  on  the  upper  half  of  the  gill 
covers,  and  marked  with  light  spots  on  a  dark  ground. 

The  COMMON  PICKEREL,  E.  reticulatus,  abounds  throughout  the 
Eastern  and  Middle  States,  and  in  the  waters  of  Ohio. 

The  Banded  Gar-fish,  Belone  truncata,  has  very  minute,  soft 
scales,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  of  a  beautiful  transparent 
sea-green. 

The  Scomberesox,  or  Bill-fish,  (S.  Store-ri,  Mass.  Report.)  has 
abroad  silvery  band  on  the  body;  and  is,  hence,  sometimes 
called  the  Silver-Gar.  Both  these  fish  have  the  head  and  snout 
very  much  elongated;  the  Bill-fish  has  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
divided  into  finlets,  as  in  the  Mackerel, — hence,  the  name  Scorn- 


MALACOPTERYGII.  571 

beresox,  or  Mackerel- Pike.  The  two  last  named  genera  are 
sometimes  united  in  a  separate  family,  (Scomberesocidse.)  The 
Flying  Fishes  of  tropical  seas,  Exocmtus,  (Gr.  E^wxonog, 
exokoitos,  (sleeping  out  of  the  sea,) — were  so  named  because 
believed  by  the  ancients  to  sleep  on  the  beach.  They  have 
the  specific  name  volitans,  (Lat.  flying,)  from  having  the  pectoral 
fins  so  enlarged  as  to  resemble  wings,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  3. ;)  when 
in  the  air  they  move  so  rapidly  as  to  resemble  birds  more  than 
fish.  They  fly  straight  forward,  remaining  out  of  the  water  thirty 
seconds  or  more  at  a  time.  Two  or  three  hundred  of  them  are 
sometimes  seen  together. 

(19)  Fistularidce,  (Lat.  from  fistula,  a  pipe  or  tube.)     This 
family   includes  the   Pipe-mouthed  and  Trumpet  fishes  having 
tubular  mouths,  which,  it  is  thought,  they  use   in    drawing  up 
their  food,  like  a  syringe.     The  genus  Fistularia,  (the  tobacco- 
pipe  Fish,)  has  several   species  on  our  coast,      The   Trumpet- 
fish,   Centriscus,  besides  the   tubular  snout,    has  a  short   com 
pressed  body,  of  which  the  head  forms  the  larger  portion. 

(20)  Salmonida,  (Lat.  salmo,  a  salmon,) 

This  is  the  TROUT  family,  inhabiting  both  fresh  and  salt  wa 
ter,  and  the  most  completely  toothed  of  all  the  fishes.  They 
agree  with  the  Herring  family  in  the  structure  of  the  upper 
jaw,  and  are  distinguished  by  having  a  small  fatty  fin  behind 
the  true  dorsal  fin.  Their  flesh  is  unrivaled  ;  all  the  members 
of  the  family  are  eagerly  sought  for  by  anglers,  from  the  sal 
mon  or  lake  trout,  the  mackerel  trout,  the  white  fish  of  the  large 
lakes,  and  the  Bass  of  Otsego,  to  the  small  frost-fish  or  smelt 
caught  in  Lake  Champlain,  through  holes  in  the  ice,  to  which  the 
fish  rush  in  crowds  to  breathe  the  fresh  air.  Different  causes 
have  been  assigned  for  the  various  shades  of  color  in  the  flesh 
of  Salmon.  Such  as  live  upon  fresh  water  shrimps  and  other 
small  crustaceans,  are  said  to  be  the  brightest;  those  feeding 
upon  aquatic  vegetables  dull,  and  the  darkest  of  all. 

DeKay  thinks  it  doubtful  whether  any  trout  feed  on  vegetables. 
Those  of  ponds  are  externally  dark  colored  ;  those  in  clear 
streams  with  sandy  bottoms,  are  bright ;  and  those  in  salt,  brack 
ish  streams  are  not  only  bright  externally,  but  have  the  flesh 
more  of  the  Salmon  color.  The  most  conspicuous  species  is  the 
Salmon  salar,  (Lat.  a  kind  of  trout,)  which  is  the  true  Salmon 
found  on  the  northern  shores  of  both  Europe  and  America,  and 
ascending  the  rivers  in  summer;  sometimes  attaining  a  weight 
of  fifty  pounds  or  more.  It  is  not  only  valuable  for  food,  but  the 
women  of  the  Tungooses,  in  Siberia,  tan  the  skin  so  as  to  render 
it  flexible,  for  the  purposes  of  clothing. 

The  BROOK  TROUT,  S.  fontinalis,  is  met  with  from  Maine  to 
24 


MALACOPTERYGII. 

the  southern  parts  of  Virginia.  This  seldom  exceeds  four  pounds 
in  weight.  Dr.  Mitchell  speaks  of  a  Salmon  of  Lake  Huron, 
which  weighed  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  but  the  Lake 
Salmon  are  not  now  often  found  to  exceed  eighty  pounds.  To 
the  prolific  nature  of  the  Salmon  we  have  already  referred. 
These  delicious  fish  were  formerly  quite  abundant ;  indeed,  it 
is  not  many  years  since  they  were,  in  Massachusetts,  a  perfect 
drug.  We  have  read  of  a  boy  who  was  apprenticed  in  New. 
buryport,  with  the  special  condition  in  his  indentures,  that  he 
should  not  be  obliged  to  eat  salmon  more  than  three  times  a 
week. 

(21)  Clttptida,  (Lat.  clupea,  a  river  fish  or  shad.) 
The  fishes  of  this  family,  including  Herrings,  Pilchards,  Sprats, 
Sardines,  Anchovies  and  Shad,  are  among  those  esteemed  as 
most  useful  and  indispensable.  Both  the  maxillaries  and  inter- 
maxillaries  are  employed  to  form  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw. 
These  fish  are  exceedingly  abundant.  Four  hundred  thousand 
Anchovies  are  said  to  have  been  taken  at  one  haul,  on  the  coast 
of  Sardinia.  These  latter  fish  are  preserved  with  salt,  after 
removing  the  head  and  intestines.  They  are  about  the  size  of 
the  little  finger,  and  used  as  a  condiment. 

Herrings,  (Clupea  harengus.)  are  now  supposed  to  live  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  places  where  they  are  caught,  approaching  the 
shore  to  spawn  in  such  numbers  that  the  water  is  filled  with 
loose  scales  rubbed  off  in  the  crowd.  The  Herring  fishery  along 
the  coasts  of  Europe  and  America,  gives  employment  in  sum 
mer  to  many  thousands  of  people.  The  consumption  in  Europe 
alone  of  two  thousand  millions  of  these  fish,  annually,  does  not 
seem  to  decrease  their  numbers.  They  are  valuable  in  com 
merce,  either  pickled  or  smoked.  To  prepare  the  Red  or 
Smoked  Herring,  the  fish  are  sprinkled  with  salt,  and  lie  about 
six  days  in  heaps  on  a  brick  or  stone  floor.  Rods  are  then 
passed  through  the  gills,  care  being  taken  not  to  have  them  touch 
each  other.  These  rods  are  suspended  in  tiers,  in  ovens,  hold 
ing  from  ten  to  twelve  thousand,  where  the  herrings  are  smoked 
for  a  month  with  hard  wood,  and  after  being  cooled,  are  packed 
for  market.  The  Emperor  Charles  V,  in  1556,  erected  a  mon 
ument,  and  ate  a  herring  over  the  grave  of  a  fisherman  of  Zea 
land,  who  had  improved  the  art  of  pickling  herring.  Several 
species  of  Herring  are  caught  on  the  coasts,  and  in  the  rivers 
of  the  Atlantic  States.  Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  herring- 
fishery  in  Maine  may  be  obtained  from  the  fact  that  at  Treat's 
island,  there  were  in  five  days,  caught,  salted,  and  stored  up  for 
smoking,  what  would  make  or  pack  five  thousand  boxes.  Some 
kinds  of  Herring  are  used  instead  of  guano,  for  enriching  land. 


MALACOPTERYGII,  573 

SARDINES  are  a  small  species  of  Herring,  much  prized  as  a  rel 
ish.  From  forty  to  fifty  thousand  are  often  taken  at  a 
single  haul  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Baltic  and  the  Atlantic. 
The  American  Shad,  Alosa  prastabilis,  (Lat.  excellent,  j  or  A. 
sapidissima,  (Lat.  most  savory,)  is  a  beautiful  and  savory  fish 
which  enters  our  rivers  between  January  and  May,  the  time  va 
rying  with  the  latitude,  passing  to  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers  in  order  to  spawn.  They  descend  the 
Hudson  river  during  the  latter  part  of  May,  when  they  are 
called  Back  Shad,  and  are  lean  and  scarcely  fit  to  eat.  Shad 
are  caught  in  large  seines,  and  in  gill-nets  attached  to  long 
spears,  and  often  set  in  from  seven  to  ten  fathoms  of  water.  They 
are  taken  in  large  numbers  in  the  Hudson  and  other  rivers,  and 
more  especially  in  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Bays.  In  abund 
ant  seasons  they  are  sold  at  from  six  to  ten  dollars  per  hundred, 
and  packed  away  in  salt.  This  species  is  of  much  finer  flavor 
than  the  COMMON  SHAD,  A.  vulgaris,  of  Europe. 

The  ALEWIVES,  A.  tyrannus,  appear  in  great  numbers  in 
Chesapeake  Bay,  from  March  to  May.  In  New  York  waters, 
they  appear  with  the  shad,  about  the  first  of  April,  but  not  in 
numbers  sufficiently  large  to  form  a  separate  fishery.  They 
are  numerous  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  arid  very  good  food. 

The  MOSSBONKER,  A.  menhadan,  is  valuable  and  largely  used 
for  manure,  and  in  some  places  as  bait  for  mackerel,  cod,  and 
halibut.  This  fish  also  has  the  names,  Bony-fish,  Hard-head, 
and  Menhadan,  "the  last  being  the  name  given  by  the  Manhat 
tans."  It  is  dry,  full  of  bones,  and  without  flavor,  and  therefore 
is  seldom  eaten. 

SUB-BRACHIALS. 

These  are  distinguished  by  having  the  ventral  fins  under  the 
pectorals,  and  the  pelvis  immediately  attached  to  the  bones  of 
the  shoulder. 

(22)  The  Gadida,  or  COD  FISH  family,  have  an  elongated  body, 
covered  with  soft  scales  not  extending  on  the  head.  The  genus 
Morrhua  represents  the  true  Cod.  The  best  known  species  is 
the  Morrhua  vulgaris,  found  in  the  seas  of  Europe  as  far  south 
as  Gibraltar,  and  in  those  of  America  as  far  as  Newfound 
land  ;  its  maximum  size  is  sixty  or  seventy  pounds.  The  spe 
cies  commonly  found  through  the  whole  year  off  the  coast  of  the 
United  States,  and  going  into  deep  water  in  the  spring,  is  M. 
Americana,  from  one  to  three  feet  in  length.  Occasionally  it 
attains  an  immense  size.  Specimens  are  sometimes  taken  which 


574  MALACOPTERYGIL, 

weigh  seventy  or  eighty  pounds.  Dr.  Storer  speaks  of  one 
which  reached  the  enormous  weight  of  one  hundred  and  seven 
pounds ;  a  cod  of  fifty  pounds,  however,  is  thought  to  be  very 
large.  The  Cod -fishery,  it  is  well  known,  is  extensively  followed 
in  the  Eastern  States,  particularly  Massachusetts ;  giving  em 
ployment  to  a  large  number  of  persons  and  requiring  an  amount 
of  tonnage  which  ranks  only  second  to  that  employed  in  the 
whale  fishery.  Fishing  vessels  of  all  nations  are  found  off  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland.  Cod  fish  are  taken  with  hooks  or 
seines  sunk  to  a  considerable  depth  in  the  sea.  The  months  of 
May  and  June  are  the  season  for  securing  them.  They  are  pre 
served  by  simply  salting  them  green,  or  they  are  salted  and  then 
dried.  The  oil,  oleum  jecori,  from  the  liver  of  the  cod,  is  quite 
largely  used  as  a  medicine,  and  considered  to  be  highly  valua 
ble,  especially  in  pulmonary  complaints.  The  roe  is  also  exten 
sively  used  as  bait  for  herrings.  Other  fishes  of  this  family  are 
the  POWER  COD,  M.  minuta,  from  four  to  eight  inches  long ;  the 
TOM  COD,  or  FROST-FISH,  M.  pruinosa,  (Lat.  frosty.)  a  savory 
fish,  and  caught  in  large  quantities  ;  the  Haddock,  M.  (Bglefinus, 
nearly  as  common  in  our  market  as  the  Cod,  but  inferior  in  size 
and  as  an  article  of  food ;  the  WHITING,  Merlangus  vulgaris,  an 
European  species ;  (the  name  Whiting  is  also  applied  to  the 
American  species,  M.  albidus,  Lat.  whitish;)  the  Burbot,  Lota 
vulgaris,  is  considerably  esteemed  ;  the  Cusk,  Bros?nius  vulgaris, 
(Storer  ;)  the  Hake  or  Codling,  Phycis  Americanus.  These  are 
all  equally  palatable  with  the  Common  Cod;  the  Coal-fish,  M. 
carbonarius,  (Lat.  from  carlo,  a  coal,)  ranging  on  both  shores  of 
the  Atlantic ;  M.  purpureus,  (Lat.  purple-colored,)  abundant  on 
the  shores  of  New  England  and  sometimes  on  that  of  New 
York,  and  known  under  the  name  of  Pollack. 

(23)  Planida,  or  Pleuronectidce,  (Gr.  pleuronectes,  side-swim 
mer,)  the  FLAT-FISH  FAMILY. 

These,  from  their  want  of  symmetry,  really  stand  alone  among 
the  VERTEBRATES.  The  eyes  are  both  on  one  side  of  the  head, 
usually  one  above  the  other,  and  often  varying  in  size.  The 
upper  surface  of  these  fishes  resembles  the  ground  in  which 
they  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey  ;  the  under  surface,  from  being 
never  exposed  to  the  action  of  light,  is  white.  The  upper  and 
white  surface  are  really  to  be  regarded  as  the  two  sides,  right 
and  left,  so  that  instead  of  being  depressed,  it  is  compressed,  or 
flattened  vertically,  like  the  Chaetodons,  though  the  latter,  like 
other  fishes,  swim  with  the  back  uppermost,  notwithstanding  their 
thinness;  but  the  Turbot  swims  or  grovels  along  the  bottom  up 
on  its  side,  the  colored  side,  right  or  left,  being  uppermost.  To 


MALACOPTERYGir  575 

this  the  term  Pleuronectes  refers.  DeKay  designates  tne  FLAT, 
FISH,  having  the  eyes  and  colored  surface  on  the  right,  as  dex- 
tral  species,  and  the  FLOUNDERS,  which  have  the  eyes  and  col- 
ored  surface  on  the  left,  assinistral  species.  Of  the  latter  is  the 
OBLONG  FLOUNDER,  Platessa  oblonga,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  5,)  found 
on  our  coast,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  in  length. 
The  Turbot,  Rho?nbus  maximus,  is  considered  the  best  of  Euro 
pean  fishes.  The  SPOTTED  or  WATERY  TURBOT,  Pleuronectes 
maculatus,  or  Rhombus  aquosus,  (Storer,)  is  found  on  our  coast 
and  sometimes  called  the  English  Turbot,  but  is  distinguished 
from  that  fish  by  the  absence  of  the  numerous  tubercles  on  the 
colored  side,  which  characterize  the  latter. 

The  Halibut,  (Hippoglossus  vulgaris,)  has  a  longer  body  and 
sharper  teeth  than  others  of  the  family.  Sometimes  it  reaches 
a  great  size.  Dr.  Storer  speaks  of  one  that  weighed  six  hundred 
pounds,  though  a  Halibut  weighing  two  hundred  pounds  is  con 
sidered  large.  The  fins  are  regarded  by  epicures  as  a  very 
choice  part  of  this  fish.  There  are  several  species  of  Flat-fish, 
Platessa,  most  of  which  are  prized  for  food.  The  FLOOR,  P. 
Jlesus,  and  the  DAB,  P.  limanda,  are  European  species.  The 
COMMON  SOLE,  Achirus  mollis,  is  found  abundantly  on  our  At 
lantic  coast. 

(24)  Cyclopterida,  (Gr.  circular  or  cup-shaped  fins.)  The 
LUMP-FISHES,  or  LUMP-SUCKERS. 

These  are  a  small  family,  having  the  ventral  fins  so  united  as 
to  form  a  sort  of  cup-shaped  disk,  with  a  funnel-shaped  cavity 
in  the  center,  by  which  they  adhere  firmly  to  any  solid  object. 
The  body  is  rough,  being  covered  with  very  bony  tubercles. 
They  are  called  SUCKERS  on  account  of  a  curious  sort  of  suck 
ing  disk,  by  means  of  which  they  adhere  to  the  rocks  of  the 
bottom,  or  to  any  other  substance.  The  skeleton  is  so  soft  that 
some  members  of  the  family  are  said  to  dissolve  after  death  into 
a  mucilaginous  jelly,  in  which  hardly  any  trace  of  bone  remains. 
These  fish  are  represented  by  three  genera :  Lepidogaster,  Lum- 
pus,  and  Liparis,  the  two  latter  having  American  species.  The 
LUMP-SUCKER,  Lumpus  anglorum,  or  Cydopterus  caruleus,  is 
called  in  Scotland,  the  COCK-PADDLE.  In  England  it  has  the 
name  of  SEA  OWL,  as  well  as  Lump-fish  and  Lump-sucker.  Its 
appearance  is  remarkably  grotesque.  The  ventral  unite  with 
the  pectoral  fins,  and  form  a  single  disk.  Some  of  the  family 
have  two  disks,  one  formed  by  the  pectorals,  the  other  by  the 
ventrals ;  hence  these  fish  have  been  called  Discoboli,  (Gr.  throw 
ers  of  the  DISCUS,  or  quoit.)  They  are  now  sometimes  included 
with  the  Blennies.  Pennant  says  that  one  of  the  Lump-fishes 


576  MALACOPTERYGII. 

thrown  into  a  pail  of  water,  adhered  so  firmly  to  the  bottom  that 
the  pail  was  lifted  by  taking  hold  of  the  tail  of  the  fish. 

(25)  Echeneida,  (Gr.  echo,  to  hold ;  neus,  a  ship.) 

This  family  is  represented  by  the  genus  Echeneis,  the  name 
referring  to  the  flattened  disk  of  cartilaginous  plates,  covering  the 
top  of  the  head,  and  enabling  the  fish  to  attach  itself  to  other 
bodies. 

The  COMMON  SUCKER,  E.  remora,  (Lat.  delay,)  is  found 
throughout  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  has  sometimes  been  taken 
from  the  bottom  of  vessels  in  the  harbor  of  New  York.  One 
species,  the  WHITE-TAILED  REMORA,  E.  albicauda,  (Lat.  white- 
tail,)  is  called  the  SHARK-SUCKER,  from  being  frequently  found 
attached  to  that  fish. 

SUB-ORDER  APODES,  (Gr.  footless.) 

These  are  without  ventral  fins. 

(26)  Anguillidcp,  (Lat.  an  eel,)  or  Muraenida,  (Gr.  muraina, 
a  kind  of  fish.) 

This  is  the  Eel  family,  which  have  long,  snake-like  bodies 
and  small  scales  so  imbedded  in  the  soft,  slimy  skin,  as  to  be 
scarcely  perceptible.  The  dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  fins  are 
united,  and  the  rays  so  delicate  as  to  be  with  difficulty  enumer 
ated.  They  have  been  estimated  to  be  as  many  as  three  hund 
red  and  twenty,  or  three  hundred  and  forty.  During  the  season 
of  its  activity  the  eel  is  a  voracious  feeder.  Conger  or  Sea  Eels, 
Anguilla  conger,  (Lat.  sea-eel,)  or  Conger  occidentalis,  (Lat. 
western,)  are  larger  than  the  Common  Eels.  Yarrell,  in  his 
British  Fishes,  says  that  "  specimens  of  Conger  Eels  weighing 
eighty-six  pounds,  one  hundred  and  four  pounds,  and  even  one 
hundred  and  thirty  pounds,  have  been  recorded,  some  of  them 
measuring  more  than  ten  feet  long  and  eighteen  inches  in  cir 
cumference."  (See  fig.  on  Chart.) 

"  The  ancient  Romans  reared  these  fish  with  great  care,  in 
consecrated  ponds,  and  they  even  decorated  them  with  jewels. 
Six  thousand  were  served  up  at  one  entertainment  given  to  CSD- 
sar  when  he  entered  upon  his  dictatorship."  The  branchial 
pouches  of  Eels  enable  them  to  crawl  and  remain  some  time  out 
of  water,  and  thus  they  can  move  from  one  place  to  another  in 
search  of  food,  being  hardly  inferior  to  any  other  fish  in  the 
power  of  enduring  abstinence  from  their  native  element.  They 
are  strongly  susceptible  of  magnetic  or  galvanic  influence.  Their 
eggs  are  so  diminutive  as  to  escape  observation,  which  may  have 
given  rise  to  the  notion  that  these  fish  are  viviparous. 


MALACOPTERYGIL>  577 

The  ELECTRIC  EEL,  Gymnotus  (Gr.gumnos,  naked  ;  notes,  back,) 
electricus,  has  no  tail  fin,  and  the  scales  are  imperceptible.  It  is 
sometimes  five  or  six  feet  long.  By  its  electric  shocks,  it  knocks 
down  men  and  horses,  and  by  repeating  its  discharges  is  able  to  kill 
them.  It  can  be  obtained  only  after  its  electric  power  has  been  ex 
hausted  by  successive  shocks.  The  Indians  of  South  America  drive 
wild  horses  into  the  muddy  ponds  in  which  these  Eels  abound, 
in  order  to  secure  them.  Two  specimens,  taken  in  the  waters 
of  the  Amazon,  have  been  sent  to  Professor  Henry,  of  the  Smith 
sonian  Institute.  The  Gymnotus,  (see  Chart,)  and  the  Torpedo  are 
able  either  to  emit  or  withhold  this  electric  power. 

(N.  B.  The  Electric  Eels  are  sometimes  separated  from  the 
Common  Eels,  and  formed  into  the  family  Gymnotidce.) 

SUB-ORDER  LOPHOBRANCHII,  OR  LOPHOBRANCHIA.  (Gr.  tuft-gills.) 

The  fishes  of  this  sub-order  are  characterized  by  having  the 
gills  in  small  tufts  along  the  branchial  arches,  instead  of  being 
comb-like.  In  this  and  the  following  sub-order  the  internal 
skeleton  is  but  partly  ossified. 

(27)  Syngnathidcz,  (Gr.  sun,  together  ;  gnathon,  jaw.)  PIPE 
FISHES. 

These  fishes  have  the  body  covered  with  angular,  bony  plates, 
so  arranged  that  the  body  itself  is  many  sided.  The  gill-covers 
are  large,  but  soldered  down  for  the  greatest  part  of  their  edge, 
leaving  only  a  small  orifice  for  the  discharge  of  the  water  which 
has  been  respired.  The  male  pipe-fish,  Syngnathus,  has  a  pouch 
or  pocket  in  which  he  receives  the  eggs  as  they  are  laid.  In 
this  he  also  carries  the  young  for  some  time.  Some  species  are 
without  pouches,  but  have  indentations  on  the  abdomen  where 
the  eggs  are  placed. 

The  SEA-HORSE,  Hippocampus,  (Gr.  a  sea-horse,)  has  eyes 
which  move  independently,  and  is  the  only  fish  known  to  have  a 
prehensile  tail.  It  is  found  in  the  Hudson  river  from  five 
to  six  inches  in  length.  When  dried  this  fish  curls  up  and  in 
form  resembles  a  horse.  (See  fig.  on  Chart.) 

The  SHORT-NOSED  SEA-HORSE,  H.  brevirostris,  is  found  on 
the  coasts  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  about  five  inches  long  ;  some 
times  it  is  found  coiled  up  in  oyster  shells. 

SUB-ORDER  PLECTOGNATHI.     (Gr.  plaited  or  twisted  jaws.) 

This  sub-order  is  distinguished  by  the  interior  union  of  some 
of  the  bones  of  the  head. 


578  MALACOrTERYGII. 

(28)  Gymnodontida,  (Gr.  naked -teeth.)  BALLOON  and  GLOEE- 
FISHES. 

These  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  real  teeth ;  but  the  jaws 
are  covered  with  enamel  so  divided  into  plates  as  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  teeth. 

In  the  SEA  PORCUPINE,  Diodon,  (Gr.  two  teeth,)  each  jaw  has 
a  single  piece  ;  hence  the  generic  name.  The  form  of  this  fish 
is  somewhat  cubical ;  it  has  the  singular  property  of  puffing 
itself  up  into  a  globular  ball,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  7,)  and  in  this 
shape  floating  on  the  surface.  The  length  varies  in  different 
species,  from  two  to  seven  inches.  In  the  Puffer  or  Balloon, 
fish,  Tetraodon,  (Gr.  four  teeth,)  the  suture  in  the  middle  of  each 
jaw  gives  it  the  appearance  of  four  teeth.  Like  the  Diodon  it 
can  inflate  and  contract  itself  at  pleasure.  When  it  inflates 
itself  the  formidable  spines  with  which  the  body  is  covered,  be 
come  erected.  Its  flesh  is  unwholesome  if  not  poisonous.  The 
Puffer  can  bite  severely,  and  can  emit  water  in  self-defence;  its 
spines  are  also  an  effectual  guard,  but  the  most  curious  thing 
about  it  is  that  when  handled,  it  emits  a  beautiful  red  excretion, 
which  stains  ivory  and  paper  a  permanent  carmine  red. 

The  small  GLOBE -Fisn,  Acantlwsoma  (Gr.  spiny  body)  cart- 
natum,  (Lat.  ridged,)  is  armed  with  spines  and  susceptible  of  in 
flation,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  6.)  It  is  quite  small,  being  only  one 
inch  in  length.  The  color  is  of  olive  brown  above,  silvery  be 
neath.  The  GLOBE  FISH,  T.  Icevigatus,  (Lat.  smoothed  or  pol 
ished,)  is  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length.  The  Common  Puffer, 
T.  turgidus,  (Lat.  swollen,)  is  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long.  A 
species  of  electrical  Globe-fish,  T.  lineatus,  is  found  in  the  Nile. 
The  SUN  FISH,  or  MOON  FISH,  Orthagoriscus,  (Gr.  a  sucking 
pig,)  appears  as  if  the  fins  were  set  in  or  near  the  head,  and  the 
tail  abruptly  cut  off,  so  that  its  aspect  is  most  singular.  The 
Sun-fishes  are  without  spines,  and  have  not  the  power  of  infla 
tion.  A  species  found  on  the  coast  of  France  weighs  over  three 
hundred  pounds. 

Balistida,  (Gr.  from  battsta,  a  military  engine  resembling  a 
stringed  bow.)  FILE- FISHES. 

These  are  fishes  of  a  less  grotesque  appearance  than  the  Dio- 
dons  and  Tetraodons,  found  most  largely  in  the  still  waters  of 
tropical  seas.  The  body  is  compressed  and  has  a  lengthened 
conical  or  pyramidal  snout,  ending  in  a  small  mouth  having  dis 
tinct  teeth  in  both  jaws.  The  skin  is  roughened  with  scaly  gran 
ulations  or  prickles;  in  the  typical  forms  there  are  two  dorsal 
fins ;  in  others,  the  front  dorsal  fin  is  sometimes  represented  by  a 
single  spine.  The  ventral  fins  are  often  wanting  or  else  indis- 


vTBRAT^ 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

£*    °F 


CT  E  N  0  I  0  S  .    (J| 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XIV. 


CTENOIDS,  (Toothed  scales.) 

Fig.  1.  Perch;  a,  anal  fin;  b,  ventral  fin;  c,  caudal  fin;  d,  dorsal  fin;  d2, 

second  dorsal  fin ;  e,  pectoral  fin. 
Fig.  2.  Three-spined  Stickleback. 
Fig.  3.  Flying-fish  ;  a,  long  wing-like  pectoral  fins. 
Fig.  4.  Archer-fish,  with  a  mouth  fitted  for  shooting  insects. 

CYCLOIDS,  (Kound  scales.) 

Fig.  5.  Plaice,  showing  the  eyes  both  placed  on  one  side,  as  is  usual  in  the 

Flat-fishes. 

Fig.  6.  Short  Head-fish. 
Fig.  7.  Porcupine  or  Balloon-fish. 
Fig.  8.  Bull-pout,  or  Cat-fish  ;  a,  barbels  or  cirri. 

GANOIDS,  (Enameled  scales.) 

Fig.  9.  Buffalo  Bony  Pike,  or  Gar  fish ;  a,  long  narrow  jaws,  covered  on  the 
inside  with  rasp-like  teeth ;  a  row  borders  the  edge,  of  bony  pointed 
ones. 

PLACOIDS,  (Flat-scales.) 

Fig.  10.  Spiny  Dog-fish ;  a,  branchial  openings  on  each  side,  in  the  place 
of  gills  for  breathing ;  b,  the  heterocercal  tail,  as  in  all  Sharks  and 
Sturgeons ;  the  back  bone  runs  to  a  point  above  the  tail,  which  is 
placed  below  like  a  triangular  rudder. 

Fig.  11.  Ray  ;  body  flattened  out  like  a  dish ;  Ml  long  and  slender,  with  the 
dorsal  fins  upon  it ;  pectoral  fins  large,  uniting  with  the  snout  in  front. 

Fig.  12.  Amphioxus,  or  Lancelot,  the  lowest  form  of  Vertebrates. 

Fig.  13.  Torpedo,  or  Numb-fish. 


582  MALACOPTEKYGII. 

tinct.  One  of  the  dorsal  fins  is  fronted  with  a  strong  bony 
spine.  The  bones  or  rays  of  this  fin  are  so  contrived  as  to  act 
in  concert  for  suddenly  elevating  it  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
fish.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  if  the  foremost  or  largest  ray  be 
pressed  ever  so  hard,  it  will  not  stir ;  and  yet  if  the  last  or  least 
ray  be  pressed  very  slightly,  the  other  two  immediately  fall 
down  with  it,  just  as  a  cross-bow  is  let  off  by  pulling  down  the 
trigger.  To  this  peculiarity  there  is  a  reference  in  the  name 
of  the  typical  genus  Batistes.  The  fishes  of  this  genus  are  cov 
ered  with  large  and  hard  rhomboidal  scales.  The  DUSKY  BAL- 
ISTES,  B.fuliginosus,  (Lat.  dusky.)  twelve  inches  long,  is  found 
off  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  The  MASSACHUSETTS  FILE- 
FISH,  Monocanthus,  (Gr.  a  single  spine,)  has  very  small  scales,  and 
a  single  large  spine  in  place  of  the  first  dorsal  fin.  Its  length  is 
from  three  to  five  inches.  The  LONG-TAILED  UNICORN-FISH, 
Aluteres  cuspicauda,  (Lat.  pointed  or  spear-tailed,)  has  the  skin 
covered  with  small  and  almost  invisible  granules.  Length  from 
six  to  nine  inches. 

(30)  Ostracionida,    (Gr.    ostrakion,    a   shell-  or    covering.) 
TRUNK  FISHES. 

These  are  a  group  of  singular  fishes,  found  principally  in  the 
American  and  Indian  seas.  They  are  enveloped  in  a  bony 
crest  or  covering,  so  united  as  to  form  an  inflexible  shield,  leav 
ing  only  the  tail,  fins,  mouth,  and  a  small  part  of  the  gill-open 
ings  capable  of  motion,  passing  through  openings  in  the  Arma 
dillo-like  shield.  There  are  no  ventral  fins,  and  but  one  dorsal. 
These  fish  have  little  flesh,  but  a  large  liver,  abounding  in  oil. 
The  surface,  in  some  species,  is  armed  with  spines.  There  is  but 
one  North  American  genus,  LactopJirys.  The  species  L.  cameli- 
nus,  (camel-like,)  has  the  back  elevated  into  a  spine,  and  is  three 
and  a  half  inches  in  length. 

GANOIDS. 

These  are  characterised  by  having  the  scales  bony,  and 
covered,  externally,  with  enamel,  generally  angular  and  contin 
uous.  Most  of  them  are  extinct  species. 

(31)  Saurida.     This  name  has  been  employed  by  Agassiz  to 
designate  the  fishes  of  this  group,  which    also   comprises   the 
Polypterus,  (Gr.  polus,  much  or  many ;  pteron,  fin,)  of  the  Nile. 
This  latter  (fresh-water)  fish  is  usually  about  eighteen  inches  in 
length,  and  partakes  both  of  the  osseous  and  cartilaginous  kinds; 
but  is  thought  by  some  to  be  "  most  nearly  allied  to  those  species 
of  the   genus   Esox,  which    are  furnisbed  with  large,  long,  and 
bony  scales."     Its  color  is  sea-green.     It  is  called  by  the  Egyp- 


CHONDROPTERYGII. 


583 


tians,  Bichir,  and  is  said  to  be  one  the  best  of  the  Nilotic  fishes 
for  the  table.  The  back  has  a  long  row  of  finlets.  (See  Chart.) 

The  ALLIGATOR-GAR,  Lepidosteus,  (Gr.  lepis,  scale;  osteon, 
bone  )  is  confined  to  North  America.  The  scales  are  smooth  and 
of  adamantine  hardness;  the  upper  jaws  consist  of  many 
pieces.  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  9.) 

The  BUFFALO  BONY  PIKE,  L.  bison,  is  sometimes  three  feet  in 
length. 

The  FLAT-NOSED  BONY  PIKE,  L.-  platyrhynchus,  (Gr.  broad- 
snout,)  is  two  feet  in  length,  and  found  in  Florida  and  the  West 
ern  rivers. 

PLACOIDS.     (Gr.  M%,  plax,  a  plate  or  tablet.)    Plate-like  scales. 

CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES.     CHONDROPTERYGII,  (Gr.  cartilage. 
winged.) 

The  skeleton  in  these  fishes  is  not  entirely  destitute  of  calca 
reous  matter,  but  this  is  arranged  in  separate  grains,  and  does 
not  form  fibres  or  plates.  The  gelatinous  substance,  which  in 
other  fishes,  fills  the  intervals  of  the  vertebra,  and  communicates 
from  one  to  other  by  a  small  hole,  forms  in  several  genera  of 
this  division,  a  continuous  cord,  which  perforates  them  all. 

FIRST  ORDER.     ELEUTHEROPOMI,  (Gr.  etevOegog,  ekutheros,  free  ; 
,,  pdma,  cover.) 


The  fishes  of  this  order  have  pectinated  or  comb-like  gills, 
which  are  free,  as  in  ordinary  fishes,  with  one  large  external 
opening  on  each  side,  furnished  with  a  strong  operculum  or 
cover  ;  they  are  without  rays  ;  the  upper  jaw,  formed  by  the 
palatial  bone,  is  firmly  united  to  the  maxillary  ;  the  intermaxil 
lary  bone  is  rudimentary. 

(32)  Chim<zridce,   (Gr.  diimaira,   fabulous  monster,)      SEA- 
MONSTERS. 

These  are  so  called  from  the  fantastic  shape  of  the  head, 
which  has  a  singular  hoe-shaped  appendage,  tipped  with  spines 
upon  the  snout.  The  second  dorsal  fin  extends  to  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  which  is  drawn  out  into  a  long  slender  filament.  The  eggs 
are  large,  coriaceous,  and  have  flattened  hairy  margins  ;  these 
are  esteemed  by  the  Norwegians,  who  use  them  mixed  up  with 
their  pastry.  The  only  species  of  the  genus  Chimcera,  viz  :  C. 
monslrosa,  is  abundant  in  the  Arctic  seas.  (See  Chart.) 

(33)  Sturionida.     The  STURGEONS. 

These  fishes  have  the  body  covered  by  hard  bony  tubercles  or 


584  CHONDROPTERYGII. 

plates.  The  mouth,  situated  beneath  the  head,  is  small  and 
toothless;  it  is  placed  on  a  sort  of  foot  of  three  joints,  by  means 
of  which  it  can  be  protruded  and  retracted  at  pleasure.  On  its 
under  surface,  as  in  most  cartilaginous  fishes,  are  several  cirri, 
beard  or  worm-like  appendages,  which  hang  down  in  front.  It 
is  so  much  like  India-rubber,  that  boys  put  pieces  of  it  in  their 
balls,  to  make  them  bound.  The  body  is  long  and  tapering, 
ending  in  a  tail  unequally  forked,  the  upper  lobe  being  consid 
erably  the  longer.  Sturgeons  live  on  small  fishes  and  worms. 
They  grow  to  a  great  size,  many  of  them  measuring  more  than 
twenty  feet  long,  and  some  weighing  more  than  two  thousand 
pounds.  The  roe  is  remarkable  for  its  quantity  of  eggs,  con 
taining  sometimes  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions,  and  weighing 
one-fourth  of  the  whole  fish.  It  in  fact  constitutes  its  chief  value, 
as  from  it  caviar, — so  much  prized,  is  furnished.  For  preparing 
it,  the  roes,  taken  out  and  placed  in  tubs,  are  cleansed  with 
water;  the  fibrous  parts,  by  which  the  eggs  are  connected,  being 
removed,  the  spawn  is  rinsed  in  white  wine  or  vinegar,  and 
spread  to  dry.  It  is  then  put  into  a  vessel  and  salted,  being 
crushed  down  at  the  same  time  with  the  hands,  and  afterwards 
inclosed  in  linen  bags  to  drain  off  the  moisture.  Lastly,  it  is 
packed  in  tubs,  pierced  in  the  bottom,  that  any  remaining  moist- 
ure  may  yet  drain  off,  and  closed  down  for  domestic  use  or  ex 
portation.  Sometimes  it  is  said  to  be  preserved,  after  having 
been  salted  and  seasoned,  by  being  rolled  up  into  large  balls, 
and  immersed  in  vessels  of  oil ;  or  the  rolls  are  inclosed  in  wax, 
so  that  the  air  may  be  more  effectually  excluded.  (Gosse.)  The 
flesh  of  the  Sturgeon  is  another  article  of  considerable  com 
merce.  It  is  smoked  or  broiled  in  slices,  and  pickled,  and  in 
this  form  exported.  So  fat  and  unpalatable,  (as  some  regard  it.) 
it  was  deemed  by  the  ancient  Romans  one  of  the  most  sump 
tuous  dishes;  and  at  all  "great  dinner-parties,  this  fish  was 
always  carried  by  servants  decked  with  garlands  and  flowers, 
and  attended  by  a  band  of  musicians.  On  the  Hudson  River,  it 
is  called  "  Albany  Beef,"  from  its  frequent  exposure  in  the 
markets  of  that  city.  The  swimming  bladder  of  the  Sturgeon  is 
also  profitable.  If  cut  open  and  washed,  and  its  silvery  glutinous 
skin  be  exposed  for  some  hours  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  sepa 
rated  from  the  external  skin,  it  furnishes  the  best  isinglass,  the 
value  and  uses  of  which  are  well  known.  They  migrate  during 
the  early  summer  months,  deposit  their  spawn,  and  return  again 
to  the  sea.  Those  of  North  America  are  almost  fresh-water  fish* 
The  chief  species  are  the  COMMON  STURGEON,  Acipenser,  (LaU 
a  sturgeon,)  sturio,  of  the  seas  and  rivers  of  Europe ;  the  BE- 


CHONDROPTERYGII.  585 

LTTGA  or  ISINGLASS  STURGEON,  A.  huso,  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
probably  the  largest  species,  sometimes  weighing,  it  is  said, 
three  thousand  pounds,  and  from  which  the  caviar  of  commerce 
is  made  in  great  quantities ;  the  STERLET,  A.  ruthenus,  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  which  is  said  to  yield 
caviar  of  a  very  superior  sort;  the  LAKE  STURGEON,  A.  rubicun- 
dus,  (Lat.  ruddy,)  four  feet  long,  of  a  yellowish  red  on  the 
back,  and  olivaceous  red  on  the  sides,  found  in  Lakes  Ontario 
and  Erie,  and  the  upper  lakes ;  the  Sharp-nosed  Sturgeon,  A. 
oxyrhincus,  (Gr.  sharp-nosed,)  seven  feet  long,  and  found  in  the 
rivers  of  the  United  States.  A  species  of  the  genus  Scapliirhyn- 
cusj  (Gr.  boat-nosed,)  viz:  the  SHOVEL-FISH,  S.  platyrhynchus, 
(Gr.  broad-nosed,)  is  found  in  the  Mississippi  river.  Of  the 
genus  Polyodon,  (Gr.  many  toothed;)  is  the  Spoon-bill,  P. 
folium,  (Lat.  a  leaf,)  (previously  referred  to,)  and  also  an  inhabitant 
of  the  Mississippi.  This  fish  has  an  enormous  gill-cover,  with 
a  large  branchial  aperture,  nearly  like  that  of  the  generality  of 
fishes;  and  it  is  also  furnished  with  an  air-bladder:  hence, 
though  placed  next  to  the  Sharks,  Swainson  appears  to  doubt  the 
propriety  of  such  a  position  of  it.  It  has  a  snout  greatly  ex 
tended,  much  dilated,  and,  together  with  the  head,  nearly  as  long 
as  the  body  ;  the  tail  is  highly  heterocercal,  and  the  skin  entirely 
naked. 

SECOND  ORDER.     PLAGIOSTOMA.     (Gr.  nl&yios,  plagios,  trans 
verse  ;  oro^a,  stoma,  mouth.)     Gills  not  free. 

The  fishes  of  this  order  have  a  cartilaginous  cranium,  in  which 
the  parts  are  not  separately  discernible.  The  cartilaginous, 
teeth-bearing  jaws  are  attached  to  the  skull,  also  by  cartilages. 
The  gills  are  fixed  by  their  external  .edges,  with  five  small  ex- 
ternal  openings  on  each  side.  The  face  is  prolonged  in  front ; 
and  on  its  under  side  is  situated  the  broad  transverse  mouth  ; 
the  ventrals  and  pectorals,  soft  and  fleshy,  like  the  other  fins,  are 
always  present ;  the  pectorals,  in  the  male,  having  long  append 
ages  on  their  internal  margins.  The  covering  of  these  fishes 
consists  of  shagreen,  or  of  plates  variously  modified.  The 
swimming-bladder  is  wanting;  the  teeth  are  placed  on  the  roof 
of  the  mouth  and  the  lower  jaw.  The  order  includes  two  fami 
lies,  SquatidaR,  (Sharks,)  and  Raiid<z,  (Rays.) 

(34)  Squalida,  (Lat.  squalus,  a  kind  of  sea-fish.)    The  SHARKS. 

This  dreaded  family  of  fishes  are  distinguished  by  having  the 
branchial  openings  lateral,  the  eye-lids  free,  the  pectoral  fins 
distinct  from  the  head,  the  body  slender,  and  somewhat  spindle- 


583  CHONDROPTERYGII. 

shaped.  The  mouth  is  generally  placed  far  beneath  the  end  of 
the  nose ;  and  the  upper  part  of  the  tail  is  longer  than  the  lower. 
These  fish  are  generally  of  a  large  size,  sometimes  almost 
gigantic.  They  are  carnivorous,  and  very  voracious.  Some 
of  them  are  universally  dreaded  on  account  of  their  ferocity, 
their  appetite  for  human  flesh,  their  strength,  and  the  formidable 
array  of  teeth  with  which  their  mouth  is  furnished.  These  are 
triangular,  finely  serrated,  and  exceedingly  sharp,  lying  quite 
flat  in  the  mouth  ;  but  when  seizing  their  prey,  are  raised  by 
the  action  of  muscles  by  which  they  are  joined  to  the  jaw.  To 
this,  and  the  singular  method  in  which  these  formidable  creatures 
are  continued,  we  referred,  however,  in  the  general  description 
of  the  Fishes.  The  most  useful  part  of  these  fishes  is  the  liver, 
from  which  oil  is  obtained  ;  a  Shark  twenty  feet  in  length,  yield 
ing  about  two  barrels.  The  rough  skin  is  used  for  polishing 
ivory  and  wood,  and  for  making  thongs,  &c.,  for  carriages;  con- 
verted  into  shagreen,  it  serves  for  covering  small  cases  and 
boxes.  The  flesh  is  not  eatable,  being  coarse,  and  of  a  disagree 
able  flavor. 

The  WHITE  SHARK,  Carcharias,  (Gr.  marine-dog,)  vuJgoris  or 
Squalus  Carcharias.  found  in  tropical  seas,  has  been  known  to 
cut  a  man's  body  in  twain  at  a  single  snap ;  and  it  is  stated  that 
human  bodies  have  been  found  entire  in  the  stomachs  of  these 
terrible  monsters.  It  is  suggested,  that  their  insatiate  voracity 
may  result  from  the  great  quantity  of  gastric  juice  with  which 
they  are  supplied,  causing  them  to  digest  with  great  rapidity, 
and  from  the  tape  and  other  worms  which  abound  in  their  intes 
tines.  Their  sense  of  smell  is  acute,  so  that  they  discover  their 
victims  at  a  distance;  and  they  follow  in  the  wake  of  ships  for 
the  purpose  of  devouring  whatever  may  be  thrown  or  fall  from 
them  into  the  sea.  The  White  Shark  is  said  to  measure,  some 
times,  thirty  feet  in  length,  and  to  exceed  one  thousand  pounds 
in  weight. 

The  THRESHER  SHARK,  Carcharias  vulpes,  has  the  upper  part 
of  the  tail  nearly  as  long  as  the  body,  or  even  longer.  The  tail 
is  its  principal  organ  of  defence;  it  literally  threshes  its  enemies. 
Sometimes  it  is  called  the  Fox-Shark,  and  the  SWINGLE-TAIL. 
This  species,  which  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  length,  is 
found  on  the  coasts  of  North  America  as  far  North  as  Nova 
Scotia. 

The  SMALL  BLUE  SHARK,  C.  obscurus,  from  two  to  six  feet  in 
length,  is  frequently  taken  on  our  coast. 

The  MACKEREL  PORBEAGLE  or  MACKEREL  SHARK,  Lamna,  (Gr. 
a  plate,)  punctata,  has  a  pyramidal  snout,  with  the  nostrils 


CHONDROPTERYGII.  587 

under  the  base,  and  the  gill-openings  all  in  front  of  the  pectorals; 
there  are  no  pectoral  orifices.  Its  general  color  is  a  dark  slate. 
The  oil  of  its  liver  is  much  esteemed  by  curriers.  The  length 
is  from  four  to  ten  feet.  The  surface  under  the  lens,  exhibits 
numerous  minute  plates;  to  this  its  generic  name  has  reference. 

The  HOUND-FISH,  Mustelus  canis,  has  blunt  teeth,  forming  a 
closely  compacted  pavement  in  each  jaw,  with  temporal  orifices. 
The  lower  lobe  of  the  tail-fin  is  short.  Its  length  is  from  two  to 
four  feet. 

The  BASKING  SHARK,  Selachus  maximus,  has  the  gill-openings 
all  before  the  pectorals,  long,  and  nearly  surrounding  the  neck; 
it  has  no  air-holes  behind  the  eyes;  the  teeth  are  small,  of  vari 
ous  forms,  but  generally  conical.  This  species  is  over  thirty 
feet  in  length.  It  is  said  its  liver  will  yield  eight  barrels  of  oil. 
It  has  the  popular  name  of  Basking  Shark,  from  its  habit  of  con 
tinuing  for  some  time  in  one  place.  It  is  sluggish,  inactive,  and 
less  fierce  than  the  other  species,  and  inhabits  the  Northern  seas, 
but  is  occasionally  seen  off  our  coast. 

The  SMALL  SPOTTED  DOG-FISH,  Scyllium  canicula,  has  a  prom 
inent  and  slightly  pointed  jaw,  with  the  nostrils  pierced  near  the 
mouth,  and  a  cylindrical  shaped  body.  It  keeps  near  the  bottom 
of  the  water,  and  feeds  on  fish  and  small  crustaceans.  This,  and 
the  larger  Dog-fish,  Scyllium  catulus,  are  found  on  the  British 
and  French  coasts.  The  larger  species  is  three  or  four  feet  in 
length,  and  does  much  damage  to  the  fisheries  on  account  of  its 
voracious  habits.  In  Scotland,  these  fish  are  said  to  form  no 
inconsiderable  part  of  the  food  of  the  poor.  The  species  S.  ca 
tulus,  is  sometimes  called  the  Rock-Shark.  This,  or  a  similar 
species,  is  found  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States. 

The  SPINY  DoG-Fisn,  Spinax  acanthias,  (Storer,)  is  easily 
recognized  by  the  spiracles  or  air-holes  which  are  placed,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  temple,  just  behind  the  eye.  It  has  a  sharp, 
strong  spine  in  front  of  each  of  the  two  dorsal  fins.  (See  Plate 
XIV.  fig.  10.)  Its  teeth  are  in  several  rows,  small  and  cutting. 
The  color  is  slate ;  the  length  from  one  to  three  feet.  This 
species  is  very  numerous  about  Cape  Cod,  where  they  are  much 
sought  for  the  oil  which  they  furnish.  Of  the  immense  numbers 
of  them  found  in  tropical  seas,  some  idea  may  be  formed  from 
the  fact,  that  in  the  single  harbor  of  Kingston,  (Jamaica,)  from 
cne  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  are  destroyed 
annually.  Twenty  thousand,  it  is  said,  have  been  taken  in  a 
seine  at  one  time. 

The  ANGEL-FISH,  Squatina  angelus,  seems,  in  its  form,  to  unite 
t  Aether  the  Sharks  and  the  Rays.  Swainson  includes  it  with 


588  CHONDKOPTERYGII. 

the  Rays,  remarking  that  this  and  the  species  S.  DumeriH,  found 
on  the  American  coast,  have  the  two  dorsals  and  the  caudal  fin 
in  shape  and  situation  the  same  as  what  is  seen  in  the  Torpedoes. 
The  length  of  the  American  species  is  from  three  to  four  feet. 
It  is  said  to  have  acquired  the  name  of  Angel-fish  from  its  ex 
tended  pectoral  fins  having  the  appearance  of  wings;  and  it  is 
called  MONK-FISH,  because  its  rounded  head  appears  as  if  envel 
oped  in  a  hood. 

The  SAW-FISH,  Pristis,  (Gr.  pristis,  a  saw,)  has  the  body 
flattened  in  front,  with  the  gill-openings  beneath,  as  in  the  Rays; 
but  they  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  a  very  long  snout,  which  is 
in  form  like  the  blade  of  a  two-edged  sword,  and  armed  on  each 
side  with  pointed  bony  spines.  This  saw-like  weapon,  the  fish 
often  buries  in  the  flesh  of  the  whale  and  other  marine  animals. 
The  Saw-fish  is  sometimes  included  with  the  Rays. 

(35)  Raiida,  the  RAYS. 

These  are  a  family  of  fishes  which  have  the  body  flattened  as 
in  the  Saw-fish,  and  the  pectorals  greatly  enlarged,  as  in  the  An 
gel-fish,  both  which,  in  their  structure,  seem  to  approach  the  pres 
ent  group.  In  the  Rays,  the  pectorals  are  very  broad  and 
continuous  with  the  head,  sometimes  stretching  out  in  front  of 
it  in  the  form  of  lobes,  so  that  these  fishes  present  an  appear 
ance  disk-like,  or  more  or  less  rhomboidal,  the  snout  forming  one 
corner,  and  the  projecting  tail  another  ;  the  other  two  corners 
being  the  angles  of  the  pectoral  fins ;  the  ventrals,  in  the  males, 
have  appendages  like  those  of  the  Sharks;  the  dorsal  fins,  two, 
sometimes  three  in  number,  are  small,  and  placed  far  back  on 
the  slender  tail.  The  eyes  are  on  the  upper  surface,  as  are  also 
the  temporal  spiracles  ;  the  mouth,  the  nostrils,  and  the  gill-open 
ings  are  placed  in  the  under  surface,  and  thus  concealed  from 
view.  The  mouth  is  small  and  set  with  numerous  teeth,  which 
are  placed  in  close  array,  like  paving  stones.  As  in  many  of 
the  Sharks,  the  eyes  have  a  nictitating  membrane  or  skin  which 
can  be  drawn  over  the  eye  at  pleasure,  and  serves  as  an  eye-lid. 
The  young  of  the  Rays  are  enveloped  at  birth  in  capsules  of 
a  thin  horny  or  leathery  substance  to  which  filaments  are  attached. 
The  prolongations  of  the  angles  of  the  envelope  give  it^some  re 
semblance  in  shape  to  a  hand-barrow.  But  the  most  distinguish 
ing  peculiarity  of  the  Rays  is  their  barbs  or  prickles,  varying  in 
length,  according  to  the  size  of  the  fish,  by  which  they  are  able 
to  tear  the  flesh  and  inflict  severe  wounds.  These  fishes  are 
strictly  ground  feeders,  groveling  along  on  the  soft  muddy  bot 
tom,  and  moving  with  a  peculiar  undulating  action  of  the  pecto 
ral  fins. 


CHONDROPTERYGII.  589 

Some  of  the  species  of  the  tropical  seas  grow  to  a  great  size 
and  are  proportionally  ferocious. 

The  RAYS  PROPER,  Raia,  include  several  species,  some  of 
which  are  found  on  our  coast,  such  as  the  CLEAR-NOSED  RAY, 
R.  DiapJianeS)  (Gr.  clear,)  from  one  to  three  feet  long,  caught 
with  cod-fish,  and  sometimes  eaten ;  the  PRICKLY  RAY,  R.  Amer 
icana,  from  one  to  two  feet  long,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  11 ;)  the  SPOT 
TED  RAY,  R.  ocellata.  When  captured,  this  species  whips  its 
tail  about  with  great  activity,  and  hence  has  the  name  of  Whip 
Ray;  the  HEDGE-HOG  RAY,  R.  erinaceus,  length  about  eighteen 
inches;  the  PRICKLY-STING  RAY,  Pastinaca,  (Lat.  sting-ray,) 
hastata,  (Lat.  from  hasta,  a  spear,)  having  two  or  more  spines 
or  barbs  in  the  tail,  which  is  longer  than  the  body ;  the  whole 
length  is  from  five  to  eight  feet ;  this  species  is  numbered  among 
the  edible  rays ;  the  SMOOTH  SKATE,  Raia  lavis,  in  length  from 
two  to  four  feet ;  the  THORNBACK,  R.  Clavata,  (Lat.  knotted  or 
thorned,)  has  large  and  numerous  spinous  tubercles. 

The  EAGLE  RAYS,  Cephaloptera,  (Gr.  head  wings,)  often  grow 
to  an  enormous  size,  specimens  having  been  seen  twenty-five 
feet  in  length  and  thirty  in  breadth.  One  was  taken  at  Barba- 
does  a  few  years  ago,  which  weighed  thirty-five  hundred  pounds 
and  required  seven  pair  of  oxen  to  draw  it  on  shore  !  (Kirby.) 
The  Eagle  Rays  are  nearly  or  quite  as  dangerous  to  man  as  the 
Sharks.  They  are  known  to  fishermen  under  the  name  of 
"Devil  Fish."  The  species  C.  vamp? rus,  the  OCEANIC  VAMPIRE, 
is  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet  in  length.  It  is  very  powerful, 
sometimes  seizing  the  cables  of  small  vessels  at  anchor,  and 
drawing  the  vessel  for  several  miles,  with  great  velocity.  Pass 
ing  by  some  other  divisions,  we  must  refer  to  the 

ELECTRIC  RAYS,  or  TORPEDOES.  Torpedinida,  fishes  which  have 
long  been  celebrated  for  their  electrical  powers,  while  their  shape 
is  so  singular  that  they  look  more  like  gigantic  tadpoles  than 
fish,  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  13.)  The  head  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
the  pectoral  fins,  which  give  to  it  in  some  species,  a  completely 
circular  appearance ;  the  tail  is  thick,  fleshy,  and  only  moder 
ately  long,  terminated  by  a  distinct,  large,  and  triangular  fin. 
The  electrical  organs  constitute  a  pair  of  galvanic  batteries, 
arranged  in  the  form  of  perpendicular  hexagonal  columns, 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  head  and  gills,  the  small  cells  being 
filled  with  mucus.  These  fishes  are  less  powerfully  electrical 
than  the  Gymnotust  but  can  benumb  the  arm  of  a  person  touch 
ing  one  of  them* 


599  CHONDROPTERYGII. 


THIRD  ORDER.     CYCLOSTOMI,  (Gr.  xtxlos,  kuHos,  a  circle  ;  or6(«a, 
stoma,  a  mouth.) 

The  fishes  of  this  order  have  already  been  referred  to  as  hav 
ing  sac  or  purse-shaped  gills.  These  are  fixed  and  open  out 
wards  by  several  apertures.  The  mouth  consists  of  a  circular 
fleshy  lip,  with  a  cartilaginous  ring  supporting  it;  this  peculiarity 
gives  name  to  the  order. 

(36)  Petromyzonida,  (Gr.  stone-suckers.)  These  have  length 
ened,  cylindrical,  eel  or  worm-shaped  bodies,  destitute,  both  of 
pectoral  and  ventral  fins,  but  having  foldings  of  skin  above  and 
below,  serving  the  purpose  of  dorsal,  caudal  and  anal  fins, 
though  without  any  supporting  rays. 

The  SEA  LAMPREY,  Petromyzon  Americanus.  In  making  its 
furrow,  preparatory  to  spawning,  it  uses  its  sucker-like  mouth  ; 
with  it  separately  removing  stones  of  large  size,  and  thus  quickly 
constructing  a  large  furrow.  It  is  from  two  to  three  feet  in  length. 

The  MUD  LAMPREYS,  Ammocates,  (Gr.  sand-bedded,)  include 
several  species  which  differ  from  the  true  Lampreys  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  the  mouth,  which  is  not  suctorial,  but  composed  by 
the  projecting  upper  lip,  the  lower  one  being  transverse. 

These  fish  are  found  in  large  numbers,  in  sand  or  mud  flats. 
They  are  from  three  to  four  inches  in  length,  varying  in  thick 
ness  "from  that  of  an  earth  worm  to  that  of  a  swan's  quill." 
They  are  dug  up  from  a  depth  of  four  or  five  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  water,  and  used  as  bait  for  fishes. 

The  MYXINOIDS  or  Glutinous  Hags,  Myxynoidei,  approach  the 
lowest  form  of  the  Vertebrates,  and  by  Linnceus  and  other  writ 
ers,  are  classed  with  the  Worms.  These  curious  animals  are 
eel-shaped,  and  measure,  when  full  grown,  about  a  foot  and  a 
half.  The  head  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  body,  and 
is  obliquely  truncated  in  front,  ending  in  a  large  round  mouth, 
the  frame-work  of  which  is  a  membranous,  maxillary  ring,  fur 
nished  above  with  a  single  tooth.  The  tongue  has  in  each  end 
two  rows  of  strong  teeth.  The  Hag  has  no  eyes;  the  branchial 
openings  are  two  in  number;  the  skin  is  covered  with  slime, 
furnished  from  a  row  of  pores  on  each  side  of  the  belly.  An 
obscure  fin  runs  along  the  hinder  portion  of  the  back  ;  and  is 
continued  round  the  compressed  tail.  The  color  is  of  a  dark 
bluish-brown  above,  and  whitish  beneath. 

The  HAG  or  BORER,  M.  glutinosa,  is  found  in  the  northern 
seas  of  Europe.  It  does  mischief  by  entering  the  mouths  of 
fishes  caught  in  the  lines  of  the  fishermen  and  eating  up  all 
the  fleshy  parts  of  their  bodies,  leaving  only  the  skin  and  bones. 
The  name  Borer  is  given  to  it,  because,  as  is  said,  it  pierces  a 


CHONDROPTERYGII.  591 

small  aperture,  and  thus  makes  its  way  into  the  body  of  Cod,  or 
other  fishes  which  it  attacks.     (See  general  account  of  Fishes.) 

FOURTH  ORDER.     BRANCHIOSTOMA,  (Gr.  branchia,  gills ;  stoma, 

mouth.) 

The  term  here  used  to  designate  an  order,  is  sometimes  em 
ployed  as  generic,  and  the  name  Amphioxidce,  (37,)  given  to  the 
family  of  which  it  constitutes  the  sole  genus.  Mtiller,  (see  his 
classification,)  ranks  it  in  the  sub-order  PHARYNGOBRANCHII, 
(Gr.  throat-gills.)  a  name  referring  to  the  position  of  the  branchial 
sac.  This  extraordinary  animal,  at  an  early  period  thought  to 
be  a  mollusk,  was  first  discovered  on  the  British  coast,  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century.  Miiller  is  no  doubt  correct 
in  saying,  "  it  is  evidently  a  vertebrated  animal  and  a  fish," 
though  it  has  more  the  aspect  of  a  worm  than  a  fish.  Yarrel 
in  his  "History  of  British  Fishes,"  calls  it  the  LANCELET,  Am- 
phioxus  lanceolatusA  (Plate  XIV.  fig.  12.)  It  has  a  naked  skin 
and  no  fin  except  the  dorsal,  which  extends  over  the  entire  length 
of  the  back.  The  mouth  is  entirely  inferior,  elongated  or  circu 
lar,  the  margins  having  a  row  of  filaments. 

The  vertebrae  are  reduced  to  a  single,  cartilaginous  column 
or  thread,  flexible,  transparent,  and  scarcely  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  horny  pen  enveloped  in  the  flesh  of  some  of  the  Cut 
tle-fish.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  brain,  and  the  heart  "  presents 
entirely  the  form  and  distribution  of  blood  vessels  and  extends 
over  wide  spaces,"  characters  of  themselves  sufficient  to  distin 
guish  the  Branchiostoma  from  all  other  fishes.  The  blood  is 
white.  Miiller  considers  it  connected  with  the  Cyclostomatous 
fishes  through  its  dorsal  chord  and  the  absence  of  jaws  ;  but  as 
inferior  to  them  in  not  having  a  distinct  brain  and  in  the  pecu 
liarities  of  its  respiratory  system.  The  Lancelet  is  only  about 
two  inches  in  length,  and  lives  in  sandy  ground  at  a  depth  of  be 
tween  ten  and  twenty  fathoms  of  water.  It  probably  buries 
itself  in  the  sand.  Other  curious  particulars  could  be  given 
relating  to  this  lowest  of  the  Vertebrates,  did  our  limits  permit, 
but  here  we  close  our  account  of  the  Fishes  and  of  the  sub-king- 
dom  VERTEBRATES,  to  which  they  belong. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  with  accuracy  the  number  of  species  be 
longing  respectively  to  the  several  families  of  Fishes,  as  new 
researches,  made  from  time  to  time,  vary  the  assigned  numbers. 
The  following  tabular  view  is  given,  however,  as  an  approxima 
tion  to  a  true  account : 


592 


CHONDROPTERYGII. 


1  Percids, 

2  TriglidEe, 

3  Scienidae, 

4  Sparidas, 

5  Maenidae, 

6  Chaetodontidse, 
*7  Anabassidae, 

8  Scomberidae, 

9  Cepolidce, 

10  Teuthidae, 

11  Atherinidae, 

12  Mugilidae, 

13  Gobidse, 

14  Lophidss, 

15  Labridae, 

16  Siluridae, 

17  Cyprinidae, 

18  Esocidae, 


600  species. 

19  Fistularidae, 

260 

20  Salmonidae, 

250 

21  Clupidce, 

240 

22  Gadidte, 

61 

23  Pleuronectidae, 

150 

24  Cyclopteridae, 

1 

25  Echeneids?, 

400 

26  Anguillidae, 

84 

27  Syugnathidae, 

80 

28  Gynmodontidae. 

50 

29  Balistidae, 

80 

30  Ostracionidae, 

400 

31  Sauridae, 

60 

32  Chimaeridae, 

500 

33  Sturionidae, 

400 

34  Squalid®, 

723 

35  Raiidae, 

120 

36  Amphioxidae, 

20  species. 
132   " 
180 
110 
150 

40 

20 
175 
100 
100 
110 

30 


24  « 
114  " 
130  " 


What  is  the  1st  ORDER  of  OSSEOUS  or  BONY  FISHES?  What  other  name 
has  it?  How  is  it  characterized?  What  is  the  number  of  the  PERCH  Fam 
ily?  Are  they  marine  or  fresh  water  fish?  Which  is  the  typical  species? 
What  other  sp.  closely  resemble  it?  What  is  said  of  the  Striped  Bass? 
Which  are  among  the  most  remarkable  fishes  of  this  group  ?  What  is  said  of 
them.  In  what  respects  are  all  the  perches  alike?  How  are  the  GURNARDS 
characterized?  Whence  is  the  name  derived?  What  did  Cuv.  call  them? 
What  sp.  are  mentioned  ?  What  two  remarkable  fish  are  found  in  this  family  ? 
State  what  is  said  of  them.  What  is  the  3d  FAMILY?  What  is  said  of 
them  ?  What  of  the  4th  and  5th  Families  ?  Why  are  the  CHAETODONS  so 
called?  What  does  Cuv.  name  them?  Why?  What  is  peculiar  in  the 
Archers  ?  What  gen.  includes  the  CLIMBING  PERCHES  ?  What  is  said  of 
them?  What  is  the  next  Family?  What  is  said  of  their  numbers? 
What  is  said  of  the  Tunny,  Bonito,  and  Sword-fish  ?  Name  the  other  sp. 
What  is  said  of  the  Bottle-headed  Dolphin?  Which  is  the  9th  FAMILY? 
Why  are  they  called  Ribbon-fishes?  What  fact  shows  the  name  to  be  ap 
propriate  ?  What  sp.  is  found  on  our  coast?  What  is  the  next  Family  ? 
What  fishes  do  they  resemble  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Doctor-fish  ?  What 
of  the  Surgeon-fish?  What  is  the  llth  FAMILY?  State  what  is  said  of 
it.  Name  the  next  Family.  Repeat  what  is  said  of  them.  In  what  respect 
are  the  Blennies  and  Gobies  alike  ?  What  other  characters  are  given  ? 
State  what  is  said  of  the  sp.  referred  to.  How  are  the  LOPHIDJE  distin 
guished  ?  What  singular  looking  fishes  does  this  family  include  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Antennarius?  Why  are  the  Labridoe  so  named?  What  two 
sections  do  they  include?  What  is  said  of  the  Wrasses  or  Rock-fishes? 
What  sp.  are  mentioned  ? 

Name  the  2d  ORDER  of  FisHES.  What  is  said  of  their  organization? 
How  distinguished  from  the  preceding  order?  Why  is  it  esteemed  impor 
tant?  What  SUB-ORDER  is  first  mentioned?  How  characterized?  What 
is  the  16th  FAMILY  ?  What  fishes  represent  it  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Horn- 
pouts?  Of  the  Sheat-fish  or  Sly-Silure?  What  is  peculiar  to  the  S.  electri- 
cus  ?  What  is  said  of  the  gen.  pimelodus  ?  What  large  sp.  is  referred  to  ? 
What  remarkable  S.  American  sp.  is  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  the 


CHO;.DKOPTEKY<4;; 


BLIND-FISHES?  "What  is  the  17th  FAMILY?  How  rrtimwoua are  they  ?  Are 
they  found  in  Tropical  waters  ?  What  is  said  of  their  teeth  ?  Where  is 
the  sp.  Cyprinus  carpio  particularly  abundant?  Who  first  introduced  it 
into  American  waters?  What  is  said  of  the  Gold-fish,  the  Gudgeon,  and 
the  Slimy  Tench?  What  fish  furnishes  the  silvery  matter  for  artificial 
pearls  ?  Name  other  fishes  of  this  family.  What  remarkable  sp.  are  found 
in  Austria  and  Brazil?  How  are  the  PIKES  characterized?  What  does 
Lacepede  call  them  ?  What  is  the  only  European  sp.  and  what  is  said  of 
it  ?  Are  the  American  sp.  numerous  ?  How  are  they  divided  ?  What  sp. 
are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  BILL-FISH?  What  of  the  FLYING-FISH 
or  Exocoetus?  What  family  includes  the  Pipe  and  Trumpet  fishes?  What 
is  said  of  them  ?  Which  is  the  20th  Family  ?  How  are  they  character 
ized?  How  regarded  by  anglers?  What  is  said  of  their  color?  Which 
is  the  most  conspicuous  sp.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  BROOK  TROUT  ?  What 
of  their  numbers  in  former  times?  What  is  the  21st  FAMILY?  How  are 
they  esteemed?  What  is  said  of  their  abundance?  What  of  the  HER 
RING  fishery  ?  How  are  the  Red  or  Smoked  Herring  prepared  ?  For  what 
are  the  H.  used  besides  food  ?  What  is  said  of  SARDINES  ?  What  of 
SHAD,  &c.  ? 


How  are  the  SUB-BRACHIALS  distinguished?  Which  is  the  22nd  FAMILY? 
Which  is  the  best  known  sp.  ?  Which  is  common  on  the  U.  S.  coast  ? 
What  is  said  of  it  ?  What  other  sp.  are  mentioned  ?  Which  is  the  next 
FAMILY?  In  what  respect  do  they  stand  alone  among  vertebrates? 
Describe  them.  How  does  DeKay  designate  the  FLAT-FISH?  How  the 
FLOUNDER?  What  sp.  of  Turbot  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the 
HALIBUT?  What  is  the  24th  FAMILY?  How  are  they  characterized? 
Why  called  SUCKERS  ?  What  genera  represent  them  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  Lump-sucker?  What  does  Pennant  state?  What  is  the  next  Family  ? 
What  gen.  represents  it?  To  what  does  the  name  refer?  What  sp.  are 
mentioned?  What  is  said  of  them?  What  is  the  next  SUB-ORDER?  Name 
the  26th  Family?  How  are  they  characterized  ?  What  is  said  of  the  num 
ber  of  fin  rays  ?  Which  sp.  are  the  larger  ?  What  does  Yarrell  say  ? 
What  enables  these  fish  to  remain  out  of  water  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
eggs  ?  Repeat  what  is  said  of  the  Electric  Eel  ?  What  is  the  next  SUB 
ORDER?  How  is  it  characterized ?  What  is  the  27th  FAMILY?  Give  their 
general  characters?  What  is  remarkable  in  the  male  PIPE-FISH?  What 
in  the  SEA-HORSE  ?  What  is  the  next  SUB-ORDER?  How  distinguished? 
What  is  the  28th  FAMILY?  Have  they  real  teeth?  What  have  they  instead? 
What  is  said  of  the  SEA  PORCUPINE?  What  of -the  Puffer,  or  Balloon-fish  ? 
What  of  the  small  Globe-fish  ?  What  other  Globe-fishes  are  named  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Sun-fish?  Mention  the  next  Family?  What  is  said  of  it? 
What  is  said  of  the  Trunk-fishes?  How  are  the  GANOIDS  characterized? 
What  is  the  31st  Family?  What  is  said  of  the  Polypterus  of  the  Nile? 
What  other  sp.  of  this  family  are  mentioned  ? 


What  is  said  of  the  PLACOIDS  or  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES  ?  Name  the  1st 
ORDER?  How  is  it  characterized?  What  is  the  32d  Family?  What  is 
said  of  it?  What  is  the  next  Family?  What  is  said  of  their  covering? 
What  of  their  mouth  and  body?  Of  their  size?  In  what  respect  is  the 
roe  remarkable  ?  What  valued  food  does  it  furnish  ?  How  is  it  prepared  ? 


594  CHONDROPTERYGII. 

From  what  part  of  the  Sturgeon  is  isinglass  obtained,  and  how  is  it  pre 
pared  ?  What  sp.  of  Sturgeon  are  mentioned  and  what  is  said  of  them  ? 
What  is  the  2nd  ORDER  of  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES  ?  How  is  it  character 
ized?  What  is  the  34th  FAMILY?  What  is  said  of  their  size,  voracity, 
&c.?  What  is  said  of  the  White  Shark?  Of  the  Thresher  S.?  What 
other  sp.  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  the  Spiny  Dog-fish  and  the 
Spotted  Dog-fish  ?  Of  the  Angel-fish  and  Saw-fish  ?  What  is  the  35th 
FAMILY?  Give  their  characters?  What  sp.  of  RAYS  PROPER  are  mentioned? 
What  is  said  of  the  EAGLE  RAYS  ?  Of  the  Electric  Ray  ?  What  is  the  3d 
ORDER  of  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES?  What  peculiarity  gives  name  to  the 
order?  What  is  the  36th  FAMILY?  What  is  said  of  this  FAMILY?  What 
of  the  Sea  Lamprey?  What  of  the  Mud  Lamprey?  Of  the  Myxinoids  or 
Glutinous  Hags?  What  is  the  4th  ORDER  of  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES?  How 
is  the  term  sometimes  employed?  What  Family  does  it  include?  How 
does  Miiller  rank  it?  What  is  it  called  by  Yarrell  ?  Describe  this  fish. 


Name  and  trace  from  the  Chart  some  of  the  largest  fish,  giving  a  sketch 
of  each  from  the  book.  Which  is  the  largest  of  the  Mackerel  Family? 
Which  next?  Which  is  the  largest  of  the  Flat-fishes?  In  what  do  they 
differ  from  all  other  fish?  Which  of  the  Placoids  is  the  largest?  How  do 
the  caudal  fins  of  this  order  differ  from  those  of  other  orders  ?  What  fam 
ilies  present  the  most  singular  forms  ?  Which  are  nearly  round  ?  Which 
long  and  slender?  Which  three  or  four  sided?  Describe  the  Sun-fish  and 
Chimaera  from  the  Chart.  Which  fish  crawl  upon  land  or  climb  trees,  and 
in  what  orders  are  they  found 


PL. 


Coieojitera 
a 


I  N  S  ECTS  .  JJermaptera 

Strep  siptera. 


Aptera.orParasita.  Myriapoda.  Arachnida 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XV. 

INSECTS    WITH    BITING   JAWS. 

Fig.  1.  Larva  of  a  beetle,  usually  consisting  of  thirteen  segments ;  a,  the 
head;  b,  the  three  segments  of  the  thorax,  to  which  the  legs  and  wings 
are  attached ;  c,  the  nine  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

Fig.  2.  The  Lady-bird  or  Lady-bug,  Coccinella  septempunctata  ;  a,  pupa 
with  the  outer  case,  b,  larva ;  c,  pupa ;  d,  complete  insecu 

Fig.  3.  Wasp-fly,   Stylops. 

Fig.  4.  Earwig,  Forficula ;  a,  the  large  posterior  wings ;  b,  anal  forceps ; 
c,  the  antennae  with  fourteen  joints. 

Figures  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  belong  to  the  four  sections  of  the  Order  Orthoptera. 

Fig.  5.  Cockroach,  Blatta  orientalis. 

Fig.  6.  Walking-leaf  Insect,  Phi/Ilium  siccifolium  ;  a,  foliaceous  expansions 
upon  the  feet ;  b,  the  true  wings,  far  exceeding  in  size  the  wing  covers. 

Fig.  7.  Praying  Mantis,  Mantis  religiosa,  named  from  the  attitude  they  as 
sume  while  waiting  to  grasp  their  prey  with  their  raptorial  feet,  a. 

Fig.  8.  Walking-stick,  Walking-beetle  or  Spectre,  Spectrum  femoratum, 
without  wings  or  wing  covers,  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the 
branch  on  which  they  rest. 

Fig.  9.  Katydid,  Platyphyllum  concavum;  a,  the  curved  ovipositor,  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  long. 

Fig.  10.  Caddis-fly,  Phryganea;  a,  front  wings,  fibrous  with  branching 
nerves ;  the  hind  wings  are  largest,  but  folded  when  at  rest. 

Fig.  11.  Dragon-fly  or  Darning-needle,  Libellula;  the  compound  eyes, 
nearly  cover  the  entire  head,  and  contain  about  12,000  lenses. 

Fig.  12.  Hornet,  Vespa  crabro ;  a,  antennae;  b,  head;  c,  thorax ;  d,  abdo 
men;  1,  the  coxa  or  hip  joined  to  the  body;  2,  trochanter,  or  second 
joint  of  the  leg ;  3,  femur  or  thigh ;  4,  tibia  or  shank ;  5,  tarsus,  com 
posed  of  five  or  less  joints,  and  terminated  by  two  hooked  claws. 

WITH    MOUTHS    FOR    SUCKING,    PUMPING,    OR   PIERCING. 

Fig.  13.  Cabbage  Butterfly,  Pontia  brassica ;  a,  the  knob  at  the  end  of  the 
antennae,  distinguishing  butterflies  from  moths  or  millers,  whose  anten- 
nse  are  feathery  or  saw-like ;  b,  anterior  wings ;  c,  posterior  wings. 

Fig.  14.  Cochineal  Insect,  Coccus  cacti ;  a,  the  male,  with  red  body,  white 
wings  and  two  setae  or  bristles  c,  at  the  apex  of  the  abdomen ;  b,  the 
female,  without  wings,  having  shorter  antennse,  and  a  beak  of  which  the 
male  is  destitute. 

Fig.  15.  Blow  or  Blue-bottle  Fly,  Musca  vomitoria;  a,  the  only  pair  of 
wings,  which  are  transparent  and  without  scales  or  dust.  There  are 
no  wing  covers,  as  the  lower  wings  are  reduced  to  two  small  knobbed 
threads,  called  hajterers  or  poisers. 

Fig.  16a.  Flea,  Pulex  irritans ;  b,  Jigger  or  Chigoe,  P.  penetrans,  feet 
long,  bristly,  and  adapted  for  leaping. 

Fig.  17a.  Louse,  Pediculns ;  b,  Lepisma. 

Fig.  18a.  Thousand-legged  Worm  or  Millipede,  lulus  terrcstris,  has  usually 
two  pair  of  feet  to  each  segment,  each  foot  ending  in  a  claw.  The 
feet  in  different  sp.  vary  from  12  to  300  pair,  b,  Brush-tailed  Centi 
pede. 

Fig.  19a.  Scorpion,  Scorpio  afer;  the  extended  tail-like  abdomen  ending 
with  the  sting ;  b,  Spider,  Arachnida ;  no  distinct  head,  eyes  from 
two  to  eight,  neither  wings,  antennae,  or  upper  lip ;  c,  Tick  Ixodes. 


SECOND   SUB-KINGDOM. 

ARTICULATES.     (Lat.  articulus,  a  joint.) 


SECTION  I. 

IN  leaving^  the  Vertebrated  Animals,  we,  in  the  descending 
scale,  first  come  to  the  class  of  ARTICULATES,  (articulata.)  These 
rank  first  among  the  INVERTEBRATED  Group,  or  those  animals 
that  are  destitute  of  a  back  bone.  They  are  so  named  because 
the  different  parts  of  their  body  are  composed  of  movable 
pieces  articulated  or  jointed  to  each  other.  They  deviate  from 
the  Molluscous  animals  in  generally  possessing  a  skeleton ;  but 
the  skeleton,  unlike  that  of  the  Vertebrates,  is  exterior  instead  of 
interior,  being  composed  of  a  series  of  rings,  protecting  the  in- 
ternal  parts,  and  serving  as  points  of  attachment  for  muscles. 
Though  exhibiting  considerable  diversity  of  character  among 
themselves,  the  Articulates  are  usually  provided  with  a  skin, 
which  is  either  soft,  as  in  the  leech  and  earth-worm,  or  horny 
and  crustaceous,  as  in  the  crab  and  craw-fish.  Some  families 
are  destitute  of  feet,  but  the  greater  portion  possess  these  mem 
bers.  When  limbs  are  present,  they  are  never  fewer  than  six. 
Articulated  animals  have  the  trunk  of  the  body,  for  the  most 
part,  long,  cylindrical,  and  divided  transversely  into  segments. 
In  the  lowest  of  the  series,  where  there  are  no  appendages  for 
locomotion,  and  all  the  movements  are  effected  by  the  body 
itself,  as  in  the  common  worm, — the  segments  appear  to  be  per. 
fectly  simple,  but,  as  ascending  in  the  scale,  we  observe  that 
gradually,  the  segments  develop  lateral  organs,  which  are  of 
kinds  quite  various,  according  to  the  character  of  the  animal. 

In  many  of  the  Amielidans,  and  in  the  Myriopoda  or  Centipede 
tribe,  especially,  the  articulated  character  of  these  animals  is 
conspicuous,  the  segments  being  numerous,  and  all  of  nearly 
equal  size,  and  each  possessing  a  short  pair  of  legs,  which  are 
themselves  also  jointed.  In  the  Crustaceans  and  the  Araclinida 
or  Spiders, — the  divisions  are  reduced  to  ei^htorten  in  number; 
and  in  the  Insects,  to  six.  Where  the  design  is  to  lighten  the 


ARTICULATES.  599 

body,  there  the  segments  are  reduced  in  number  and  size,  as  in 
the  insects  and  the  crabs;  in  the  Annelidans,  as  the  Earth-worms 
and  Lug- worms,  we  find  the  number  of  segments  increased. 

The  animals  of  this  class  are  active;  hence,  their  skeletons 
are  light  and  thin.  The  muscles  or  organs  of  motion  are  at 
tached  to  the  interior  of  the  skeleton  ;  but  as  this  is  hard  and 
unyielding,  it  is  necessary  that  it  undergo  a  process  of  exuvia 
tion,  which  occurs  in  all  the  Articulate  animals,  going  on  through 
all  the  stages  of  their  existence.  Phosphate  of  Lime,  which 
enters  into  the  bones  of  the  vertebrate  classes,  constitutes  also 
the  material  out  of  which  the  skeletons  of  a  majority  of  these 
animals  are  formed.  Considering  their  size,  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  any  other  animals  possess  so  large  an  amount  of  muscu 
lar  power  as  the  Articulates.  The  bulk  of  their  bodies  is  really 
made  up,  in  great  part,  by  the  muscles  which  move  them. 
Throughout  the  animal  kingdom,  the  muscular  power  corres 
ponds  with  the  amount  of  respiratory  action,  and  the  development 
of  animal  heat;  in  various  forms  of  the  Articulates,  this  law  is 
remarkably  displayed. 

The  strongest  resemblance  to  each  other,  exhibited  by  these 
animals,  exists  in  the  nervous  system.  The  brain  is  extremely 
small.  Two  nervous  cords,  surrounding  the  sesophagus  or  gul 
let,  run  along  the  centre  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  animal; 
these  cords  are  studded,  at  regular  intervals,  with  knots  or 
ganglia,  forming  so  many  centers  from  which  the  nerves  pass  off 
to  the  different  segments. 

The  head  also  has  its  ganglia,  in  which  the  cords  terminate 
anteriorly.  In  cases  where  the  members  are  not  distributed 
along  the  entire  body,  but  limited  to  one  part,  as  in  Insects, 
Arachnidans,  and  the  higher  Crustaceans,  there  is  a  corresponding 
concentration  of  the  ganglia  in  that  particular  part ;  indicating 
by  its  degree,  the  elevation  of  the  animal  in  the  series. 

The  organs  of  sense  are  very  imperfectly  developed,  and  in 
some  instances,  entirely  wanting,  excepting  that  of  sight. 

No  organ  of  smell  has  been  discovered,  unless  it  be  assigned 
to  the  antennae.  Some  naturalists  have  described  organs  of 
hearing  in  the  insects,  while  others  regard  the  antennae  as  instru 
ments  for  the  exercise  of  that  sense,  and  also  of  feeling. 

The  digestive  apparatus  is,  for  the  most  part,  in  accordance 
with  the  carnivorous  habits  of  the  Articulates.  Where  animal 
food  is  eaten,  the  process  of  digestion  is  less  complicated  than 
where  vegetable  food  is  used. 

The  lengthened  form  of  these  animals  impresses  its  character 
upon  their  digestive,  and  also  upon  their  circulating  apparatus. 


000  ARTICULATES. 

In  most  of  the  Articulates,  the  blood  moves  forward  in  one  or 
more  large  dorsal  arterial  vessels,  from  which  side  branches  are 
given  off,  terminating  in  various  trunks  that  convey  the  blood 
backwards  to  the  dorsal  vessel.  The  blood  is  more  highly  or 
ganized,  has  a  deeper  color,  and  contains  a  larger  quantity  of 
corpuscles  and  fibrin  than  in  either  the  Radiates  or  Mollusks. 

Respiration  is  accomplished  by  organs  which,  in  all  cases,  are 
perfectly  symmetrical  in  those  of  this  class  which,  like  the  Crus 
taceans,  habitually  live  in  water  by  means  of  branchiae  or  gills  ; 
in  others,  by  means  of  trachea  or  air-tubes,  which  receive  air  by 
certain  lateral  openings,  called  Stigmata,  (Gr.  dots  or  marks.) 
In  rare  instances,  there  exist  cellular  cavities,  analogous  to  lungs. 
The  ARTICULATES  may  be  arranged  into  the  following  classes: 
I.  INSECTA,  Insects  ;  II.  MYRIAPODA,  Thousand-legged  Worms, 
&c.  ;  III.  ARACHNIDA,  Spiders,  &c.  ;  IV.  CRUSTACEA,  Crabs  and 
Lobsters;  V.  CIRRHOPODA,  Barnacles;  VI.  ANNELIDA,  Anneli* 
dans  or  Worms.  (Plates  XV.  and  XVI.) 

FIFTH  PART.     ENTOMOLOGY.     (Gr.  IVro.aa,  entoma,   an   insect; 
,  logos,  a  discourse.) 


First  class  of  ARTICULATES.     Insecta,  (Lat.  from  inseco,  to  cut 
into.)     INSECTS. 

The  name  given  to  this  class  refers  to  the  divided  structure 
of  the  body  or  trunk  of  the  animals  which  it  includes.  This  is 
generally  composed  of  thirteen  (sometimes  fourteen)  sections,  of 
which  one  forms  the  head;  three  the  intermediate  thorax,  and 
nine  the  abdomen.  The  head  of  a  perfect  insect  has  usually 
three  pair  of  jointed  appendages.  The  first  pair  are  called 
antenna  or  feelers.  They  are  affixed  to  the  sides  of  the  head 
for  the  most  part,  between  the  eyes  and  the  mouth,  and  have 
from  one  to  sixty  joints  or  articulations. 

All  true  insects  have  six  jointed  or  articulated  legs,  attached  to 
the  thorax,  and,  usually,  two  or  four  win^s,  situated  upon  its 
three  rings.  (Plate  XV.  fig.  12.)  The  abdomen,  which  is  fur 
nished  with  many  rings,  contains  the  digestive  organs.  The 
breathing  process  is  accomplished  by  means  of  spiracles  or  pores, 
on  the  side  of  each  ring,  for  admitting  the  air,  which  is  thus 
made  to  permeate  the  whole  body. 

Insects  have  a  circulating  apparatus,  of  which  the  central 
organ,  corresponding  to  the  heart  or  the  aorta  in  the  higher  orders 
of  animals,  is  a  vessel  or  tube  running  beneath  the  skin  of  the 
back,  from  which  the  white  and  cold  blood  is  distributed  in  tis- 


ARTICULATES.  (30 1 

sued  channels  or  veins.  The  corpuscles  have  forms  like  those 
which  are  found  in  animals  of  the  superior  grades.  The  ner 
vous  system  consists  of  a  symmetrical  arrangement  of  nervous 
threads  in  two  lines,  situated  on  the  face  of  the  abdomen,  and 
connected  by  knots  or  ganglia,  at  every  ring  of  the  body. 

The  mouth  of  insects,  although  made  up  of  the  same  essential 
parts,  has  these  modified  into  two  principal  forms  of  structure, 
one  of  which  is  adapted  to  chew,  and  the  other  to  suck  food. 
The  former  are  named  mandibulate,  (from  Lat.  mando,  to  chew ;) 
the  latter,  haustellate,  (from  Lat.  haustellum,  a  sucker.)  In  the 
order  Hymenoptera,  however,  biting  mandibles  are  united  with 
sucking  jaws.  (Plate  XV.  fig.  12b.) 

But  the  most  striking  peculiarities  of  insects  relate  to  the 
changes  or  metamorphoses  which  they  undergo  during  their  stages 
of  growth,  corresponding,  in  some  degree,  with  the  developments 
made  in  other  animals,  yet  differing  from  them  in  being  station 
ary  at  certain  periods.  (Plate  XV.  fig.  2.) 

By  far  the  largest  part  are  oviparous.  The  eggs  are  generally 
oval,  but  they  are  seen  in  other  forms, — sometimes  round  and 
sometimes  cylindrical.  Some  are  smooth  and  shining;  others 
are  beautifully  sculptured.  They  vary  as  to  color,  but  white 
and  green  predominate. 

The  Flesh-Fly,  Musca  carnaria,  is  ovoviviparous,  the  eggs 
being  hatched  within  the  body. 

The  larva  state  of  insects  commences  when  the  egg  is  con 
verted  into  a  footless  worm,  resembling  the  higher  Entozoa,  or 
the  inferior  Annelidans,  in  its  organization,  and  continues  until 
the  wings  begin  to  appear.  The  term  larva,  (a  mask,)  was  ori 
ginally  adopted  by  Linnaeus,  who  regarded  insects,  while  under 
this  form,  as  masked.  It  is  applicable  to  the  young  of  all  insects. 
In  the  Scaly- winged  Insects  or  Butterflies,  (Lepidoptera,)  and 
most  of  the  Sheath-winged  Insects  or  Beetles,  (Coleoptera,)  the 
larva,  at  the  time  of  its  escape  from  the  egg,  has  the  rudiments 
of  three  pair  of  legs  upon  the  thorax, — though  these  are  little 
more  than  simple  claws,  except  in  the  Carnivorous  Beetles.  The 
••••eoft,  white  larvseof  the  Beetles  are  called  Grubs;  those  of  certain 
Flies  or  Two-winged  Insects,  (Diptera,)  are  called  Maggots  / 
those  of  Butterflies,  Moths,  and  Millers  are  termed  Caterpillars. 
The  young  of  the  HEMIPTERA,  including  Bugs,  Cicada,  Plant- 
Lice,  &c. ;  and  of  the  ORTHOPTERA,  including  the  True  Locusts, 
Crickets,  Cockroaches,  &c.,  do  not  emerge  from  the  shell  until 
they  have  a  close  resemblance  to  the  parents  in  every  thing, 
excepting  wings;  and  they  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  having 
the  characteristics  of  real  larva. 


602  ARTICULATES. 

In  the  larval  state,  insects  eat  most  voraciously, — indeed,  their 
entire  energy  seems  to  -center  in  the  eating  process.  Their 
growth  is  great,  and  often  rapid.  The  comparative  weight  of 
that  remarkable  insect,  the  Great  Moth,  Cossus  ligniperda,  to 
that  of  the  young  one  that  has  just  crept  out  of  the  egg  is,  as 
72,000  to  1, — an  increase  of  seventy-two  thousand  times!  This 
insect  occupies  three  years  in  attaining  to  its  perfect  state.  The 
Maggots  of  Flesh-Flies  are  said  to  increase  in  weight  two  hun 
dred  times  in  twenty-four  hours.  Caterpillars,  in  the  same  time, 
consume  three  times  their  weight  of  food. 

Larvae  are  subject  to  moultings,  or  changes  of  the  skin ;  the 
number  varying  with  the  species.  This  moulting  is  most  strik 
ingly  exhibited  in  the  Silk- worm,  Bombyx  mori,  which  casts  its 
outer  skin  five  times  in  a  month.  While  undergoing  this  pro 
cess,  the  larva  does  not  eat,  but  it  absorbs  the  fat  beneath  the 
outer  skin,  which  favors  casting  it  off. 

The  larval  state  is  the  one  in  which  insects  continue  the 
longest,  varying,  however,  in  duration,  from  hours  to  months 
and  years. 

The  Caterpillars  of  several  Butterflies  and  Moths,  live  in  large 
societies,  in  habitations  or  tents,  sometimes  of  a  pyramidal 
form,  and  which  are  constructed  by  their  united  skill. 

When  the  worm  has  fixed  itself  in  some  suitable  and  secure 
retreat,  the  pupa  is  formed,  and  encased  in  the  last  skin,  which, 
in  two  winged  insects,  becomes  more  rigid ;  or  else  a  new  and 
beautiful  case  is  made, — a  robe  of  silk,  impervious  to  water, 
being  laboriously  woven  from  a  single  thread,  which  is  formed 
and  spun  from  the  juices  of  the  body, — impressively  illustrating 
the  instinctive  power  of  the  insect  as  related  to  its  successive 
developments. 

The  name  of  the  third  state,  pupa,  (child  or  doll,)  refers  to  the 
swathed  appearance  of  most  insects  during  its  continuance,  it 
resembling,  in  miniature,  a  child  trussed  up  in  swaddling 
clothes. 

This  state  has  two  modifications.  (1)  That  of  those  which, 
in  general  form,  resemble  their  larvae;  (2)  That  of  those  which 
are  entirely  unlike  their  larvae.  Of  the  first  kind  are  the  He- 
miptera,  &c., — which  have  the  pupa  somewhat  incomplete,  and 
possess  rudimental  wings;  also  those  which  have  an  incomplete 
pupa,  and  are  also  without  wings,  as  Lice,  Pediculus,  which, 
and  the  Spring-tails,  Podura,  together  with  some  other  wingless 
insects,  undergo  no  metamorphosis,  corning  forth  from  the  egg, 
almost  in  the  condition  in  which  they  remain  all  their  lives. 


ARTICULATES.  603 

Of  the  second  kind,  are  those  which  undergo  a  complete  met 
amorphosis.  These  include  those  in  which  no  trace  of  a  future 
insect  can  be  perceived,  as  in  the  Fly,  Musca,  and  others  of  the 
dipterous  or  two-winged  insects;  those  in  which  the  thorax  and 
abdomen  are  distinct,  and  enclosed  in  a  horny  case,  as  in  the 
Butterflies ;  and  those  in  which  the  parts  are  covered  by  a  mem 
brane,  but  distinct,  as  in  the  order  Hymenoptera,  and  some  of 
the  Two-winged  Insects. 

In  the  Coleoptera,  Lepidoptera,  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  and 
some  of  the  Neuroptera,  the  pupa  state  is  one  of  complete  inac 
tivity  as  to  all  manifestations  of  animal  life,  while  yet  the  interior 
formative  processes  are  carried  on  with  extraordinary  energy. 
In  the  egg,  the  development  in  the  case  of  these  insects,  was  only 
carried  far  enough  to  enable  the  larvse  to  come  forth,  and  to 
obtain  their  own  food.  In  the  pupa  state,  it  is  continued  at  the 
expense  of  the  nutriment  which  they  had  collected  and  stored 
up  within  their  bodies,  so  that  the  passage  into  the  pupa  state 
might  almost  be  compared  to  a  second  entering  into  the  egg. 

Of  those  which  are  not,  like  the  Silk-worm,  protected  by  a 
cocoon,  some  suspend  themselves  by  their  hind  extremity  ;  others, 
as  the  Butterfly,  Papilio,  attach  themselves,  with  the  head  above, 
and  a  thread  around  the  body  to  keep  it  in  its  position.  Some  of 
these  hanging  pupae  exhibit  bright  colors  and  golden  spots,  whence 
the  name  Chrysalis,  (from  Gr.  chrusos,  gold.) 

In  the  Ant-tribes,  the  Neuters  do  not  acquire  wings.  Some 
of  them,  which  are  two  or  three  times  as  large  as  the  rest,  and 
somewhat  differently  formed,  are  named  "soldiers,"  it  being 
their  special  office  to  defend  the  nest,  rather  than  to  nurture 
young;  and  in  the  White  Ants,  Termites,  the  "soldiers"  appear 
to  be  pupae  arrested  in  their  development,  while  the  "workers" 
have  the  characters  of  permanent  larvse. 

The  period  of  inactivity  in  the  pupa  state,  greatly  varies  in 
duration;  some  insects  remaining  inactive  for  years  or  months, 
while  others  pass  through  that  state  in  a  few  days  or  hours,  and 
reach  the  fourth  or  last  stage,  when  the  insect  is  called  Imago, 
(Lat.  image.)  Now,  having  laid  aside  its  mask,  and  cast  off  its 
swaddling  bands,  it  becomes  a  proper  image  or  representative  of 
its  species.  Whenever  an  insect  is  spoken  of  without  the  restrict 
ing  terms  larva  and  pupa,  it  should  be  remembered,  the  imago 
state  is  meant.  In  this  state,  the  three  principal  parts  of  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen,  are  distinctly  perceptible ;  the  insect  now 
eats  much  less  food  than  when  in  its  first  state.  Some,  indeed, 
live  so  short  a  time  as  to  need  no  food,  as  the  Silk- worm  and  the 


ARTICULATES. 

Gad-flies.  The  May-fly  or  Day-fly,  (Ephemera,)  commits  its 
eggs  to  the  water,  and  dies  in  a  few  hours,  though  including  its. 
larva  and  pupa  states,  it  had  previously  lived  two  or  three 
years.  The  Butterfly  needs  only  a  little  honey  ;  the  Fly  daintily 
sips  its  food,  while  the  larvae  of  both  eat  most  voraciously. 

Some  insects  are  able  to  endure  abstinence  from  food  for  a 
long  time.  The  Ant-lion,  Myrmelean,  (Gr.  murmex,  ant;  Uon, 
lion,)  can  remain  for  six  months,  uninjured,  without  food,  though^ 
daily  devouring  an  insect  of  its  own  size  when  it  can  be  obtained ; 
Beetles  have  been  known  to  live  two  or  three  years  without  food 
of  any  kind.  Most  insects  feed  themselves,  but  the  young  of 
those  which  live  in  societies,  and  continue  longer  than  most  oth 
ers  in  the  adult  state,  as  the  Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  &c.,  are  fed  by 
the  older  ones,  which  also  store  up  food  for  future  use. 

Most  insects  are  extremely  prolific.  They  are,  as  we  have 
seen,  produced  from  eggs  laid  by  the  female ;  though  there  is. 
one  remarkable  exception  to  this  rule  in  the  Aphis  or  Plant-lice, 
(order  Hemiptera,)  which  increases  by  a  process  of  gemmation 
or  budding,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  Polypi, — females 
being  thrown  off  at  once  for  several  generations,  of  which  each 
has  the  power  to  multiply  its  kind  in  the  same  way. — even  to 
the  seventh  or  ninth  generation ;  when  eggs  are  again  laid,  and 
the  gemmating  or  budding  process  is  again  renewed.  Accord 
ing  to  calculations  based  upon  observation,  the  whole  brood  in  a 
season  from  a  single  Aphis,  will  amount  to  the  immense  number 
of  1,000,000,000/000,000,000 !  but  the  insect  is  extremely  fee 
ble;  "the  touch  destroys  it;  the  winds,  rains,  and  cold,  sweep 
off  its  numbers  by  hundreds  of  thousands."  (Emmons.) 

The  Queen-Bee,  Apis  meHifica,  (Lat.  honey-bee,)  lays  fifty 
thousand  eggs;  the  female  White-Ant,  Termes  betlicosa,  has  an 
abdomen  fifteen  hundred  or  two  thousand  times  as  large  as  the 
rest  of  the  body,  and  lays  eighty  thousand  eggs  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  forty  or  fifty  millions  in  a  year. 

Insects  usually  deposit  their  eggs  where  the  young  larvse  may 
find  appropriate  food.  Thus,  the  Silk-worm  places  hers  on  the 
leaves  of  the  Mulberry,  Morus  multicaulis,  (Lat.  many-stalked 
mulberry.)  The  Hessian -fly,  Cecidomya  destructor,  deposits  its 
eggs  upon  the  young  leaf  of  the  wheat,  where  it  joins  the  stem 
or  straw  (culm)  near  the  earth ;  while  the  Wheat-fly,  C.  tritici, 
places  hers  in  the  wheat-head  ;  the  Gad  or  Horse-Fly,  Oestrus, 
(Gr.  oistros,  a  gad-fly,)  equi,  (Lat.  of  a  horse,)  deposits  hers  in 
hundreds  upon  the  hairs  of  the  horse.  Ichneumon-Flies,  Ichneu- 
monida,  deposit  theirs  in  or  upon  the  bodies  of  Caterpillars  and 
other  larvae,  by  means  of  a  sharp  and  strong  abdominal  tube  or 


ARTICULATES.  C05 

ovipositor  (egg-placer)  of  great  length.  The  larva/  ofthe  PimpJa 
lunator,  according  to  Prof.  Emmons,  sometimes,  in  company  with 
the  SireX)  deposits  its  eggs  in  young  maple  trees,  introducing  the 
ovipositor  into  the  wood,  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  three  inches. 
There  is  indeed  scarcely  any  organized  substance  upon  which 
insects  are  not  adapted  to  prey.  Growing  vegetables  and  living 
animals  are  alike  subject  to  their  attacks, — these,  when  dead, 
also  supply  with  food  many  kinds  of  insects;  and  even  when 
such  substances  are  decomposed  or  much  decayed,  they  furnish 
nutriment  to  particular  species.  Hence,  though  sustaining  much 
damage  by  the  injury  which  the  insects  do  to  plants  and  trees, 
man  also  derives  important  benefit  from  them,  by  their  removal 
of  putrid  substances,  the  noxious  exhalations  of  which  would 
poison  the  air,  and  thus  detract  greatly  from  his  health  and  com- 
fort.  They  are  frequently  useful  to  plants  in  bringing  the  pollen 
to  the  pistils,  and  thus  effecting  the  continuance  of  the  species  in 
•cases  where  it  could  not  be  done  except  by  extraneous  methods. 
Large  Grasshoppers  are  in  the  Levant,  dried  and  consumed  for 
food ;  some  savage  nations  eat  the  large  grubs  which  are  found 
in  rotten  wood.  The  Great-Moth,  Cossus,  which  the  ancients 
esteemed  as  a  delicacy,  was  a  larva  of  some  kind  ;  and  a  species 
kindred  to  this  one  is  at  this  day  eaten  in  Brazil.  Ants  are  also 
eaten  by  the  natives  in  that  country.  While  attending  to  these 
uses  of  insects,  we  may  also  refer  to  that  which  is  made  of  the 
Cantharides  or  Blistering  Flies, — to  that  beautiful  dyeing  material, 
cochineal,  furnished  by  insects  ofthe  genus  Coccus, — to  the  galls 
formed  on  oak  trees  by  the  genus  Cynips,  and  which  are  em 
ployed  in  the  arts ;  to  the  art  of  Caprification  or  causing  figs  to 
ripen  by  suspending  upon  the  trees  branches  of  the  wild  Fig- 
tree,  (Caprificus,}  which  is  infested  by  an  insect  that  pierces  the 
fruit  and  hastens  its  maturity ;  and  to  manna,  used  as  an  agreea 
ble  food  in  the  East,  which,  though  not  directly  produced  by 
insects,  is  made  to  flow  from  the  Tamarisk  mannifera,  (manna 
bearing,)  by  the  puncture  of  a  small  species  of  Coccus.  The  de 
struction  of  the  larvae  of  some  insects  by  those  of  others,  is  in 
some  instances,  actually  enormous,  so  that  the  undue  multiplica 
tion  of  insects,  which  might  result  from  the  very  great  number 
of  their  eggs,  and  from  their  rapid  growth,  is  counteracted  not 
only  by  the  influence  of  the  many  beasts,  birds,  reptiles  and 
fishes,  which  feed  upon  them,  but  also  by  the  numerous  onsets 
which  insects  make  upon  each  other.  In  these,  they  sometimes 
show  considerable  contrivance,  availing  themselves  of  traps,  ex 
cavated  in  the  sand,  by  which  they  secure  their  prey,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Ant-lion,  an  insect,  in  its  perfect  state,  resembling  the 


606  ARTICULATES. 

Dragon-fly.  If  by  any  means  any  poor,  unwary  insect,  found  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Ant-lion  larva,  seems  likely  to  escape,  jets 
of  sand  arrest  his  progress,  and  carry  him  to  the  bottom  of  the 
pit-fall,  where  he  is  instantly  seized;  his  juices  sucked  out,  and 
the  body  jerked  out  of  the  den,  which,  if  injured,  is  soon  re 
paired,  and  ready  for  another  victim.  A  plan  quite  similar  to 
this  is  also  adopted  by  the  larva  of  a  Fly,  (Leptis  vermileo.) 

The  locomotive  powers  of  insects  are  unsurpassed  by  those  of 
any  other  animals.  These  are  peculiarly  conspicuous  in  the 
Dragon-flies,  Termites,  Bees  and  Ants.  Even  the  Swallow  is 
unable,  in  this  respect,  to  match  the  Dragon-fly  or  Darning- 
needle,  which  can  elude  its  pursuer  by  flying  backwards  and 
forwards,  right  and  left,  without  turning  its  body.  Its  twenty- 
four  thousand  eyes  guard  it  against  surprise,  by  enabling  it  to 
see  in  all  directions.  The  wings  of  Musquitoes  are  said  to 
vibrate  three  thousand  times  a  minute. 

The  organs  of  sense  in  Insects  have  a  high  degree  of  devel 
opment.  This  is  more  particularly  true  of  the  sight.  Of  the 
two  kinds  of  eyes  found  in  adult  insects,  compound  and  simple, 
the  latter,  termed  ocelli,  (eyelets,)  and  slemmata,  (stems,)  are 
alone  present  in  the  larvce,  though  these  are  sometimes  entirely 
without  visual  organs.  In  perfect  insects,  the  eyes  are  corn- 
pound,  that  is  they  consist  of  many  eyes,  each  of  which  is  per 
fect  in  itself,  having  the  proper  humors  and  lenses  necessary  for 
the  exercise  of  vision.  In  addition  to  the  compound  eye,  which 
often  fills  up  the  largest  part  of  the  head,  Insects  sometimes  have 
simple  eyes  upon  the  forehead,  generally  three  in  number,  set  in 
the  form  of  a  triangle,  which  are  suited  to  view  only  such  ob 
jects  as  are  near.  The  compound  eye  is  immovable,  round, 
oval,  or  kidney-shaped,  and  examined  under  the  microscope,  ap- 
pears  reticulated,  this  appearance  being  occasioned  by  the  hex 
agonal  lines  which  bound  each  eye  or  lens.  The  number  of 
lenses,  each  fitted  for  vision  in  its  own  sphere,  is  almost  incred 
ibly  great.  The  number  in  the  Dragon-Fly  has  already  been 
mentioned  ;  that  of  the  common  Fly  is  4,000  ;  of  the  Butterfly, 
from  6,000  to  30,000 ;  and  of  the  Mordella  Beetle,  25,000  ; 
while  that  of  the  ant  has  but  fifty  lenses. 

There  seems  no  doubt  that  insects  have  the  sense  of  hearing, 
for  though  the  precise  organ  which  is  subservient  to  it  has  not 
been  fully  ascertained,  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  they  are 
guided  and  influenced  by  sounds,  one  of  the  most  striking  in 
stances  of  which  is  that  the  male  of  some  Insects,  such  as  Cica 
da,  Crickets,  &c.,  emit  peculiar  sounds,  which  attract  the  fe 
males  to  them.  A  nocturnal  butterfly,  Acherontia  alropos,  pro- 


COLEOPTERA.  C07 

duces  a  plaintive  cry  which  is  said  to  proceed  from  the  head. 
These  sounds  are  produced  entirely  by  mechanical  means,  and 
cannot  be  considered  vocal. 

It  is  thought  by  some  naturalists  that  the  organ  of  hearing  is 
situated  in  the  base  of  the  antennae.  These  are  supposed  to  be 
also  the  chief  organs  of  touch.  (Plate  XV.  fig.  4c.) 

Insects  seem  to  possess  the  sense  of  smell.  The  Flesh-fly 
deposits  eggs  in  the  thick  fleshy  petals  of  the  Carrion-flower, 
(Stapelia,)  deceived  by  its  odor,  which  resembles  tainted  meat. 

Many  insects,  particularly  the  Coleoptera,  which  include  the 
Snap-Bug,  Elater,  and  the  Fire-fly,  Lampyris,  are  luminous  at 
night.  Several  North  American  species  of  the  Sphinx,  or  Hawk 
Moth,  seem  to  be  phosphorescent,  by  dim  candle-light,  or  when 
shaded  from  direct  light.  When  the  light  is  extinguished,  noth 
ing  appears,  however,  excepting  a  peculiar  reflection. 

Insects  are  essentially  terrestrial,  but  many,  as  the  Whirligigs 
or  Water-Fleas,  (Gyrinus,)  swim  on  fresh  water;  and  some,  as 
the  Skippers,  (Hydromelrida,)  walk  with  the  body  raised  above 
it,  the  tips  of  their  feet  touching  the  surface  ;  and  a  genus  Halo- 
bates,  (Gr.  hah,  the  sea  ;  baino,  to  go,)  is  seen  in  the  Southern 
Atlantic,  far  out  from  the  land. 

The  Insects  are  divided  by  Kirby  and  Spence,  into  twelve  or- 
ders,  as  presented  on  the  Chart,  viz. : 


1.  Coleoptera. 

2.  Strepsiptera.j 

3.  Dermaptera. 

4.  Orthoptera. 

5.  Tricoptera. 

6.  Neuroptera. 


7.  Hymenoptera. 

8.  Lepidoptera. 

9.  Hemiptera. 

10.  Diptera. 

11.  Aphaniptera. 

12.  Aptera. 


FIRST  ORDER.      COLEOPTERA,    (Gr.    xoksug,   koleos,    a   sheath; 
,  pteron,  a  wing.)     BEETLES.     Mouth  mandibulate. 


These  insects  are  almost  incredibly  numerous,  between  seventy 
and  eighty  thousand  species  being  found  in  the  cabinets  of  col 
lectors.  In  the  Royal  Museum  at  Berlin,  Prussia,  is  a  single 
collection  of  forty  thousand  species.  The  singular  forms  and 
brilliant  colors  of  many  of  these  insects,  the  size  of  their  bodies, 
the  solid  texture  of  their  integuments,  which  renders  preserva 
tion  comparatively  easy,  and  the  nature  of  their  habits,  which 
affords  every  facility  for  their  capture,  have  combined  to  render 
Beetles  objects  of  peculiar  attention  and  interest  to  entomologists. 

The  upper  wings  of  these  Insects  are  horny  or  leathery,  and 
shield  or  sheathe  the  lower  ones  ;  the  metamorphosis  is  perfect, 


693  COLEOPTERA. 

the  pupa  being  torpid ;  the  mouth  is  mandibulate  or  chewing. 
The  wing-cases  are  called  elytra,  (Gr.  coverings,)  and  are  un- 
suited  for  flight.  Many  of  these  Insects,  particularly  in  the  lar. 
va  state,  are  quite  injurious  to  vegetation  ;  but  at  the  same  time, 
they  are,  as  a  whole,  very  useful  in  diminishing  the  numbers  of 
other  noxious  or  destructive  insects,  and  in  removing  fungous 
and  offensive  matters. 

(1)  The  TIGER  BEETLES,  Cicindelida,  (from  gen.  Cicindela, 
Lat.  a  glow-worm.)  so  called  on  account  of  their  fierceness  and 
voracity,  are  found  in  sandy  localities  and  dusty  roads.  They 
feed  upon  other  insects,  are  good  runners,  and  fly  with  facility. 
Those  of  the  genus  Cicindela  are  the  most  numerous. 

2.  GROUND  BEETLES,  Carabidce,  (from  gen.  Carabus,  a  crab, 
i.  e.,   crab-like,)   are  those    which   are  commonly   found  under 
stones  and  rubbish,  and    generally,  but  not   always,  nocturnal. 
They   are  predaceous,  feeding  upon  insects  and    larvae.     The 
colors  are  black,  with  blue  and  purple  hues. 

The  CATERPILLAR  HUNTERS,  Calosoma,  (Gr.  beautiful  body,)  in 
clude  species  having  colors  in  which  green  and  blue  predominate. 
They  are  found  in  trees,  and  lessen  the  number  of  injurious  in 
sects  which  infest  them. 

3.  The   DIVING    BEETLES,   DyticidcR,  (from   gen.   Dyticus,   a 
diver,)  are  large  hardy  insects,  sometimes  seen  in  water  bordered 
with  ice.     They  feed  upon  minute  fish,  larvae  and  worms. 

4.  The  LADY  BIRDS,  or  Lady  Bugs,  Coccinellidce,  (gen.  Cocci- 
nella,  from  Gr.  kokkos,  a  berry,  i.  e.,  berry-like,)  are  well  known, 
small,  hemispherical  insects,  having  bright  colors  and  often  marked 
with  spots.     (Plate  XV.  fig.  Id.)     They  feast  on  gourd-like  plants, 
such  as  melons  and  pumpkins,  but  are  of  great  service,  both  in 
their  larva  and  perfect  state,  in  destroying  the  Plant-lice.  The  lar 
va  is  of  a  long  oval  shape,  with  a  pointed  tail  ;  of  a  black  color, 
with  red  and  white  specks,  and  a  rough  surface,  (Plate  XV.  fig. 
2b.)     It  changes  to  a  short,  blackish,   oval   chrysalis,  or   pupa 
spotted  with   red,  (a,  c,)   and  which  gives  birth  to  its  beautiful 
inmate  in  May  or  June,  (d.)     The  eggs  of  these  insects  may  be 
seen  upon  the  under  surface  of  leaves,  in  a  cluster  of  thirty  or 
forty,  placed  in   contact   and   gummed    by  one  end  to  the  leaf. 
These  hatch  within  a  few  days. 

5.  The  WATER-LOVERS,  Hydropliilida,  (gen.  HydrophiZus,  Gr. 
water-lover,)   are  found   in   ponds   and   ditches,  or   in   stagnant 
waters,  which  they  seem  to  prefer. 

6.  CARRION  BEETLES,  Silpliida,  (from  Gr.  silphe,  a  cockroach, 
i.  e.,  cockroach-like.)     These  include  the  Sexton  Beetle,  Necro- 
phorus,  (Gr.  nekros,  a  dead  body  ;  phoreo,  I   carry.)     This  is 


COLEOPTERA.  G09 

about  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  black  hue,  and  extremely  fetid. 
It  is  noted  on  account  of  its  finding  the  carcases  of  small  ani 
mals,  such  as  mice,  rats,  birds,  frogs,  &c.,  shortly  after  death, 
burying  them  by  working  the  earth  from  beneath  them,  and  af 
terwards  covering  them.  In  these  dead  animals,  the  Sexton  Bee 
tle  deposits  its  eggs. 

7.  DUNG  BEETLES,  Geotrupidcs,  (Gr.  ge,  the  earth;  trupad,  to 
bore.)     These,  with  other  similar  families,  are,  in  their  larva 
state,  incapable  of  much  locomotion,  and  generally  live   in  the 
ground. 

8.  SCAVENGER  BEETLES,  Scarabaida,  (gen.   Scarabceus,   from 
Gr.  Skarabos,  a  beetle  or  scarabee.)     These   Beetles    use   the 
flat  shield  of  their  heads  for  working  in  the  ground  and  in  the 
dung  upon  which  they  feed.     One  species  labor  in  pairs,  the  one 
beetle  pushing  their  ball   backwards  with  the  hind  feet,  and  the 
other  walking  up  the  ball  on  the  opposite  side,  thus  making  it 
roll.     The  Copris  rolls   together  a  small  ball  which  it  immedi 
ately  buries. 

9.  STAG  BEETLES,  Lucanida,  (gen.   Lucanus,)   include  some 
very  large  sized  beetles,  distinguished  by  having  the  antennae 
terminated  by  a  large  jointed  club.     The  males  of  Lucanus  cer- 
vus  have  singular  horns  affixed  to  the  head  and  thorax.     (Plate 
II.  fig.  8.) 

10.  GIANT  BEETLES>  Dynastida,  (gen.  Dynastes,  Gr.  a  ruler.) 
These  include   some  of  the   largest  of  the  order.     The  males 
have  horns  or  tubercles  arising  from  the  head  or  thorax.  A  most 
remarkable  species  is  the   Hercules  Beetle,  Dynastes  Hercules, 
found  in  South  America,  measuring  sometimes  not  less  than  five 
or  six  inches  in  length,  having  a  horn  of  enormous  length  in  pro 
portion   to  the   body,  proceeding   from    the   upper    part  of  the 
thorax.     Its  larva  continues  about  six  years,  and  is  three  or  four 
inches  long.     It  is  sometimes  eaten  fried,  and  esteemed  a  luxury. 

11.  ROSE  BEETLES,  Cetoniidce,  (of  which   Cetonia,  is  a  prom 
inent  genus,)  form  an  extensive  group,  including  several  which 
are  distinguished   for  their  brilliant  colors.     The  common  ROSE 
CHAFER,  C.  aurata,  may  be  cited  as  an  example,  found  in  roses 
and  upon  the  flowers  of  the  privet,   an  insect  nearly   an  inch 
long,  of  a  shining  green  color  above,  and   copper-red  beneath, 
with  white  marks  in  the  elytra.     In  its  larva  state,  it  feeds  upon 
moist  rotten  wood,  and  is  often  met  with   under  ground,  in  ants' 
nests. 

12.  SPRINGING  BEETLES,  Elaterida,  (gen.  Elater,  a  charioteer.) 
These  have  a  strong  spine  situated  beneath  the  thorax,  which  fits 
at  pleasure  into  a  small  cavity  oa  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen  ; 


610  COLEOPTERA. 

thus  enabling  the  insect,  when  laid  upon  its  back,  to  spring  up 
with  great  force  and  agility,  in  order  to  regain  its  position. 
Their  larvae  are  known  in  New  England  and  Now  York,  by  the 
name  of  Wire-worms,  and  are  injurious  to  corn  and  herbaceous 
roots.  One  species,  Elater  noctilucus,  (Lat.  shining  by  night) 
is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  the  fire-flies  which  inhabit  Soutii 
America  and  the  West  India  islands.  In  Cuba,  ladies  use  these 
phosphorescent  insects  as  ornaments  for  the  hair.  (See  Chart.) 

13.  WOOD-BORERS,  PtinidcB,  (genus  Ptinns,)  is   a  rather   nu 
merous  family  of  insects,  of  small  size,  oval  form  and   destruc 
tive  habits.      They  are  of  obscure  colors,   and  counterfeit  death 
by  withdrawing  their  head  and   antennae,  and   contracting  their 
legs.     The  Wood-Borers  are   found  in  old  houses,  which  their 
larvae    perforate    in    every    direction ;     also    among    furniture, 
books,  &c. 

The  DEATH-WATCH,  Anolium,  (Gr.  and,  I  end  ;  ~bios,  life,) 
tessellation,  (tesselated  or  checkered,)  is  of  this  family.  It 
strikes  its  jaws  upon  the  wood  in  which  it  has  its  abode,  so  as  to 
imitate  the  ticking  of  a  watch.  Tne  generic  name  we  suppose 
to  refer  to  the  superstitious  notion  that  when  its  beating  is  heard 
it  is  a  sign  that  some  person  in  the  house  will  die  within  a 
year,  and  hence  is  derived  the  name  Death  Watch.  (See  Chart.) 

14.  FIRE-FLIES,   or  GLOW-WORMS,  Lampyrida,  (leading  genus 
Lampyris,    Gr.    lamp  arts,    a  glow-worm  )    have  a    lengthened, 
depressed    body,    and    flexible   elytra.       in    some     species     the 
females  are  wingless,  and  in  others  they  have  only  short  elytra. 
They  prey,  in  the  larva  state,  upon  the  bodies  of  snails,  and   not 
upon  plants.     When  alarmed,  they  draw   in   their  antennae    and 
legs,  and  remain  motionless,  as  if  dead.      The    common    Glow- 
worm,  seen  in  the  Middle  States  of  the  Union,  is   the  female  of 
the   species  Photuris,    (Gr.  phos,   light;  oura,  tail.)    versicolor, 
(Lat.  of  changeable  color.) 

15.  CORN  and  NUT  WEEVILS,  Curculionida,  (Curculio,  a  corn- 
worm  or  weevil.)     This  family  of  Snouted  Coleopterous  insects 
includes  the  Diamond  Beetles  and   other    splendidly  colored  spe 
cies,  as  well  as  the  Corn  or  Grain  Weevils.      The  Nut  Weevil, 
B'llaninus,  (Gr.  from  balanos,  acorn  or  nut.)  nucum,  (Lat.  of  nuts,) 
see  Chart,  is  often  found   in  the   Chinquapin  nut,  and   sometimes 
renders  worthless  almost   the  entire  crop,  which,  in  a  short  time, 
become  wormy. 

16.  COCKCHAFERS,  MeMonthidce,  (leading  genus  Melolontha,) 
are  well  known  and  destructive  insects.   An  instance  is  given  of  a 
farmer  whose  crops  were  completely  destroyed  by  the  larvae  of 


STREPSIPTERA.  Gil 

the  common  Cockchafer,  "of  which  eighty  bushels  were  gathered 
up." 

The  genus  Phyllophaga,  (Gr.  phutton,  a  leaf;  phago,  to  eat;) 
includes  several  species,  which  are  furnished  with  strong  jaws 
for  cutting  the  leaves  of  plants.  They  are  injurious  both  in  the 
larva  and  the  perfect  state  ;  in  the  former,  eating  the  roots  of 
grass,  &c.,  and  in  the  latter,  the  tender  leaves  of  fruit  and  other 
trees.  Formerly  they  were  included  in  the  genus  Melolontha. 
They  are  well  known  by  the  name  of  Horn  Bugs,  though  their 
more  appropriate  name  is  MAY  BEETLES. 

17.  PEA  BUGS,  Wheat  Weevils,  &c.,  Brucliida,  (genus   Bru- 
chus,  Gr.  bronchos,  a  locust — locust-like.)     The  Pea-bug,  Bru- 
chus,  is  a  small  hairy  insect,  gray  and  rather  egg-shaped,  which 
deposits  its  eggs  in  the   pea-pod  in  its  early  state,  and  in  which 
they  are  hatched.      Multitudes  of  the  larvae  are  destroyed  in  pre 
paring  green  peas  for  the  table.     The    Calandra  granaria,   or 
Corn  Weevil,  of  Europe,  is   a  species  that   has  been  introduced 
into  this  country  from  Europe,  in  samples  of  grain,  to  which  it  is 
very  hurtful.     Linnaeus  calls  it  Curculio  granaria. 

18.  BLISTER  BEETLES,  Cantharida,  (Gr.  Kantharis .)    Among 
these  are  the  C.   vesicatoria,  (Lat.  from  vesica,   a   blister,)  of  a 
beautiful  changeable  or  metallic  green  color,  about  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  in   length,  and  well  known  for  its  medical   uses.     In 
Spain,  Portugal,    and   Italy,  these  insects  are  abundant.     Potato 
vines  and  other  plants  are,  in  mid-summer,  often  infested  by  in 
sects  allied  to  the  Spanish-flies. 

N.  B.  The  above  account  includes  all  the  families  of  Beetles 
to  which  the  Chart  refers,  though  but  a  small  part  of  the  entire 
number. 

SECOND  ORDER.     STREPSIPTERA,  (Gr.  UTQWCOS,  streptos,  twisted; 
nTeQov,  pteron,  wing.) 

Thisorderof  insects  is  named  by  Latreille,  Rhipiptera,  (Gr.  fan- 
wings.)  They  have  the  front  wings  replaced  by  a  kind  of  twisted 
halterers  ;  the  posterior  are  large  and  folded  like  a  fan.  (Plate  XV. 
fig.  3.)  The  tarsi  have  from  two  to  four  articulations.  The  mouth 
is  armed  with  two  slender  acute  jaws  wide  apart,  and  two  pointed 
palpi,  or  feelers.  The  order  includes  a  limited  number  of  insects, 
arranged  in  the  two  genera  Xenos,  (Gr.  a  guest  or  stranger,)  and 
Stylops.  (Gr.  stulos,  a  stylos  or  graver  ;  dps,  face.)  The  larvse 
are  vermiform,  and  have  six  feet.  The  pupse  are  inactive. 
They  are  all  small,  mite-like  creatures,  the  largest  not  being  a 


C12  ORTHOPTERA. 

quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larvae  are  parasitic  on  the 
bodies  of  the  wasps  and  bees,  where  they  lose  their  feet  and  be 
come  larvae  of  a  different  form  —  an  instance  of  retrograde  met 
amorphosis.  The  perfect  insects  are  very  short-lived,  but  very 
active.  They  were  first  observed  by  Kirby. 

THIRD  ORDER.     DERMAPTERA,  (Gr.  deduct,  derma,  skin  ;  megbv, 
pteron,  wing.) 

The  insects  of  this  order  are  by  some  included  among  the 
ORTHOPTERA  to  which  in  the  organs  of  the  mouth  they  corres 
pond,  and  which  they  resemble  also  in  being  active  and  in  feed 
ing  during  the  pupa  state.  But  they  differ  from  them  in  the  struc 
ture  of  the  wings,  which  fold  both  longitudinally  and  transversely 
to  bring  them  under  the  elytra,  (wing-covers.)  This  order  in 
cludes  the  EAR  WIGS,  (Forficula.)  Plate  XV.  fig.  4,  which  live 
in  damp  places  and  feed  on  vegetable  food.  These  insects  have 
the  tarsi  three-jointed  ;  their  antennas  are  long  and  slender  and 
made  up  of  many  articulations.  The  Ear-wig  sits  over  her 
eggs  and  assiduously  watches  the  young  when  they  appear. 


FOURTH  ORDER.     ORTHOPTERA,  (Gr.  tgObs,  orthos,  straight  ; 
TITEQOV,  pteron,  wing.) 

In  this  order  the  metamorphosis  is  imperfect,  the  elytra,  or 
wing  covers  are  coriaceous  and  veined,  with  the  inner  margins 
overlapping  ;  in  some  cases  the  wings  are  wanting,  or  so  small 
as  to  be  entirely  useless  ;  the  mouth  is  mandibulate,  (with  jaws,) 
and  this  organ  and  the  thorax  are  much  like  those  of  the  Bee 
tles.  The  body  is  generally  long  ;  the  head  vertical,  and  the 
antennae  slender.  The  feet  are  well  developed;  but  though 
some  are  very  active,  others  are  remarkably  slow  in  their  move 
ments.  The  order  includes  (1)  COCKROACHES,  Blattido,  (genus 
Blatta,  Plate  XV.  fig.  5,)  hiding  by  day  and  seeking  food  by 
night,  and  in  tropical  countries  extremely  troublesome.  Scald 
ing  or  fumigating  them  in  their  hiding  places  is  one  of  the  best 
methods  of  exterminating  them.  They  sometimes  even  penetrate 
the  brick  walls  of  buildings,  destroying  both  animal  and  veget 
able  substances  ;  (2)  the  PRAYING  INSECTS,  Mantida,  (Gr. 
Mantis,  a  prophet,)  which  use  their  fore  legs  as  arms  and  hands, 
and  when  waiting  for  their  prey,  raise  their  feet  as  if  in  suppli 
cation,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  7,)  whence  their  name.  They  eat  other 
insects,  are  great  fighters,  and  when  confined  will  eat  each  other. 
The  smaller  kinds  of  these  insects  are  seen  occasionally  in  New- 
England  and  New  York;  (3)  SPECTRES,  Phasmida,  (Gr.  phasma, 


ORTHOPTERA.  61,3 

a  spectre  or  apparition,)  These  have  the  wings  somewhat  unde 
veloped  or  entirely  absent.  They  eat  leaves,  live  upon  trees, 
and  present  some  very  curious  forms.  Some  are  called  walking- 
sticks,  from  their  resemblance  to  a  stick.  One  species,  found  in 
the  Moluccas,  is  ten  inches  long.  PliylUum,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  8,) 
is  a  genus  that  has  wings  which  look  like  a  leaf,  whence  the 
name,  which  means  a  Walking-Leaf.  One  or  two  of  these  re 
markable  insects  are  met  with  in  New  York  and  in  some  of  the 
Eastern  States  ;  (4)  the  CRICKETS,  Achetida,  (acheta,  a  chirper,) 
which,  although  they  present  a  general  likeness  to  the  Grass 
hoppers,  differ  from  them  in  their  habits,  being  entirely  terres 
trial,  and  having,  more  or  less,  the  power  of  burrowing.  They 
appear  to  live  both  upon  vegetable  and  animal  food,  which  they 
search  for  at  night.  The  Crickets  are  good  runners,  but  do  not 
fly  as  well  as  the  Grasshoppers ;  (5)  LOCUSTS,  Locustida,  (Lat. 
locusta,  a  locust.)  '  The  abdomen  of  the  female  has  a  sharp,  flat 
tened  ovipositor;  the  males  make  a  loud  stridulation,  or  whiz 
zing,  by  means  of  their  upper  wings.  These  insects  are  quite 
arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  from  the  green  color  of  many  of 
them,  they  are  hardly  perceptible  among  the  foliage.  They 
sometimes  appear  in  great  numbers;  (6)  Grasshoppers,  Acridiidce, 
(Gr.  akris,  a  locust.)  The  female  is  without  an  ovipositor. 
The  males  of  these  insects  make  their  peculiar  noise  by  rubbing 
their  hind-thighs  against  the  wing-covers.  To  this  family  be 
longs  the  KATYDID,  Platyphyllum,  (Gr.  broad-leaf,)  concavum, 
(Lat.  concave  or  hollow,) — ranked  among  the  Grasshoppers. 
This  singular  insect  is  of  a  grass-green  color,  and  derives  its 
name  from  the  notes  which  it  sends  forth.  It  reaches  its  perfect 
state  in  September,  depositing  its  row  of  eggs  upon  the  twigs  of 
the  trees  in  which  it  dwells.  (See  Plate  XV.  9,  and  explana 
tions.) 

This  order  has  been  divided  into  four  sections,  founded  on  differ 
ences  of  habit  arising  from  the  peculiar  construction  of  the 
organs  of  locomotion,  (Plate  XV.  figs.  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9.)  (1) 
The  Runners,  (Orthoptera  cursoria ;)  (2)  the  Graspers,  (Orthop- 
tera  raptoria  ;)  (3)  the  Walkers,  (Orthoptera  ambulatoria;)  (4) 
the  Jumpers,  (Orthoptera  saltatoria.)  The  RUNNERS  include  the 
Cockroaches  ;  the  GRASPERS,  the  Praying  Insects  ;  the  WALKERS, 
the  Walking  Sticks,  &c. ;  the  JUMPERS,  the  Grasshoppers  and 
Locusts. 


614  NEUROPTERA. 


FIFTH  ORDER.     TRICHOPTERA,  (Gr.  %£,  thrix,  hair, 
pteron,  a  wing.) 

The  genus  Phryganea,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  10,)  which  is  the  only 
one  of  this  order,  is  by  some  joined  with  the  genera  Hydropsyclie 
and  Limnophilus,  to  form  the  family  Phryganeidse,  arid  referred 
to  the  order  Neuroptera.  The  insects  of  this  order  have  four 
membranous  and  reticulated  wings ;  the  posterior  pair  are  the 
larger;  the  front  pair  are  generally  hairy, — hence  the  name  of 
the  order.  The  name  of  Caddis- flies  has  been  given  to  these 
insects  which  come  from  the  various  species  of  case-worms. 
The  larvae  are  inactive,  residing  in  water,  in  a  case  formed  of 
bits  of  shells  or  sticks,  or  of  sand  or  saw-dust.  The  pupa  is 
inactive.  The  Caddis- fly  is  often  used  as  a  fish  bait. 

SIXTH  ORDER,    NEUROPTERA,  (Gr.  VEVQOV,  neuron,  nerve;  ir-csQbv, 
pleron,  a  wing.) 

This  order  of  mandibulate  insects  exhibits  a  considerable 
variety  of  characters.  According  to  Westwood,  it  includes 
twelve  families.  It  is  estimated  to  include  not  far  from  a  thou 
sand  species.  These  insects  have  usually  four  reticulated 
nervures,  (wings  with  horny  divisions,  thin,  and  lace-like.)  The 
wings  are  of  unequal  size  ;  instead  of  the  hind-wings,  there  are 
sometimes  only  pedicles  or  stems.  The  antennas  are  usually 
short  and  bristly.  The  pupae  are  sometimes  active  and  sometimes 
torpid  ;  the  larvae  are  six-footed  and  very  active,  mostly  predaceous, 
and  either  terrestrial  or  aquatic. 

The  DRAGON-FLIES,  Libellulidce,  (genus  Lilellula,)  include 
nearly  two  hundred  known  species.  To  these  we  have  already 
referred.  While  on  the  wing,  they  deposit  their  e^gs  in  water 
and  in  it  pass  both  their  larva  and  pupa  state,  gliding  through  it, 
or  crawling  about  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom.  The  hinder  part  of 
the  body  has  several  leaf-like  processes,  which  can  be  drawn 
together  or  opened  at  pleasure.  These  close  the  opening  of  a 
cavity  having  very  muscular  sides.  When  the  Dragon-fly 
wishes  to  move  rapidly,  it  opens  this  cavity,  which  thus  becomes 
filled  with  water  ;  then  by  contracting  the  walls  of  the  cavity, 
it  throws  out  the  water  forcibly,  like  a  stream  from  a  syringe  ; 
aided  by  the  re-action  produced  by  the  jet  against  the  surround 
ing  fluid,  the  creature  shoots  forward,  with  its  legs  closely 
packed  along  the  sides.  The  pupa  is  no  less  active,  fierce  and 
voracious  than  the  larva,  differing  from  it  only  in  having  upon 
the  thorax  the  rudiments  of  wings,  which  in  the  perfect  insect 


NEUROPTERA.  615 

are  so  admirable  for  their  firmness,  transparency  and  gloss. 
Even  after  it  has  reached  the  imago  state,  its  ferocious  manners 
still  continue.  It  has  even  been  known  to  devour  its  own  body, 
when  confined  and  deprived  of  musquitoes  and  the  other  insects 
upon  which  it  usually  feeds. 

The  ANT-LIONS,  Myrmeleonida,  (genus  Myrmeleon,  Gr.  ant- 
lion.)  are  distributed  throughout  the  world.  These  are  terrestrial, 
spider-like  in  their  appearance,  and  short  and  thick,  having  man 
dibles  strongly  toothed  on  the  inside,  so  that  the  insect  may  suck 
the  juices  of  its  victims,  and  so  constructed  that  it  can  hold  its 
food  firmly,  though  unable  to  chew  it.  To  the  curious  devices 
which  the  larva  of  this  insect  employs  for  entrapping  its  prey, 
we  have  already  alluded. 

The  Ant-lions  have  been  found  under  the  limestone  ledges  of 
Schoharie,  and  the  larvse  have  also  been  seen  beneath  such 
ledges  near  Burlington,  Vt.  (Emmons.) 

The  MAY-FLIES,  Ephemerida,  or  Ephemeral-flies,  are  so 
named  from  the  Greek  word  ephemeros,  (diurnal,)  in  allusion  to 
the  extreme  brevity  of  their  existence.  Their  larvse  live  in  the 
water;  they  take  refuge  under  stones,  and  in  the  earth  and  mud, 
feeding  upon  its  slime.  In  their  perfect  state  these  insects  gen 
erally  live  but  a  few  hours,  taking  no  nourishment ;  but  if  the 
sexes  be  kept  apart,  it  is  said,  they  will  live  from  one  to  three 
weeks.  Sometimes  they  issue  forth  in  such  numbers  that  "the 
ground  is  covered  by  their  bodies  when  they  die,  to  such  a 
thickness  as  to  make  it  worth  while  to  cart  them  away  as  ma- 
nure.  The  swarms  of  one  species  with  white  wings  have  been 
so  abundant  as  to  resemble  a  fall  of  snow." 

The  TERMITES,  Termitida,  which  include  the  genus  Termes, 
(Gr.  terma,  an  end,)  are  distinguished  by  wings  having  few 
transverse  nervures  or  horny  divisions,  and  folding  horizontally; 
the  tarsi  are  four-jointed;  the  antennae  short  and  moniliform  ; 
the  body  is  white  and  oblong  in  shape. 

The  head  of  the  White  Ants,  as  they  are  called,  though  differ 
ing  from  the  true  ants,  is  large  and  rounded  ;  and  besides  the 
ordinary  compound  eyes,  they  have  three  ocelli  or  simple  eyes, 
situated  on  the  upper  surface  ;  the  antennse  are  long,  and  com 
posed  of  about  eighteen  joints. 

The  Termites  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  tropics,  though  some 
few  species  extend  into  the  temperate  regions.  Swainson,  Kirby 
and  Spence,  and  other  writers  who  have  observed  the  operations 
of  these  ants,  either  in  Africa  or  South  America,  present  many 
interesting  particulars  respecting  their  wonderful  economy  and 
habits.  These  insects  unite  in  societies,  composed  each  of  an 


GIG  NEUROPTERA. 

immense  number  of  individuals.  In  the  warmer  regions,  the 
ravages  of  some  species  are  often  fearfully  great.  A  species 
discovered  by  Latreille  at  Bordeaux,  (Fr.,)  frequently  attack  the 
wood  work  of  houses,  in  which  they  form  innumerable  galleries, 
all  leading  to  a  central  point.  In  building,  they  avoid  piercing 
the  surface  of  the  wood-work ;  and  hence  it  appears  sound,  when 
the  slightest  touch  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  fall  to 
pieces. 

One  of  the  largest  and  best  known  species  is  the  Termes  belli- 
cosus,  or  Warlike  Ant,  (see  Chart,)  found  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 
These  Ants  build  conical  nests  or  edifices,  sometimes  of  enor 
mous  size,  nearly  as  hard  as  stone,  and  very  commonly  twelve 
feet  in  height,  (see  Chart.)  They  are  often  quite  numerous,  ap. 
pearing  almost  like  huts  of  savages.;  and  Mr.  Cummings  says, 
"are  of  the  greatest  service  to  the  hunter,  enabling  him  to  con- 
ceal  himself  with  facility  on  the  otherwise  open  plain." 

The  male  and  female,  or  King  and  Queen,  have  their  royal 
chamber  near  the  center  of  the  hillock,  and  never  leave  it. 
They  are  both  perfect  insects,  but  the  wings  which  they  once 
had  are  lost  soon  after  their  admission  to  their  place  of  abode. 
To  the  almost  numberless  eggs  dropped  by  the  Queen-mother, 
we  have  already  referred.  In  times  of  scarcity,  the  Hottentots 
feast  upon  these  eggs,  which  they  call  rice,  on  account  of  their 
resemblance  to  that  grain.  They  usually  wash  them,  and  cook 
them  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  declaring  that  they  are 
savory  and  nourishing.  When  they  find  out  a  place  where  the 
nests  are  numerous,  it  is  said  they  soon  become  fat  from  eating 
the  eggs,  even  when  previously  much  reduced  by  hunger. 
"Sometimes  they  will  get  half  a  bushel  out  of  a  single  nest." 

The  larvae,  in  their  full  grown  state,  are  perhaps  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  length.  They  are  far  the  most  numerous  and  the 
workers  of  the  colony,  building,  foraging  and  nursing.  The 
soldiers  or  fighters  are  comparatively  few,  not  more  than  one  to 
a  hundred  of  laborers;  but  they  are  many  times  larger,  and 
armed  with  sharper  and  more  formidable  jaws.  They  appear 
as  defenders  when  the  nest  is  assailed,  and  will  even  attack  the 
assailants,  biting  with  considerable  force.  The  species  T.fron- 
tails,  of  South  America,  works  galleries  in  logs  and  stumps  of 
trees,  and  in  the  ground  also,  plastering  them  with  a  hard 
mixture  of  clay. 


HYMENOPTERA.  G 1 7 


SEVENTH  ORDER.     HYMENOPTERA,  (Gr.  'vfi^v,  humen,  a  mem- 
brane  ;  megov,  pteron,  a  wing.) 

In  the  insects  of  this  order,  inferior  in  numbers  only  to  the 
Beetles,  the  nervures,  or  veins  of  the  wings,  form  the  basis  of 
numerous  sub-divisions.  The  wings  differ  from  those  of  the 
Neuroptera  in  being  of  a  less  delicate  construction,  and  having 
fewer  nervures.  The  mandibles  are  distinct,  but  better  fitted  for  „• 
imbibing  nourishment  by  suction  than  by  mastication ;  the  body  ' 
is  of  a  hard  consistence  ;  the  antennae  are  variable,  but  for  the 
most  part  slender,  showing  twelve  articulations  in  the  male,  and 
thirteen  in  the  female  ;  the  tarsi  are  generally  pentamerous  or 
five-jointed.  These  insects  are  also  peculiarly  distinguished  by 
the  prolongation  of  the  body  in  the  case  of  the  females,  into  an 
organ  which  in  some  is  a  sting,  in  others  an  ovipositor,  or  instru 
ment  for  depositing  the  eggs — usually  having  the  power  of  bor 
ing  a  hollow  for  their  reception.  The  Hymenoptera  are 
among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  class,  for  their  instinctive  fac 
ulties,  their  social  qualities  and  habits,  and  their  powers  of  loco 
motion.  The  Bess,  the  Wasps,  the  Ants,  the  Saw-flies,  the  Ich 
neumons  and  the  Gall-flies  have,  from  the  remotest  periods,  been 
objects  of  attention  to  the  observers  of  nature. 

The  order  is  sometimes  arranged  into  two  sections,  viz. :  the 
TEREBRANTIA,  in  which  the  female  has  a  saw  or  borer  for  the 
deposition  of  eggs  ;  and  the  ACULEATA,  in  which  the  abdomen 
of  the  females  and  neuters  is  possessed  of  a  sting,  which  is  con 
nected  with  a  poison  reservoir.  The  former  section  includes 
seven  families  ;  the  latter  seventeen. 

TEREBRANTIA — BORERS. 

The  SAW-FLIES,  Tenthredinidce,  (Gr.  Tenthreddn,  from  tentlio, 
to  gnaw,)  are  the  only  ones  of  the  order  which  have  feet.  The 
larvae  feed  upon  leaves  or  vegetable  matter.  The  ovipositor  of 
the  female  appears  to  combine  the  properties  of  a  saw  and  file. 
The  Saw. fly,  Tenthredo,  is  also  named  Cimlex  ulmi,  (Lat.  of  an 
elm.)  because  it  inhabits  the  Elm. 

The  WOOD- WASPS,  or  Horn-Tails,  Uroceridce,  (from  Gr.  oura, 
a  tail ;  keras,  a  horn,)  are  a  family  of  insects  which  often  do  great 
mischief  to  fruit  trees  and  also  to  forest  trees,  especially  resin 
ous  ones.  The  females  have  an  ovipositor  in  the  form  of  a  slen 
der  horn,  consisting  of  five  pieces — two  outside  grooved  and 
forming  a  hollow  tube  ;  the  other  and  inner  pieces  are  nee 
dles,  with  which  the  trunks  of  trees  are  pierced  to  make  a 


013  HYMENOPTERA. 

place  of  deposit  for  the  eggs.  The  grub-like  larvae  burrow  in 
the  green  solid  matter  of  trees  and  eat  the  wood. 

The  ICHNEUMON-FLIES,  Ichneumonidce,  (Gr.  ichneumon,)  have 
narrow  bodies  and  rather  long  antenna);  the  feet  are  long  and 
adapted  for  running,  and  the  ovipositor  is  straight.  These  insects 
fly  and  move  about  in  a  restless  manner,  keeping  their  antennae 
in  a  constant  vibratory  motion.  They  perform  a  useful  part  in 
preventing  an  undue  multiplication  of  Moths  and  Butterflies, 
upon  the  larvae  of  which  these  flies  deposit  their  eggs,  but  through 
so  small  an  opening  as  not  to  check  the  growth  of  the  larvae. 
When  the  larva  passes  into  the  pupa  state,  the  eggs  of  the  ich 
neumon  hatch,  and  the  progeny  feed  upon  it,  so  that,  in  the  end, 
instead  of  a  butterfly,  there  comes  forth  a  brood  of  ichneumons. 
This  is  a  very  numerous  family,  including  thousands  of  species. 

The  GALL-FLIES,  Cynipidce,  (genus  Cynips.}  are  a  small  family 
of  insects,  the  larvae  of  which  are  parasitic  in  plants,  where  they 
cause  the  excrescences  called  galls. 

The  family  Evaniida,  (genus  Evania,)  includes  the  AMERI 
CAN  HATCHET  WASP,  Pelecinus  (Lat.  a  hatchet)  politruwtor, 
(Lat.  a  furbisher  or  polisher,)  (see  Chart,)  which  is  seen  by  the 
road  sides  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  flying  slowly,  as  if  borne  down 
by  its  long  and  slender  abdomen. 

The  SNAKE  WASPS,  Ophidian,  (from  Gr.  ophis,  a  serpent,)  (see 
Chart,)  of  which  there  are  several  species,  have  the  abdomen 
three  times  as  long  as  the  thorax,  and  the  antennae  nearly  the 
length  of  the  insect,  which  is  about  one  inch.  This  wasp  is  seen 
late  in  the  summer  or  the  beginning  of  autumn,  hovering  over 
brambles,  &c.,  looking  after  caterpillars  as  a  place  of  deposit  for 
its  eggs.  The  genus  Evania  is  parasitic  in  ship  Cockroaches. 


ACULEATA-STINGERS. 

The  Spider  Wasps,  Sphecidce,  (genus  Sphex,  Gr.  a  wasp,) 
have  an  elongated  body ;  the  abdomen  is  attached  by  a  long, 
slender  peduncle,  (see  fig.  on  Chart,)  and  armed  with  a  sting. 
These  wasps  are  extremely  active  and  difficult  to  capture. 
In  the  perfect  state,  they  suck  the  fluids  of  flowers,  but  the 
larvae  are  furnished  with  animal  food  by  the  adult. 

The  WASPS,  Vespidce,  (genus  Vespa,  Lat.  a  wasp,)  like  the  bees, 
include  males,  females  and  workers.  Like  the  bees  also,  they 
are  social  and  dwell  in  small  communities,  though  there  are 
some  solitary  species,  among  which  no  neuters  are  found.  The 
Wasps  and  Hornets  are  natural  paper  makers,  societies  of  them 


HYMENOPTERA.  6  1 9 

living,  during  summer,  in  nests  divided  into  hexagonal  cells, 
opening  downwards,  formed  of  paper-like  material,  which  is 
impervious  to  water.  During  a  season,  two  or  three  broods  are 
raised  successively  in  the  same  set  of  cells.  The  nests  may  be 
seen  on  trees,  sometimes  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  in  diame 
ter.  The  small  "  Yellow  Jackets,"  as  they  are  termed,  build 
under  ground. 

The  Paper- Wasp,  Polistes  (Gr.  the  founder  or  chief  of  a 
state,)  fuscata,  (Lat.  swarthy,)  either  fastens  its  comb  to  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  or  to  the  shelving  parts  of  a  house. 

The  PASTE-BOARD  WASPS,  Charfergus,  (Gr.  paper-work,)  make 
their  nests  of  a  solid  and  rather  thick  paste-board.  Their  struc 
tures  have  been  seen  in  Pennsylvania,  but  are  more  common  in 
South  America. 

The  Common  Hornet,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  12,)  V.  crabro,  (Lat.  a 
hornet,)  is  considerably  larger  and  more  formidable  than  the 
Wasp,  building  its  nests  in  decaying  hollow  trees,  or  beneath 
their  roots,  and  in  timber  yards,  or  under  the  eaves  of  barns,  etc. 
Its  sting,  as  is  well  known,  often  produces  serious  consequences. 

The  LARGE  AMERICAN  HORNET,  V.  maculata,  (Lat.  spotted,) 
often  enters  houses  to  catch  flies. 

The  ANTS,  Formicidce,  (formica,  an  ant,)  a  well  known  and 
interesting  family,  to  be  distinguished,  however,  from  the  White 
Ants  already  described,  as  belonging  to  another  order.  In  addi 
tion  to  the  males  and  females,  which  form  a  small  part  in  any 
community  of  ants,  and  which  are  alone  furnished  with  wings, 
there  are  neuters,  or  workers,  by  which  the  labors  are  chiefly 
performed,  not  only  constructing  the  nests,  but  feeding  and  tak 
ing  care  of  the  young  grubs.  These  alone  survive  the  winter, 
in  our  climate  remaining  torpid  during  that  season  ;  but  it  is 
otherwise  with  them  in  the  torrid  zones.  There  they  are  active, 
night  and  day,  during  the  entire  year  ;  to  these  the  words  of 
inspiration,  (Proverbs  vi.,)  have  particular  reference, — so  inde 
fatigable  is  their  industry — that  to  them  the  indolent  and  inactive 
may  well  be  pointed  for  lessons  of  instruction.  "  Go  to  the  ant, 
thou  sluggard,  consider  her  ways  and  be  wise." 

The  RED  ANTS,  Formica  rubra,  construct  their  nests  upon  the 
branches  of  trees.  These  are  said  to  be  the  only  ones  which 
feed  upon  their  own  species.  Extremely  lively  representations 
have  been  given  of  the  wars  sometimes  carried  on  between  two 
or  three  Ant-cities,  equal  in  size  and  population,  and  situated  at 
about  one  hundred  paces  from  each  other. 

Of  this  ant  a  minute  species,  M.  domestica,  is  found  in  com 
panies,  either  under  stones,  or  else  in  old  galls  upon  oak  shrubs, 


G20  HYMENOPTERA. 

which  they  enter  by  the  opening  that  is  made  when  the  Cynips 
leaves.  A  few  of  these,  which  have  large  heads,  appear  to  be 
the  workers.  These  ants  often  swarm  in  houses. 

The  SLAVE-MAKING  or  Rufescent  Ants,  F.  rufescens,  make 
war  upon  other  ants,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  procuring  slaves  to 
labor  for  them.  Most  of  the  slave  dealers  are  reddish,  while 
those  who  are  captured  to  become  their  servants  are  black.  Be 
sides  adults,  however,  larvae  and  pupse  are  seized,  and  brought 
up  by  their  captors,  commencing  their  labors  when  they  reach 
their  perfect  state  ;  yet  their  masters  do  some  part  of  the  work. 
According  to  Westwood,  the  large  Yellow  Ant  of  the  United 
States,  makes  slaves  of  the  Black  Ants. 

Certain  Ants,  called  COW-KEEPERS,  are  very  fond  of  the 
liquid  matter  which  is  given  out  by  the  Aphides,  or  Plant-lice, 
and  actually  attend  upon  these  "  Honey-flies,"  as  Svvainson  calls 
them,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  it.  They  even  have  the 
power  of  making  them  yield  it  at  their  pleasure,  by  patting  the 
abdomen  of  the  Aphis  alternately  on  each  side  ;  and  thus  they 
"  milk  their  cows."  They  are  called  "  Cow-keepers,"  for  the 
reason  that  they  sometimes  seem  to  claim  a  right  to  the  Aphides 
inhabiting  a  particular  branch  or  stalk,  and  resist  the  approach 
of  strangers.  To  rescue  the  "Cows"  from  their  rivals,  they 
will  take  the  Aphides  into  their  mouths,  keep  guard  around  them, 
sometimes  enclose  a  certain  number  in  a  tube  of  earth,  or  other 
materials  near  their  nests,  so  that  they  may  be  always  at  hand 
to  supply  them  with  the  desired  food.  The  most  remarkable 
Cow-keeper  is  the  Yellow  Ant,  F.flava,  of  Gould,  which  secures 
within  the  common  nest,  a  large  number  of  Honey-flies  of  the 
species  Aphis  radicum,  (Lat.  of  roots,)  which  derives  its  food 
chiefly  from  the  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants.  The  Yellow 
Ants,  it  is  said,  bestow  upon  these  little  creatures  care  and  solic 
itude  equal  to  that  which  they  give  to  their  own  offspring.  In 
India,  the  honey-like  secretion  which  the  Aphides  cast  upon  the 
ground,  is  so  abundant  in  quantity  that  the  natives  collect  it  when 
dry,  and  sell  it  in  the  country  bazaars  as  a  sweetmeat.  The 
honey,  it  is  said,  may  be  kept  for  seven  or  eight  years,  without 
losing  its  sweetness.  In  Brazil,  the  insects  not  only  furnish  ants 
with  milk,  but,  ruminant-like,  have  horns  growing  out  of  their 
heads  ;  .and  hence  are  called  the  "cattle  ".of  the  ants. 

The  DRIVER.  ANTS,  of  South  Africa,  according  to  the  observa 
tions  of  Dr.  T.  S.  Savage,  an  American  missionary  to  that  re 
gion,  include  in  their  communities,  Neuters,  So/diers,  Workers, 
and  Carriers.  These  do  not  construct  nests,  but  liv^  tempora 
rily  in  crevices,  sometimes  "  ranging  about  in  vast  armies,"  and 


^      HYMENOPTERA.  021 

when  they  enter  houses,  causing  rats,  lizards,  &c.,  and  even 
man  himself  to  flee.  They  travel  at  night  or  in  cloudy  weather, 
as  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  almost  immediately  fatal  to 
them.  "  I  know  of  no  insect,"  says  Dr.  Savage,  "more  fero 
cious  and  determined  upon  victory.  It  may  literally  be  said 
they  are  against  everything,  and  everything  against  them. 
'  Conquer  or  die,'  is  their  motto."  They  are  useful  in  keeping 
down  the  more  rapid  increase  of  other  noxious  insects,  and  also  in 
consuming  much  dead  animal  matter. 

The  SOLITARY  BEES,  Andrenidce,  consist  only  of  males  and 
females.  The  species  of  the  genus  Andrena,  are  quite  numer 
ous.  They  make  their  appearance  in  the  early  spring  and  sum 
mer  months,  and  have  very  much  the  appearance  of  Hive-bees. 
The  females  collect  pollen  from  the  stamens  of  flowers,  rather 
by  means  of  the  general  hairiness  of  the  body  than  with  the  pos 
terior  tarsi.  They  burrow  in  the  ground  in  sandy  districts, 
especially,  if  exposed  to  the  sun,  often  to  a  considerable  depth. 

Of  the  Bees  proper,  Apid<z,  (Lat.  apis,  a  bee,)  there  are  sev 
eral  groups,  differing  from  each  other,  to  some  extent,  in  their 
qualities  and  habits.  The  HUMBLE  (Bumble)  BEES,  Bombus, 
(from  Gr.  bombos,  a  humming  or  buzzing.)  construct  their  nests 
under  ground,  in  fields  and  pastures.  The  females,  which  are 
unlimited  as  to  number,  assist  the  neuters  in  working.  The 
larger  females  alone  survive  the  winter,  and  in  the  first  fine 
days  of  spring,  construct  their  cells,  and  rear  a  brood  of  workers, 
which,  in  due  time,  assist  in  the  construction  of  new  cells.  The 
honey  which  these  bees  collect,  is  of  an  inferior  kind,  and  their 
wax  is  not  so  clean,  or  so  capable  of  fusion  as  that  of  the  True 
Honey-Bees. 

The  MASON  BEES,  Megacliile,  (Gr.  great  lips  or  jaws,)  wmran'a, 
(Lat.  from  murus,  a  wall,)  build  their  cells  by  agglutinating 
grains  of  sand  and  gravel. 

The  UPHOLSTER  BEES,  M.  papaveris,  (Lat  of  a  poppy.)  line 
the  holes  which  they  excavate  for  their  young  in  the  earth,  with  an 
elegant  coating  of  leaves  or  flowers,  preferring,  for  this  purpose, 
the  brilliant  scarlet  furnished  by  the  leaves  of  the  wild  poppy. 
The  species  M.  centuncularis,  (from  Lat.  cenlunculus,  patch 
work,)  coat  their  dwelling  with  the  leaves  of  trees. 

The  CARPENTER  BEES,  Xyclopa,  (Gr.  Xu/on,  wood ;  kopto,  to 
cut,)  bore  with  great  labor  out  of  solid  wood,  long  cylindrical 
tubes,  and  divide  them  into  various  cells,  in  which  the  young  are 
placed  with  a  quantity  of  pollen-paste. 

The  VIOLET  CARPENTER  BEE,  X.  molacea,  is  common  about 
Paris,  and  in  the  gardens  of  Southern  Europe.  Among  these 


622  HYMENOPTERA. 

bees,  the  females  perform  all  the  labor;  the  males  have  no  stings. 
The  species  X.  victima,  is  found  in  the  United  States,  and  bores 
in  the  lower  surface  of  white-pine  structures. 

But  the  most  important,  and,  indeed,  the  most  interesting  of  the 
family,  is  the  Common  Hive  Bee,  Apis  melUfica,  (Lat.  me/,, 
honey  ;  facio,  to  make,)  The  Hive  includes  three  kinds;  the 
Female;  the  Male  or  Drone;  and  the  Worker,  (see  Chart  for 
figures  showing  the  relative  size,  &c.,  of  each.)  The  bees  col 
lect  honey,  pollen,  and  propolis,  feeding  their  young  with  the 
former  two,  and  using  the  latter  for  filling  up  crevices  in  their 
cells,  and  for  the  needed  repairs.  The  wax  is  secreted  by  the 
workers,  and  appears  between  the  segments  of  the  lower  side  of 
the  abdomen,  in  the  form  of  small  scales. 

Every  hive  is  under  the  government  of  the  Queen  Bee.  She 
is  lady  paramount,  and  suffers  no  other  queen  to  share  her  do- 
minion.  At  the  swarming  season,  the  old  queen  becomes  so 
sadly  disturbed  by  the  encroachments  of  the  young  queens,  that 
she  rushes  forth  from  the  hive,  attended  by  a  large  body  of  her 
subjects;  thus,  the  first  swarm  is  formed.  In  seven  or  eight 
days  afterwards,  the  queen  next  in  age  departs,  also  taking  with 
her  a  supply  of  subjects.  When  all  the  swarms  have  left  the 
original  hive,  the  remaining  queens  fight  until  one  gains  the 
throne.  The  Queen  Bee  lays  about  eighteen  thousand  eggs. 
About  eight  hundred  of  these  prove  males  or  drones,  and  four  or 
five  queens;  the  remainder  are  workers.  The  cells  are  six- 
sided.  Those  in  which  the  drones  are  hatched,  are  much  larger 
than  the  cells  of  the  ordinary  working  bees.  The  royal  cells 
are  much  larger  than  any  others,  and  are  of  an  oval  shape. 
When  a  worker  larva  is  placed  in  a  royal  cell,  and  fed  in  a 
royal  manner,  it  imbibes  the  "  principles  of  royalty, "and  becomes 
a  queen  accordingly.  This  practice  is  resorted  to  if  the  Queen 
Bee  die,  and  there  be  no  other  queen  to  take  her  place. 

The  form  of  the  cells  is  such  as  to  afford  the  greatest  space 
and  strength,  with  the  least  amount  of  material.  How  the  bees 
are  enabled  to  give  them  this  form,  unless  by  a  divinely  im 
planted  instinct,  it  is  difficult  to  tell.  Three  figures  will  admit 
the  junction  of  their  sides  without  vacant  spaces  between  them, 
viz  :  the  square,  the  equilateral  triangle,  and  the  hexagon,  the 
last  being  the  strongest  and  most  convenient.  And  this  is  the 
very  form  in  which  the  bees  build  their  cells.  The  bottom  of 
each  cell,  on  one  side,  meets  three  on  the  other,  and  is  supported 
by  the  divisions  between  them;  and  it  is  formed  by  three  plates 
that  mnet  at  an  angle,  which  profound  mathematical  investigation 
demonstrated  to  be  the  very  angle  which  combines  the  greatest 


LEPIDOPTERA.  623 


strength  with  the  least  material.  Kirby  and  Spence  say,  — 
44  Maraldi  calculated  that  the  great  angles  were  109o  28',  and 
the  smaller  ones  70°  32';  and  Konig  calculated  that  they  ought 
to  be  109o  26',  and  70o  34',  to  obtain  the  greatest  strength  with 
any  given  amount  of  material."  But  subsequent  examination 
showed  that  the  bees  were  right  and  Konig  wrong. 


EIGHTH  ORDER.     LEPIDOPTERA.     (Gr.  henig,  Upis,  a  scale; 
rcreyov,  pteron,  a  wing.) 

These  insects,  comprehending,  perhaps,  one-fourth  or  one-sixth 
of  the  entire  tribe,  have  a  suctorial  mouth  and  rudimentary  man- 
dibles.  Their  metamorphosis  is  complete.  The  beautiful  Butter 
flies  are  the  representatives  of  this  order,  and  also  of  all  those 
winged  visitants  that  flit  about  our  lamps  during  the  evenings  of 
summer;  the  one  are  diurnal;  the  other  nocturnal.  They  all 
have  four  membranous  wings,  usually  covered  with  minute  scales  ; 
the  mouth  is  suctorial,  consisting  of  a  tubular  thread-like  organ, 
which,  when  not  in  use,  is  rolled  into  a  compact  spiral  coil; 
their  bodies  are  soft  and  covered  with  hair;  the  feet  are  penta- 
merous,  (have  the  tarsi  five-jointed  ;)  generally,  they  are  hairy 
and  of  equal  length;  though  sometimes  the  front  pair  are  so 
small  as  to  be  of  no  use  in  walking.  The  Lepidoptera  feed  upon 
the  juice  of  flowers,  but,  in  the  perfect  state,  they  sometimes 
need  none.  They  may  be  arranged  into  three  great  divisions  : 
(1)  the  Butterflies  Proper,  Papitionida,  (Papilio,)  which  have 
thread-like  antennae  and  bear  a  knob,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  13;)  (2) 
the  Sphingidce,  (Sphinx,)  or  the  Hawk-  Moths,  which  have  the 
antennae,  thick  in  the  middle,  and  at  the  tip  often  hooked;  (3) 
the  Moths  (in  general)  having  the  antennas  somewhat  naked,  of 
bristle  form  or  else  feathered  on  the  sides. 

I.  The  Butterflies  Proper  include  at  least  three  hundred  spe 
cies,  sometimes  most  gorgeously  colored,  of  which  large  diurnal 
ones  are  found  in  the  United  States.  The  Butterfly,  P.  iurnus,  is 
one  of  the  most  common  species;  in  its  markings  and  forms,  re 
sembling  the  P.  machaon,  or  Swallow-tailed  Butterfly  of  Europe. 
(See  Chart.) 

CABBAGE  BUTTERFLIES,  Pontia,  (Gr.  a  sea-green  surface,) 
JBrassica,  (Lat.  cabbage.)  These  are  common  and  destructive 
in  our  gardens,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  13.)  The  eggs  are  yellowish 
and  laid  on  the  under  side  of  cabbages,  turnips  and  radishes;  the 
pale  green  worms  come  out  in  about  a  week,  and  attain  their 
full  size  of  an  inch  and  a  half,  in  three  weeks. 

The  HAIR  STREAKS,  genus  Thecla,  derive  their  name  from  the 
26 


G2i  I<EPIDOPTERA. 

delicate,  straight,  or  zig-zag  lines  on  the  under  side  of  the  rings. 
Some  species  frequent  hedges,  others  the  oak  and  ash  trees. 

The  Nymphalidce,  (Nympha,  a  nymph,)  include  many  beauti 
ful  Butterflies,  called  Red  and  White  ADMIRALS,  PAINTED  LADIES, 
FRITTELARIES,  the  front  legs  of  which  appear  incomplete,  but  in 
their  ability  for  strong  flight,  they  are  more  than  compensated  for 
the  deficiency  of  their  feet.  The  genus  Vanessa  includes  many 
species,  of  which  V.  lo,  PEACOCK  BUTTERFLY,  is  pictured  on  the 
Chart. 

The  TORTOISE-SHELL  BUTTERFLY,  V.  urtica,  (Lat.  of  a  nettle,) 
nearly  resembles  the  Peacock  Butterfly.  The  Caterpillers  live  in 
societies,  changing  their  skins  frequently,  and  constructing  a  new 
tent  on  another  part  of  the  plant  at  each  moult,  until  the  last,  when 
each  individual  feeds  by  itself,  and  the  society  is  dissolved. 

The  SKIPPERS,  Hesperiidce,  (leading  genus  Hesperia,)  have 
the  four  hind  shanks  furnished  with  two  pairs  of  spurs.  They 
have  a  jerking  kind  of  flight,  from  which  their  popular  name  is 
derived ;  and  in  many  respects,  they  approach  the  moths. 

The  TITYRUS  SKIPPER,  Eudamus  tityrus,  often  strips  the  locust 
tree  of  its  foliage.  It  forms  its  habitation  of  the  leaves  of  that 
tree  bound  together  by  silken  threads,  and  also  feeds  upon  its 
leaves. 

II.  The  Hawk-Moths,  Spliingida,  (leading  genus  Sphinx,)  are 
also  named  Humming-Birds,  being  capable  of  flying  for  a  long 
time,  and  of  poising  themselves  in  the  air,  like  the  Humming- 
Bird.  (See  Chart  for  figures  of  Sphinx  ligustri,  or  Privet-Hawk- 
Moth,  in  the  larva,  pupa,  and  imago  or  perfect  state.)  Many 
beautiful  species  of  Hawk-Moths  are  seen  on  fine  summer 
evenings.  The  Philampelus,  (Gr.  vine -lover,)  SaleHitia,  is  of 
this  family,  (for  figure  of  which  see  Chart.) 

III.  MOTHS. 

The  TIGER-MOTHS,  Arctiidce,  (Arctia,)  have  the  feelers  and 
tongue  usually  short  and  thick,  and  the  antennae  doubly  feath 
ered ;  both  the  Caterpillars  and  Moths  are  downy.  They  fly 
only  at  night.  The  family  includes  different  genera,  but  we 
can  only  name  the  American  Tiger-Moth,  A.  virgo,  of  a  pink 
red  color,  with  two  central,  triangular  spots,  and  other  markings; 
and  the  GREAT-TIGER  MOTH,  A  caja,  (see  Chart,)  an  English 
insect,  but  one  that  is  represented  in  the  A.  Americana,  which  it 
closely  resembles.  The  latter  has  the  base  of  the  fore  wings 
marked  with  white  branching  spots,  which  partly  resemble  a 
cross ;  the  wing  beyond  the  middle  is  also  marked  with  a  white 
irregular  cross,  something  like  an  X. 


HEMIPTERA.  025 

The  SILK- WORMS,  Bombycida,  (leading  genus  Bornbyx,}  rep 
resent  some  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  species  of  nocturnal 
Butterflies  ;  among  which  is  the  Atlacus  luna,  or  GREEN  EMPEROR 
MOTH,  which  is  about  five  inches  in  the  expanse  of  wings,  (see 
Chart;)  the  Caterpillar  is  also  of  a  bluish  green  color;  when  in 
motion,  three  inches  in  length,  and  in  feeding,  preferring  the 
leaves  of  the  hickory.  For  figures  of  the  Bowlyx  ?nori,  or  Silk- 
Worm  in  its  different  stages,  see  Chart.  The  larvse  have  sixteen 
feet, — feed  upon  leaves ;  and  spin  the  silken  cocoon  out  of  a 
single  thread,  with  the  assistance  of  a  gummy  matter,  which  soon 
hardens.  Other  species  than  the  Bombyx  mori,  (Lat.  of  the  mul 
berry,)  are  reared  for  the  silk,  and  more  of  it  might  be  obtained, 
if  warm  water  dissolved  the  gum  of  the  cocoon,  as  it  does  in  the 
true  Silk- Worm.  The  Tincidce.,  (Tmea,)  are  the  smallest  Moths 
in  the  section.  These  infest  woolens,  furs,  etc.  The  best  way 
to  protect  such  articles  against  these  Moths,  is  to  put  them  to 
gether  with  tobacco-leaves,  camphor,  or  turpentine,  in  a  tight  bag 
early  in  the  spring,  before  the  eggs  of  this  insect  are  laid. 

The  HONEY-COMB  MOTH,  T.  cercHa,  (Lat.  from  cera.  wax,)  is 
notorious  for  its  depredations  upon  the  wax  of  the  Bee-Hive. 

The  LEAF-ROLLERS,  Tortricidcs,  ( Tortrix,  i.  e.,  twister  or  roller,) 
comprehend  many,  species  of  insects,  the  larvse  of  which  do  great 
damage  to  the  fruit  of  apple  and  the  foliage  of  forest  trees.  The 
larvce  of  the  Carpocapsa,  (Gr.  fruit-eater,)  pomoneUa,  (Lat.  from 
pomum,  fruit,  apples,  &c..)  known  as  the  Apple-Worm,  came  to 
this  country  with  the  apple,  and  this  worm  has  become  natural 
ized  among  us. 

NINTH  ORDER.     HEMIPTERA,  (Gr.  °ijfuffvs,  hemisus,  half;  nisgtv, 
pteron,  wing.) 

•This  order  is  distinguished  by  having  the  rostrum  or  jaw 
compounded,  i.  e.,  formed  for  piercing  and  sucking.  The  insects 
which  it  includes,  live  upon  vegetables  and  animal  juices,  those 
feeding  upon  vegetables  being  the  most  numerous.  The  name 
Hemiptera,  first  used  by  Linnaeus,  refers  to  a  characteristic  of 
some  of  the  order  in  having  a  thickening  on  the  basal  part  of  the 
anterior  wings,  while  the  other  part  is  thin  and  transparent. 
Others  apply  to  it  the  term  Khynchota,  (Gr.  rhunchos,  beak  or 
gape.)  having  reference  to  the  character  of  the  mouth.  The 
metamorphosis  in  this  order  is  only  semi-complete,  both  the 
larva  and  pupa  being  active,  and,  at  all  times,  taking  food. 

The  order  includes  two  sections,  viz:  Homoptera,  (Gr.  like- 
wings,)  and  Heteroptera,  (Gr.  different  wings,) — in  the  first  of 


626  HEMIPTERA. 

which  the  wings  are  of  a  uniform;  in  the  second,  of  a  varied 
texture.  (To  the  section  Homoptera,  Latreille  gives  the  name 
Hemiptera,  while  Leach  calls  it  Omoptera.) — Westvvood  divides 
the  Momoptera,  which  he  considers  a  distinct  order,  into  three 
sections,  viz :  Trimera,  (Gr.  three  parts.)  Dimera,  (two  parts,) 
Monomers,  (one  part  or  division,) — these  terms  having  reference 
to  the  divisions  of  the  tarsi;  and  the  Heteroptera  into  two  sec 
tions,  Hydrocorisa,  (residents  of  water,)  and  Aurocorisa,  (resi 
dents  of  air.) 

Of  the  Homopterous  division,  having  the  four  wings  all  of  a 
firm  membraneous  texture,  are  the  BARK-LICE,  or  SCALE-INSECTS, 
Coccidce.,  (typ.  gen.  Coccus.)  (Plate  XV.  fig.  14.)  Of  these 
there  are  several  species, — found  on  the  leaves  and  bark  of  dif 
ferent  plants.  The  Coccus  cacti  (of  the  cactus,)  is,  on  account 
of  its  beautiful  crimson  color,  used  as  a  coloring-matter.  It  is  a 
native  of  Mexico,  and  feeds  upon  a  particular  kind  of  Cactus, 
called  Indian. fig,  and  extensively  cultivated  for  the  express  pur- 
pose  of  rearing  it.  The  annual  amount  of  Cochineal  exported 
to  Europe  is,  according  to  Hum  bold  t,  eight  hundred  thousand 
pounds;  and  it  requires  about  seventy  thousand  insects  to  make 
a  pound.  Lac  or  Shell-lac,  employed  for  making  sealing-wax, 
is  the  product  of  a  species  of  Coccus.  The  Mealy-Bug,  Coccus 
adonidum,  (of  Adonises  or  flowers,)  found  in  hot-houses,  is  red 
dish,  but  covered  with  a  white,  powder-like  substance.  The 
Coccidce  belong  to  Westwood's  Monomera. 

The  PLANT-LICE,  or  Vine-fretters,  Aphides,  (leading  genus 
Afj/iis,)  infest  the  roots  of  vegetables,  (often  doing  them  great 
injury,)  and  also  the  leaves  of  most  plants,  such  as  roses,  asters, 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  cabbages,  dec., — each  plant  having  its 
own  peculiar  species.  Their  bodies  are  soft,  of  an  oval  form 
and  have  upon  the  abdomen  two  tufts  or  pores.  The  females 
are  usually  wingless,  but  not  always.  The  upper  wings  corres 
ponding  to  the  wing-covers  in  the  H omiptera  Proper,  are  the 
larger  and  used  for  flight  or  as  aids  in  leaping.  To  the  prolific 
powers  of  the  Plant-lice  reference  has  already  been  made.  A 
young  leaf  that  curls,  or  that  has  an  unhealthy  appearance,  is 
probably  infested  with  these  lice.  Fumes  of  tobacco,  turpentine 
or  sulphur,  are  a  remedy  against  them,  and  also  against  the 
Mealy -Bugs.  The  Aphida  belong  to  the  Dimera. 

The  WOOL-FLY,  or  the  Apple-tree-blight,  Eriosoma,  (Gr.  erion, 
wool ;  soma,  body.)  is  an  insect  of  a  woolly  appearance  ;  without 
wings,  but  wafted  from  tree  to  tree  by  its  cotton  envelope.  Its 
microscopic  eggs, — covered  with  the  same  soft,  downy^substance 
as  the  body,  are  found  in  the  crotches  and  chinks  of  trees,  where 


HEMIPTERA.  G'27 

they  hatch,  and  produce  the  Apple-tree-blight.  The  wounds  of 
this  insect  produce  warts  and  excrescences  on  the  surface  of  the 
trees,  and  finally  result  in  its  death. 

The  JUMPING  PLANT-LICE,  PsyUida,  (PsyUa,  Gr.  Psfilla,  a 
gnat,)  are  similar  to  the  Plant-lice,  but  more  active.  These  are 
dimerous;  they  have  ten  articulated  antennae,  and  the  females 
have  an  ovipositor. 

The  LANTERN-FLIES,  Fulgorida,  (Jfutgordi  Lat.  from  fulgeo, 
to  shine,)  include  a"  number  of  trirnerous  species  of  bright  colors 
and  large  size.  Many  of  them  have  a  curious  prolongation  of 
the  forehead,  sometimes  nearly  as  large  as  the  rest  of  the  body. 
Whether  they  are  luminous  or  not.  is  a  point  not  positively  set 
tled.  They  probably  give  out  light  at  particular  seasons.  The 
species  F.  candelaria,  (Lat.  from  candela,  a  candle,)  is  yellow,  and 
the  elytra  black,  marked  with  yellow  spots.  It  is  said  a  Chinese 
edict  exists  against  young  ladies  keeping  Lantern-flies. 

The  HARVEST-FLIES,  Cicadidce,  (Cicada,)  are  distinguished  by 
their  robust  body,  their  large  and  triangular  head,  with  three 
stemmata,  their  prominent  eyes;  the  antennae  short  and  thin, 
with  six  articulations,  and,  usually,  by  large  transparent  wings. 
The  Harvest-flies  are  trimerous.  They  have  long  been  partic 
ularly  noticed  on  account  of  the  noise  made  by  the  male,  differ 
ing  in  different  species.  The  species  which  has  attracted  most 
attention,  is  C.  septendecim,  (Lat.  seventeen,)  the  SEVENTEEN 
YEARS  LOCUST,  which  often  does  very  great  damage  to  trees. 
The  female,  with  her  ovipositor,  inserts  her  eggs  in  their  tender 
branches,  which  causes  them  to  die,  so  that  the  tops  of  the  forests, 
sometimes,  on  this  account,  look  as  if  they  had  been  scorched  by 
fire.  Miss  M.  A.  Morris  has  ascertained  that  trees  also  suffer 
much  from  the  larva  of  these  locusts,  which  penetrate  six  inches 
under  ground,  and  reach  the  roots.  She  says  further,  that  the 
larvae  are  destroyed  by  those  miners,  the  Moles. , 

The  DOG-DAY  HARVEST-FLY,  C.  canicularis,  (Lat.  from  canicula, 
the  dog-star,) — according  to  the  observation  of  Mr.  Harris,  has, 
for  many  years  in  succession,  been  regularly  heard  at  Cam 
bridge,  on  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  July,  between  the  hours  of  ten 
in  the  forenoon  and  two  in  the  afternoon.  Its  body  is  thicker 
and  proportionably  shorter  than  that  of  the  Seventeen  Years 
Locust,  but  its  habits  are  quite  similar. 

The  HETEROPTERA,  which  have  the  upper  wings  partly  thick, 
and  partly  thin,  include  several  families.  Among  these  are  the 

Notonectidce,  (Gr.  back-swimmers,)  the  TRUE  WATER-BUGS, 
(Hydrocorisa,) — named  from  their  habit  of  swimming  with  the 
back  betow.  These,  from  the  peculiar  appearance  of  the  body, 


623  HEMIPTERA. 

are  sometimes  called  Boat  flies.  The  hind  feet  are  long  and 
fringed,  held  out  when  at  rest,  like  a  pair  of  oars,  and  used  like 
them  in  swimming.  The  larvae  and  pupae  differ  from  the  perfect 
insect  only  in  their  smaller  size  and  the  absence  of  wings. 

HydrcmttridcB,  WATER-MEASURERS,  or  SKIPPERS,  (Aurocorisa.) 
These  live  on  the  surface  of  standing  or  running  waters,  and 
sometimes  move  with  great  rapidity. 

The  boat-shaped  insects  of  the  genus  Hydrometra,  (Gr.  hudor, 
water;  meiron,  measure,)  are  furnished  with  fore  feet  suited  to 
locomotion.  These  move  over  the  water  rather  slowly.  Their 
larvae  have  the  abdomen  extremely  small,  which  is  also  true  of 
the  Oceanic  Halobates,  (Gr.  hah,  the  sea ;  baino,  to  go,)  which 
seems  to  confirm  the  general  idea  of  Agassiz,  (see  our  account 
of  the  Turtles,)  that  fresh- water  forms  are  of  higher  grade  than 
the  marine. 

Reduviida,  (Genus  Reduvius.)  These  are  another  family 
of  SKIPPERS,  which  are  active  and  predaceous,  their  strong  beak 
or  rostrum  enabling  them  to  pierce  insects  that  have  a  covering 
tolerably  hard.  The  puncture  which  they  make  is  said  to  be 
rather  poisonous. 

CimitidcR,  or  Land  Bugs,  (Aurocorisa,)  include  the  Bed-bug, 
Cimex  lectularia,  (see  Chart,)  so  odious,  and  so  widely  spread. 
It  is  said  this  bug  was  "unknown  in  England  until  after  the 
Great  Fire  of  London,  in  1666,  when  it  was  introduced  in  the 
fir-timber  imported  for  rebuilding  the  city."  Westwood,  how- 
ever,  asserts,  it  was  known  there  as  early  as  1503. 

Coreidce,  (genus  Corns,)  These  are  small,  elongated  bugs, 
found  in  small  fruits,  some  of  them  of  a  red  and  yellow  color 
bordering  the  elytra  and  upper  surface.  One  species  is  the 
SQUASH-BUG  common  on  the  leaves  of  the  squash  and  pumpkin, 
which  lays  its  eggs  about  the  last  of  June.  It  should  be  crushed 
with  the  foot  before  that  time. 

ScutelleridcB,  (genus  Scutellaria.)  1.  These  insects  derive 
their  family  name  from  having  the  scutellum,  (dimi  of  scutum,  a 
shield,)  so  large  as  to  cover  the  abdomen  and  wings.  These  are 
the  bugs  of  unpleasant  smell,  found  on  strawberry-vines  and 
other  berries.  Some  of  them  are  above  the  medium  size  of  in 
sects,  and  not  a  few  are  clothed  in  bright  colors.  Those  of  the 
genus  Pentatoma,  (Gr.  five  sections,)  are  among  the  most  com 
mon.  Like  others  of  the  family,  they  secrete  an  ill-scented 
fluid.  The  antennse  are  divided  into  five  joints, — whence  the 
name. 


DIPTERA. 

TENTH  ORDER.     DIPTERA,    (Gr.  8igt  dis,  twice  or  two ; 
pteron,  wing.) 

These  insects  are  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  only  two 
wings  and  a  pair  of  small  knobbed  appendages,  (as  in  the  com 
mon  fly  and  the  musquito,)  called  halterers  or  poisers.  The 
wings  are  membranous,  and  without  any  covering,  except  a  few 
hair-like  scales,  which,  in  some  species,  appear  at  the  base. 
They  are  never  folded  upon  themselves,  remaining  expanded 
when  at  rest,  as  in  the  insects  of  the  preceding  order.  Their 
nervation  is  quite  different  from  that  exhibited  in  the  other  orders. 
The  mouth  is  suctorial,  and  in  many,  has  a  fleshy  proboscis,  that 
encloses  lancets  capable  of  penetrating  flesh,  or  the  softer  parts 
of  vegetables.  In  a  f<fw  genera,  as  the  Oestrus  or  Gad-fly,  the 
mouth  is  closed.  These  insects  are  all  small ;  but  what  is 
wanting  in  size  is  made  up  in  numbers.  They  are  every 
where,  and  also  are  attendants  upon  man, — sometimes  to  his 
great  annoyance;  but  it  should  be  remembered,  they  are  highly 
useful  in  cleansing  the  earth's  surface  of  impurities,  both  animal 
and  vegetable.  In  this  order  the  transformations  are  imperfect. 
The  pupae  sometimes  take  the  incomplete  form, — having  the 
limbs  visible,  and  without  a  cocoon.  The  larvse  are  white  and 
fleshy,  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  without  feet.  They  are  seen 
in  carrion  and  in  galls;  or  in  living  caterpillars;  and  sometimes 
among  vegetables  pickled  with  vinegar,  and  in  the  brine  of  salt 
works.  We  can  only  refer  to  some  of  the  more  conspicuous 
families. 

1.  CuJicida,  represented  by  the  genus  Cukx,  (Lat.  a  gnat.)  This 
family  includes  the  numerous  Gnats  and  Musquitoes,  C.  pipiens, 
(Lat.  peeping.)  distinguished  by  the  tufted  antennse  of  the  males. 
The  pupae  of  these  are  active  ;  the  larvae  are  inhabitants  of  water  ; 
hence,  these  insects  are  abundant,  chiefly  in  damp  situations. 
Mankind  are  attacked  by  the  female  gnats  alone;  the  lancets  of 
the  mouth  being  in  the  males  fewer  and  weaker.  These  insects 
lay  two  or  three  hundred  eggs  in  stagnant  water,  joined  together 
so  as  to  form  a  little  raft  floating  upon  the  water,  where  they 
hatch  in  about  three  days,  producing  small  greenish  worms,  that 
in  fifteen  days  become  the  wrigglers  of  open  rain-water  casks  and 
stagnant  pools,  breathing  through  the  tail,  and  darting  first  one 
way,  and  then  another.  From  this  pupa  state,  they  emerge  as 
full-grown  Musquitoes,  Gnats,  Midges,  &c.,  breathing  through 
openings  in  the  sides,  and  ready  to  pierce  the  flesh,  suck  the 
blood,  and  instil  their  inflammatory  poison  into  the  wounds  made 
by  their  pointed  proboscis; — four  or  five  generations  may  be 


G30  DIPTERA. 

produced  in  a  summer.  A  few  small  fish  kept  in  a  cistern  or 
open  water  cask,  destroy  the  larvae  of  the  gnats  as  fast  as  they 
hatch,  and  prove  a  sure  defence  against  these  annoying  insects, 
so  far  as  this  source  is  concerned. 

In  warm  climates,  these  insects  are  a  serious  trouble  ;  it  there 
becomes  indispensable  to  protect  beds  against  them  at  night  by  a 
netting  of  gauze,  called  a  Musquifo-bar. 

2.  Tipulida,  (Lat.  tipula,  a  water-spinner,)  known  asthe  DADDY- 
LONG-LEGS.      These,  in  their  slender  body  and  feet,  considerably 
resemble  the  gnats.     Their  antennas  have,  usually,  from  fourteen 
to   sixteen   articulations.      Among  them   are   found  the    insects 
which  do  the   most  serious  injury  to  the  crops  of  the  farmer. 
These  are  represented  in  the  genus  Cecidomyia,  including  the 
HESSIAN-FLY,   C.  destructor,  (Lat.  destroyer;)  the  WHEAT-FLY, 
the  pest  of  wheat-fields,  C.  tritici,  (Lat  of  wheat;)  the  WILLOW- 
FLY,  C.  salicis,  (Lat.  of  a  willow.) — found  in  a  reddish  gall  upon 
low  willow-bushes. 

The  WHEAT  MIDGE  PARASITE,  Pfatygaster,  (Gr.  broad- 
belly,)  tipulce,  (Lat.  of  the  tipula,) — a  minute  fly,  somewhat  re 
sembling  the  Winged  Ant, — performs  the  part  of  a  public  bene 
factor,  by  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  larvae  of  the  Wheat-midge, — 
(a  single  egg  in  each,)  and  thus  preventing  the  development  of 
great  multitudes  of  them  in  the  perfect  form,  though,  like  some 
other  benefactors,  it  has  been  charged  with  committing  the  very 
injuries  which  it  has  instrumentally  limited.  There  have  been 
collected  in  Europe  twenty  thousand  species  of  insects  preying 
on  wheat. 

3.  Muscida,  (Lat.  musca,  a  fly.)     This  is  a  well  known  and 
numerous  family,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  not  much 
short  of  eighteen  hundred  species  are  described  as  existing  in 
Europe  alone,  which  is   probably  not  half  the   entire   number. 
Meigen,  a  German,  described  six  hundred  species  which  he  col 
lected  in  a  distance  of  ten  miles  circumference.     The  type  of 
the    family,  is   the   common    House-fly,    Musca  domesfica,)  but 
great   diversity    is   exhibited    in   the   habits   of  different  species. 
Among  the   various    kinds,   are   the    FLESH-FLIES,   Sarcophaga, 
(Gr.  flesh-feeding;)  the  CHEESE-FLIES,  Prophila,  (Gr.  very  fond,) 
casei,  (Lat.  of  cheese,) — the    larvae    of  which    skippers    infest 
cheese;  and  the  species,  P.  petasionis,  (Lat.  of  gammon.)  are 
found  in  smoked  hams. 

PLAGUE-FLY.  During  the  prevalence  of  the  Yellow  Fever  in 
Norfolk,  Va.,  not  very  long  since,  the  PLAGUE-FLY,  as  it  is  called, 
made  its  appearance  there  in  large  numbers.  This  is  a  flat  in 
sect,  with  black  back  and  red  belly,  and  has  very  large  wings. 


APHANIPTERA.  C31 

Its  presence,  during  the  time  of  pestilence,  is  regarded  as  a  good 
omen,  it  being  supposed  to  devour  the  malaria. 

BOT-FLIES. 

4.  Oeatrida,   (Lat.    oestrus,   a    gad-bee,)     The   flies   of  this 
family,  the  larvae  of  which   are  known    by  the  name  of   bots, 
infest  different  quadrupeds,  and   a  species  fouud    in    Peru,    as- 
sails  man  himself.     The   horse   licks  them  off  his   coat;    they 
are  then  hatched  by  the  warmth  and  moisture  of  the  mouth,  and 
conveyed  to  the  stomach  ;   sometimes  they  are  laid  in  the  skin  of 
the   ox,  Antelope,  etc.,  and  on   the    head  of  sheep.     They  are 
called  gastric,  cutaneous,  and  cervical,  according  to  the  place  in 
which  they  breed.     From  the  Oestrus  bovis,  (Lat.  of  an  ox,)  oxen 
run  to  the  water  for  protection.     The  Oestrus  tarandi  deposits  its 
eggs  under  the  skin  of  the  Rein  Deer.     The   presence  of  these 
insects  occasions  much  annoyance  and  terror  to  these  and  other 
animals,  upon  whom  the  larvae  are  deposited. 

GAD-FLIES. 

5.  Tabanidae,  (Lat.  tabanus,  an  ox-fly,  or  gad-fly.)   This  family 
includes  the  largests  insects  of  the  order,  having  prominent  eyes, 
and   a  mouth  which,  in  the  female,  has  six,  and  the  male,  four 
piercers.     Many  of  the  perfect  insects  are  greedy  of  flesh  and 
insects,  —  and  some  are  so  even  in  the  larva  state.      They  often 
become   a  great   pest  to  cattle.     In  Africa,  it  is  said,  even  the 
lion  is  afraid  of  them.     The  males  of  these  insects  draw  their 
nourishment  from  flowers  ;  the  females  alone  are  blood-suckers. 


ELEVENTH  ORDER.     APHANIPTERA.     (Gr.  aqpa^?,  aphanes,  not 
manifest;  msQuv,  pteron,  wing.) 

This  order  includes  the  tribe  of  Fleas,  Pulicida,  (Lat.  pulex, 
a  flea,)  having  no  proper  wings,  but  simply  two  scales  on  each 
side.  All  of  them  are  very  minute  in  size,  and  similar  in  their 
habits.  In  their  perfect  state,  they  are  parasitic.  The  larvae  of 
Fleas,  (Pulex  irritans,  (Lat.  provoking,)  issue  from  the  egg  in 
the  form  of  very  small  worms,  that  attain  their  full  size  in  about 
twelve  days,  and  feed  upon  animal  matter.  In  the  silken  cocoon 
which  they  weave  for  themselves,  they  pass  in  quiet  the  pupa 
state.  The  CHIGOE,  JIGGER,  &c.,  P.  penetrans,  (Lat.  piercing,) 
is  numerous  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  It  often 
buries  itself  deeply  in  the  skin,  both  of  men  and  animals,  depos 
iting  an  immense  number  of  eggs,  which,  when  hatched,  are 
extremely  irritating,  and  sometimes  produce  ulcers  and  death. 


632  AFTER  A. 

Against  these  insects,  wormwood  is  a  remedy.  For  this  order 
Latreille  proposed  the  name  SIPHONOSTOMA,  (Gr.  siphon,  or 
sucker-mouth.) 

TWELFTH  ORDER.     APTERA,  (Gr.  ^nisQog,  apteros,  wingless.) 

These  wingless  insects  Latreille  arranges  into  two  orders, — 
(1)  THYSANAURA,  (Gr.  thusanoi,  hairs;  oura,  tail,) — which  in- 
eludes  the  SUGAR-LICE,  &c.,  Lepismida,  (from  Lepisma,  a  scale,) — 
so  named  from  their  minute  silver  colored  scales.  They  have  a 
row  of  movable  appendages,  resembling  false  legs,  on  each  side 
of  the  abdomen,  which  is  terminated  by  long  jointed  hairs  or 
bristles  ;  and  also  the  SPRING-TAILS,  Podurida,  (from  Podura, 
Gr.  pous,  a  foot;  oura,  a  tail,)  that  have  the  abdomen  lengthened 
into  a  forked  tail,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  make  surprising 
leaps.  Some  species  are  found  on  trees  or  among  moss ;  others 
beneath  stones,  or,  at  the  time  of  a  thaw,  they  are  sometimes 
seen  hopping  about  on  the  snow. 

(2)  PARASITA,  which  includes  the  different  kinds  of  lice,  Pedicu- 
lidce,  (from  Lat.  Pediculus,  a  louse,) — almost  entirely  destitute 
of  eyes,  most  prolific  and  most  disgusting  ;  — their  very  name 
presents  a  warning  against  a  want  of  cleanliness;  also  Bird-lice, 
Nirmida,  which  infest  birds,  not  feeding  upon  blood,  but  ob 
taining  their  food  from  the  feathers,  in  which  they  are  found. 

Which  is  the  SECOND  SUB-KINGDOM  ?  Why  are  they  so  named  ?  How 
do  they  differ  from  the  Vertebrates  and  Mollusks  ?  What  is  said  of  their 
skin,  limbs  and  body?  In  which  division  is  the  articulated  character  of 
these  animals  most  conspicuous  ?  Plow  is  it  in  the  Crustaceans,  Spiders, 
&c. ?  What  is  remarked  of  their  muscles?  Of  what  material  is  the  skele 
ton  of  most  of  them  formed?  What  is  said  of  their  muscular  power?  In 
what  respects  do  these  animals  most  resemble  each  other?  Describe  it. 
What  is  said  of  their  senses?  Of  their  digestive  apparatus,  &c.  ?  Into  how 
many  classes  may  they  be  arranged? 


What  is  the  FIFTH  PART  OF  ZOOLOGY  ?  What  is  the  FIRST  CLASS  OF  AR 
TICULATES?  To  what  does  the  name  INSECTS  refer  ?  Of  how  many  sections 
is  the  body  usually  composed  ?  What  is  said  of  the  antennae?  How  many 
legs  and  wings  have  true  insects  ?  What  contains  the  digestive  organs  ? 
How  is  the  breathing  accomplished  ?  Describe  the  circulation  and  nervous 
system.  What  is  said  of  the  mouth  ?  What  forms  the  most  striking  pecu 
liarity?  What  is  said  of  the  eggs?  When  does  the  larva  state  commence? 
What  is  said  of  it  as  related  to  different  insects  ?  What  is  the  third  state? 
Name  its  modifications.  Describe  it  as  presented  in  the  different  orders. 
What  is  the  insect  in  its  last  or  perfect  state  called?  How  does  it  differ 
from  the  insects  as  existing  in  the  other  states?  Can  insects  long  abstain 
from  food  ?  What  facts  illustrate  their  prolific  nature  ?  Where  do  they 
deposit  their  eggs?  In  what  respects  are  they  beneficial,  and  in  what  inju- 


MYRIAPODA.  633 

rious?    What  is  said  of  their  locomotive  powers?     Of  their  organs  of 
sense  ?     Are  they  all  terrestrial  ? 

What  is  the  FIRST  ORDER  OF  INSECTS?  What  is  said  of  its  number  ?  Of 
its  various  forms,  colors,  &c.  ?  What  characters  of  this  order  are  given? 
What  is  said  of  the  Tiger  Beetles  ?  Give  particulars  respecting  the  other 
families  named?  What  is  the  SECOND  ORDER?  What  characters  are  given? 
In  what  two  genera  are  its  insects  included?  What  is  said  of  them?  What 
is  the  THIRD  ORDER?  In  what  other  order  are  these  insects  sometimes  in 
cluded?  Why?  How  do  they  differ  from  it?  Describe  the  EARWIGS. 
What  is  the  FOURTH  ORDER?  Give  its  characters.  Name  the  sections  into 
which  the  order  has  been  divided.  Upon  what  are  they  founded?  De 
scribe  the  families  referred  to.  What  is  the  FIFTH  ORDER?  What  genera 
does  it  include  ?  Describe  the  wings  of  these  insects.  Why  called  Caddis- 
flies?  What  is  the  SIXTH  ORDER?  What  characters  are  given?  How 
many  families  is  it  said  to  include?  What  is  said  of  the  DRAGON-FLY?  Of 
the  ANT-LION?  Of  the  May-flies?  State  particulars  respecting  the  TER 
MITES.  What  is  the  SEVENTH  ORDER?  What  chaiaeteristics  can  you  give? 
In  what  respects  are  these  insects  remarkable  ?  What  two  sections  does 
this  order  include  ?  What  is  the  chief  peculiarity  of  each  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  SAW-FLIES  ?  Describe  the  different  species  of  WASPS.  Of  ANTS  and 
BEES.  What  is  the  EIGHTH  ORDER?  What  are  its  leading  characteristics ? 
What  division  of  insects  does  it  include  ?  What  are  its  leading  characteris 
tics?  Give  some  account  of  the  Butterflies.  Of  the  Hawk-Mothb  and 
Moths  Proper.  What  is  the  NINTH  ORDKR  ?  How  is  it  distinguished  ? 
What  two  sections  does  it  include?  How  are  the  Homoptera  characterised? 
What  is  said  of  the  Bark-lice?  Of  the  Plant-lice?  Of  the  Harvest-flies  or 
Cicadidse?  Of  the  Tree-hoppers?  How  are  the  Heteroptera  characterised? 
Describe  the  Families  mentioned.  What  is  the  TENTH  ORDER?  How  are 
these  insects  distinguished,  &c.  ?  Describe  the  families  referred  to.  What 
does  the  ELEVENTH  ORDER  include?  What  is  said  of  them?  What  is  the 
TWELFTH  ORDER?  How  does  Latreille  arrange  it?  What  is  said  of  the 
Sugar-lice  ?  Of  the  Spring-tails  ?  Of  the  Lice-Tribe  ? 


SECTION  II. 


SECOND  CLASS.     MYRIAPODA,  (Gr.  fiv^log,  murios,  innumerable  ; 
novg,  pous,  a  foot.) 

The  Articulates  of  this  class  occupy  a  position  between  in- 
sects  and  worms.  They  agree  with  the  Annelidans  in  the 
lengthened  extension  of  their  trunk,  in  the  similarity  of  the  seg 
ments  from  one  end  of  the  body  to  the  other,  and  in  their  cylin 
drical  form.  They,  however,  have  more  complete  eyes  than 
any  of  the  Worms  ;  and  in  their  breathing  apparatus  and  other 
parts  of  their  organization,  are  more  like  the  Insects.  From  the 
latter  they  differ  in  the  absence  of  wings,  and  in  having  the  body 
divided  into  a  series  of  segments,  each  of  which  is  provided  with 
a  pair  of  legs. 


634  CHILOPODA. 

The  Class  is  divided  into  two  orders  :  1.  CHILOPODA  ;  1L   CHI- 

LOGNATHA. 

In  both  orders,  the  first  segment,  or  head,  is  furnished  with  nu 
merous  eyes  on  each  side,  and  also  with  a  pair  of  jointed  anten- 
nse  ;  the  mouth  is  fitted  for  mastication,  being  provided  with  a 
pair  of  powerful  cutting  jaws  ;  in  the  centipede  and  its  allies  it 
has  also  a  pair  of  appendages  formed  by  a  metamorphosis  of 
the  legs  of  the  first  segment  of  the  body.  These  are  adapted 
not  only  to  hold  and  tear  its  prey,  but  to  convey  poison  into  the 
wounds  thus  made,  the  poison  being  ejected  through  a  minute 
aperture  near  their  points,  (Carpenter.)  The  covering  of  these 
animals  is  firm  and  of  a  horny  character.  The  number  of  feet 
varies  from  twelve  pair  to  upwards  of  three  hundred. 

The  muscular  apparatus  consists  of  a  series  of  distinct  mus 
cles  for  moving  the  segments  and  legs.  When  the  young  is 
hatched,  it  consists  of  but  few  segments,  but  these  increase  in 
number  until  it  is  fully  grown,  by  the  sub-division  of  the  last 
segment  but  one.  The  first  number  of  segments  is  eight  or  nine  ; 
but  they  continue  to  increase  until  the  number  is  sixty  or  seventy. 
The  larva  has  no  legs,  these  organs  not  appearing  until  after  the 
first  exuviation  of  the  skin.  During  their  growth,  the  Myria- 
poda  have  considerable  power  to  reproduce  lost  portions  of  their 
body,  such  as  the  legs  and  antennas,  but  this  power  is  lost  when 
their  development  ceases.  The  bite  of  these  animals  is  said  to 
be  more  injurious  than  that  of  scorpions,  but  not  often  fatal. 
Ammonia  is  the  best  remedy. 

FIRST  ORDER.     CHILOPODA,  (Gr.  zsrtog,  cheilos,  lip  ;  nov$,  pous, 
a  foot ;  i.  e.,  lip  formed  from  foot.) 

CENTIPEDES. 

This  Order  contains  sixteen  genera,  including  about  one  hund 
red  species,  and  arranged  into  four  families.  The  name  Scolo- 
pendrida,  was  formerly  given  to  it,  but  is  now  appropriated  to  one 
of  the  families  of  which  the  leading  genus  is  Scolopendra. 

The  CENTIPEDE,  Scolopendra,  (Gr.  centipede}  has  four  pair  of 
eyes,  a  flattened  body  containing,  with  the  head,  twenty-two  seg 
ments,  and  one  pair  of  legs  to  each  segment.  Under  the  second 
lip,  which  is  formed  by  the  second  pair  of  dilated  feet,  and  ter 
minates  in  a  sharp  hook,  is  an  opening  through  which  a  poison 
ous  fluid  is  thrown  out.  These  animals  are  nocturnal;  and  in 
the  West  India  Islands  and  the  hot  parts  of  this  continent,  they 
are  formidable  pests.  They  often  find  their  way  into  beds,  in 
the  most  cleanly  houses.  Their  bite  is  extremely  painful  when 


CHILOGNATHA.  635 

first  given,  and  is  followed  by  local  inflammation  and  fever.  The 
Centipedes  of  this  genus  live  upon  animal  matter,  and  run  rap 
idly.  They  grow  to  be  five  or  six,  and  even  twelve  inches  in 
length. 

The  ELECTRIC  CENTIPEDE,  Geopliilus,  (Gr.  loving  the  ground,) 
electricus,  possesses  electrical  properties,  giving  out  at  night  a 
light  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  glow-worm.  Some  species  of 
this  genus  will  live  a  day  or  two  in  water,  and  for  the  space 
of  two  weeks,  parts  of  the  body  will  stir  after  being  separated. 

The  CENTIPEDE,  Scutigera,  (Lat.  shield-bearing,)  coleoplrata, 
is  widely  diffused  on  the  Eastern  continent.  It  is  found  in  the 
United  States,  to  which  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  in 
shipping. 

Other  prominent  species  are  the  LONG-HORNED  CENTIPEDE, 
(see  Chart,)  and  the  Brush-tailed  Centipede,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  18b.) 

SECOND    ORDER.      CHILOGNATHA,   (Gr.  #erk>£,  cheilos,  a    lip  ; 
yvaOos,  gnathos,  a  jaw  ;  i.  e.,  lip  formed  from  the  jaw.) 

MILLIPEDES. 

This  order  includes  the  Millipedes,  which  have  two  pair  of 
.feet,  (Plate  XV.  fig.  18a,)  attached  to  each  of  the  numerous  seg- 
mentSj  and  usually  terminated  by  a  simple  claw.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  Centipedes,  but  the  body,  instead  of  being 
flattened,  is  often  cylindrical..  These  animals  move  slowly; 
when  disturbed  or  at  rest,  they  roll  themselves  up  into  the  form 
of  a  ball.  Their  eyes  are  composed  of  numerous  hexagonal 
lenses,  as  in  the  insect  tribes.  The  spiracles  or  breathing  holes 
are  situated  behind  each  pair  of  feet.  Besides  these,  there  are 
outlets  for  odoriferous  glands,  situated  on  the  sides.  The  Milli 
pedes  usually  feed  upon  putrescent  matter.  They  are  included 
in  fourteen  genera,  with  about  eighty  species,  embraced  in  six 
families. 

The  GALLY-WOHM,  or  THOUSAND-LEGGED  WORM,  lulus  ter- 
restris,  (see  Chart.)  has  about  forty  segments,  to  which  are  at 
tached  innumerable  feet,  in  pairs  or  fours.  When  disturbed,  this 
worm  gives  forth  a  fluid  of  a  very  disagreeable  odor,  from  the 
orifices  on  the  sides  of  the  body. 

There  are  five  species  of  the  genus  lulus.  The  BORDERED 
IULUS,  I.  marginatus,  (Lat.  bordered.)  is  about  three  inches  long, 
blackish,  with  a  rufous  border  on  the  segments.  This  is  com 
mon  in  the  United  States. 

The  PILL  CENTIPEDE,  Glomeris,  (a  ball,)  is  a  myriapode  re 
sembling  the  wood  louse  in  its  form,  and  its  habit  of  rolling  itself 
into  a  ball. 


630  ARACHNIDA. 


THIRD  CLASS.     ARACHNIDA,  (Gr.  a§&%^,  arachne,  a  spider.) 

These  animals,  including  Spiders,  Mites,  and  Scorpions,  are 
separated  from  Insects  on  account  of  their  external  form,  struc 
ture  and  habits.  They  differ  from  Insects  in  having  no  antennee, 
in  the  eyes,  which  are  in  most  species  eight,  and  even  when  two 
in  number,  are  never  placed  on  the  side  of  the  head;  in  the  legs, 
which  are  usually  eight,  though  in  some  species  six,  and  in  others 
ten  in  number  ;  in  the  breathing  apparatus,  consisting  of  radiated 
wind-pipes,  communicating  with  a  sort  of  gills  inclosed  in  pouches 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen. 

The  skin  of  the  Arachnida  is  in  general  rather  leathery  and 
horny  ;  like  the  bones  of  the  larger  animals,  giving  support  to 
the  soft  parts,  and  attachment  to  the  muscles,  the  legs  being  ex 
ternally  united  to  a  common  breast  plate,  from  which  they  radiate. 
The  greater  portion  of  these  animals  are  carnivorous,  and 
furnished  with  organs  adapted  to  their  predatory  life. 

Nerve-knots,  or  ganglia,  make  up  the  nervous  system  of  the 
Arachnida.  These  are  uniform  in  their  composition,  and  more 
concentrated  than  in  the  Insects. 

The  organ  of  hearing  in  these  animals  is  not  known  ;  though 
it  is  certain  that  they  hear.  The  eyes  of  Spiders  and  Scorpi 
ons,  externally  formed  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  "  are  smooth, 
glittering,  and  without  divisions;  and  are  as  much  dispersed  as 
those  that  are  disposed  at  random  over  the  body.  The  Wolf- 
Spider,  which  catches  its  prey  by  leaping  on  it,  has  its  eyes 
placed  in  the  same  manner." 

Male  spiders  are  uniformly  much  smaller  than  the  females, 
being  often  not  one-fourth  as  large. 

The  female  spider  lays  nearly  one  thousand  eggs  in  a  season. 
These  are  soft  and  compressible,  before  they  are  laid,  lying  in 
the  ovarium,  or  egg-bag,  within  the  spider's  body,  squeezed  to 
gether  in  a  flat  manner,  but  when  laid,  assuming  a  round  form. 
The  eggs  are  excluded  unlike  those  of  birds,  from  a  cavity  just 
behind  the  breast.  Here  there  is  a  hook-like  organ  which  the 
spider  can  move  in  such  a  manner  as  to  direct  each  egg  to  the 
exact  spot  in  the  nest  cup  where  it  would  have  it  placed.  The 
sense  of  touch  in  this  organ  must  be  very  acute,-  as  by  touch 
alone  it  can  be  guided,  the  eyes  being  so  situated  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  head,  that  they  cannot  be  brought  within  sight  of  the  nest. 
Latreille  arranges  the  Arachnida  into  two  orders: — 
I.  Pulnionaria,  (Lat.  pulmo,  a  lung,)  which  have  pulmonary 
sacs  or  air-pipes  for  respiration,  similar  to  those  of  Insects,  and 
from  six  to  twelve  eyelets.  These  include  the  COMMON  SPIDERS, 


ARACHNIDA.  637 

Araneida,  (Lat.  araneida,  a  spider.)  usually  having  eight  feet, 
(Plate  XV.  fig.  19b.)  The  palpi  or  feelers  resemble  small  feet, 
without  a  claw  at  the  tip.  The  frontal  ones  are  terminated  by  a 
movable  hook  curving  downwards,  having  on  the  under  side  a 
slit  for  the  emission  of  a  poisonous  fluid  which  is  secreted  in  a 
gland  of  the  preceding  joint.  Though  much  is  said  of  the  ef 
fects  of  spider-bites,  "there  is  still  wanting  evidence  on  which  to 
rest  the  charge  of  poisoning  man  by  biting  him,"  even  against 
spiders  of  tropical  climates.  Sometimes,  however,  the  bite  of 
the  larger  ones  produces  unpleasant  inflammation.  At  the  same 
time,  people  "  have  been  known  to  eat  them  with  bread,  as  a  great 
delicacy." 

The  most  remarkable  office  of  spiders  is  that  of  weaving  their 
webs,  by  means  of  a  silken  thread  drawn  from  fleshy  warts  sit 
uated  on  the  abdomen,  four  to  six  in  number,  containing  thou 
sands  of  openings,  from  each  of  which  descends  a  thread,  so 
thin  as  to  be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  until  all  are  formed  into 
a  common  thread.  One  set  of  warts  or  spinnerets  is  employed 
in  producing  threads  which  are  glutinous,  while  another  set  pro 
duces  those  which  are  smooth.  This  maybe  shown  by  throwing 
some  dust  upon  a  spider's  web  like  that  of  the  GARDEN  SPIDER, 
Epira  (Gr.  peiro,  to  affix.)  diadema,  which  weaves  one  of  the 
strongest,  when  it  will  be  found  to  adhere  to  those  which  are  spi 
rally  arranged,  but  not  to  those  which  radiate  from  the  center, 
which  are  the  stronger  ones.  Their  webs  have  been  manufac 
tured  into  stockings  and  gloves ;  to  obtain  one  pound  of  spider's 
silk,  however,  the  webs  of  six  hundred  thousand  spiders  would 
be  needed. 

A  curious  thing  in  the  natural  history  of  spiders  is  their 
power  of  reproducing  their  limbs  after  they  have  been  broken 
off;  in  such  cases  it  is  never  a  part  of  a  leg  which  is  reproduced  ; 
but  if  a  part  of  a  leg  be  removed,  it  proceeds  to  throw  off  the 
residue,  and  after  the  next  moult,  the  missing  limb  again  appears. 

The  Mason,  or  TRAP-DOOR  SPIDER,  Mygale,  (Gr.  mugale,  a 
mouse-spider,)  cczmentaria,  constructs  a  sort  of  tube  in  which  it 
dwells  and  lies  in  wait  for  such  animals  as  come  within  reach. 
Some  of  the  holes  or  tubes  are  closed  by  a  trap  door.  The 
largest  species  is  found  in  South  America. 

The  Lycosa  (Gr.  lukos,  a  kind  of  spider,)  tarantula,  the  TA 
RANTULA  of  Italy,  is  the  poisonous  species  the  bite  of  which,  it 
has  been  supposed,  could  be  cured  by  music.  Some  species  of 
the  same  genus  are  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Pedipalpi,  (Lat.  feelers  to  the  foot,)  differ  from  the  Spi 
ders  proper,  chiefly  in  the  great  development  of  the  palpi  or  feel 
ers,  which  form  long  arms,  ending  in  a  pincer-like  claw. 


633  TRACHEARIA. 

The  Scorpions,  Scorpionidce,  form  the  larger  part  of  this  di 
vision.  These  have  a  jointed,  tail-like  extension  of  the  abdo- 
mon,  ending  in  a  curved  spur.  (Plate  XV.  fig.  I9a.)  They  are 
found  in  temperate  as  well  as  tropical  regions,  living  under  stones, 
in  damp  places,  and  even  in  houses.  They  are  particularly  fond 
of  the  eggs  of  spiders  and  insects.  Their  sting  is  said  to  be 
come  increasingly  poisonous  as  the  animal  grows  older. 

The  generality  of  Scorpions,  as  Scorpio  Europaus,  have  six 
eyes  ;  but  there  are  some  of  the  most  formidable  kind,  as  Scor 
pio  afer,  the  AFRICAN  SCORPION,  which  have  eight. 


SECOND  ORDER.     TRACHEARIA,   (Gr.   T^a/em,  tracheia,  a  wind 

pipe.) 

This  includes  those  forms  of  the  class  which  have  two  or  four 
eyes,  and  breathe  by  means  of  trachial  tubes  or  air-pipes,  simi 
lar  to  those  of  Insects.  These  include,  (1)  the  various  forms  of 
Mites,  AcaridcR,  such  as  the  CHEESE-  MITES,  Acarus,  the  Itch- 
Mite,  A,  scabiei,  (of  itch,)  named  from  the  cutaneous  disease  of 
which  it  is  the  origin;  the  SUGAR-MITE,  A.  saccharinum,  found 
in  the  brown  sugar  of  commerce  ;  the  RED  SPIDER,  A.  lellarius, 
the  pest  of  hot  houses  and  green  houses,  &c.  Camphor  and 
sulphur  are  the  best  remedies  for  removing  these  minute,  and 
soma  of  them  almost  microscopic  animals.  These  are  not  now 
considered  as  ranking  among  insects,  differing  from  them  as  they 
do,  in  structure,  and  having  in  most  cases,  like  spiders,  eight  feet, 
while  no  insect  has  more  than  six  feet.  (2)  TICKS,  Ricinia, 
while  no  insect  has  more  than  six  feet.  (2)  TICKS,  Ricinia,  (Lat. 
ricinus,  a  tick,)  embracing  the  genus  Ixodes,  (Gr.  sticky,)  (PI. 
XV.,  fig.  19.)  some  species  of  which  are  free,  and  others  parasitic. 
The  latter  are  without  eyes.  They  are  well  known  from  attack 
ing  sheep,  cows,  horses,  dogs,  and  even  tortoises,  burying  their 
suckers  so  deeply  in  the  skin  that  they  cannot  be  remDved  with 
out  tearing  the  flesh.  They  deposit  a  prodigious  quantity  of 
eggs,  which  are  discharged  from  the  mouth.  (3)  SHEPHERD 
SPIDERS,  or  Harvest-men,  Phalangida,  genus  Pha.langi.um,  (Lat. 
a  spider,)  of  which  the  greater  part  live  upon  the  ground,  on 
plants,  or  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  are  very  active  ;  others,  which 
are  less  active,  hide  themselves  between  stones,  or  in  mosses. 
Their  legs  are  long  and  slender,  the  tarsi  consisting  of  more  than 
fifty  joints.  These  spider-like  creatures  are  known  as  Harry- 
long-legs.  (4)  The  SEA  SPIDERS,  Nymphonida,  are  also  in 
cluded  in  this  order,  though  sometimes  referred  to  the  class 
Crustacea,.  Our  limits  do  not  allow  us  to  enumerate  all  the 
families,  or  to-  give  any  further  particulars  respecting  those 
which  are  mentioned. 


Entomostraca. 

A    , 


CRUSTACEANS. 

Tetvadecapoda. 


ANNELIDANS.ORWORMS. 
Tub uKbranclii ates  .      D  orsibr an.ch i ate s . 
5 


AbraTicliiates . 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XVI. 

CRUSTACEANS. 

Fig.  1.  A.  KING  CRAB,  MOLLUCCA  CRAB  or  HORSE  FOOT;  a,  the  opening 
through  which  the  animal  emerges  when  casting  off  the  old  shell ;  b, 
small  feet  in  front  of  the  mouth,  considered  by  some  naturalists  as 
antennce,  or  feelers ;  c,  the  other  five  pair  of  true  feet  surrounding  the 
mouth,  used  for  walking  and  mastication ;  d,  triangular  shield  cover 
ing  the  body  to  which  the  five  pair  of  false  feet  or  swimming  legs  are 
attached ;  e,  long  pointed  tail. 

B,  Branchipus  stagnalis,  in  road-side  ditches  and  cart-wheel  ruts. 

Fig.  2a.  Sow  BUG,  or  WOOP-LOUSE  ;  b,  Limnoria  terebrans ;  c,  Fluvicola ; 
1,  under  side;  2,  upper  side,  d,  Trilobite,  found  only  in  a  fossil 
state. 

Fig.  3.  CRAW-FISH,  or  FRESH-WATER  LOBSTER;  (Astacus  fiuviatilis ;)  a, 
five  pair  of  true  feet ;  b,  inner  antennae,  supposed^  to  be  the  organs 
of  hearing ;  c,  outer  and  longer  antennae,  organs  for  smelling ;  d, 
five  broad  caudal  plates,  by  which  the  animal  is  assisted  to  dart  about 
so  rapidly. 

Fig.  4.  A,  DUCK  BARNACLES,  Pedunculated  or  Stalked  Cirripedes ;  a,  pe 
duncle  or  stalk  by  which  they  are  attached  to  submerged  substances 
after  the  third  moult;  b,  shell  of  five  or  more  valves;  c,  six  pair 
of  feathery  cirri  for  obtaining  its  food ;  B,  Acorn  Barnacles,  (Ses 
sile  Cirripedes,)  composed  of  six  valves,  with  an  operculum  or  cover 
of  four  pieces,  between  which  the  curly  tentaculae  protrude. 

ANNELIDANS,  Or   WORMS. 

Fig.  5.  Vermilia,  (a,)  lives  in  an  irregular  twisted  tube,  attached  by  its 

whole  length  to  shells,  stones,  &c. 
Fig.  6.  Sea  Centipede,  or  Nereis;  organs  and  gills  distributed  throughout 

the  body;  each  of  its  numerous  feet  has  two  tubercles,  two  bundles  of 

bristles,  and  a  cirrus  above  and  beneath. 

REP-^LOODED   WORMS. 

Fig.  7.  A.  Medicinal  Leech ;  a,  the  mouth,  with  three  sharp  teeth  disposed 
in  a  triangle  ;  no   distinct    head ;  moves  by  the  adhesion  and  detach-  * 
ment  of  the  sucking  disks  at  each  extremity. 

B.  Earth  or  Angle  Worm ;  eight  retractile  bristles  on  the  under  side 
of  each  ring,  assisting  in  their  contractions  and  dilations,  enabling  it  to 
creep  at  a  pretty  good  pace ;  no  distinct  head,  but  the  fore  part,  (a,) 
acts  as  a  sort  of  awl  in  penetrating  the  earth. 

ENTOZOA,  INTESTINAL,  Or  WHITE-BLOODED  WORMS. 

Fig.  8.  Fluke,  Distoma;  a,  upper  side;  b,  under  side;  an  inch  long; 
two  eyes;  two  suckers;  infests  the  liver  of  animals.  In  sheep  it  pro 
duces  or  aggravates  the  disease  called  the  rot. 

Fig.  9.  Tape  worm ;  flat  or  ribbon-like :  sometimes  60  or  100  feet  long, 
with  500  divisions,  each  of  which  adheres  to  the  intestine  by  a  strong 
sucker,  and  may  become  a  separate  and  perfect  animal.  The  seg 
ments  diminish  in  size  so  as  to  form  a  thin  neck  with  a  small  globose 
head,  (a,)  mouth  very  indistinct. 


SIXTH   BRANCH   OP   ZOOLOGY. 

CRUSTACEOLOGY.      (Lat.  Crustacea;  Gr.  tyog,   logos,   a 

discourse.) 

•  • 
CLASS  CRUSTACEA.     (Lat.  from  crusta,  a  shell  or  crust.) 


SECTION  I. 

THIS  Class  includes  animals,  some  of  which  dwell  on  land, 
others  in  fresh  or  salt  water,  and  which  are  covered  with  a  soft 
shell  or  crust.  They  are  oviparous,  and  divided  into  segments 
or  rings,  articulated  into  each  other,  to  the  inside  of  which  their 
muscles  are  attached.  The  outer  covering  generally  possesses 
a  considerable  degree  of  hardness,  containing  no  small  propor 
tion  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Its  solidity  varies ;  sometimes  it  is 
membranous. 

The  way  in  which  the  animals  free  themselves  from  the  old 
shell  is  quite  singular ;  they  generally  manage  to  get  out  of  it 
without  occasioning  the  least  change  in  its  form.  When  the 
shell  is  first  stripped  off,  the  surface  of  their  bodies  is  extremely 
soft;  and  it  is  some  time  before  the  substance  which  has  been 
exuded  from  the  pores  on  the  surface  of  their  skin,  acquires  a 
hard  consistence. 

They  generally  have  a  distinct  heart  and  a  circulatory  system 
or  blood  vessels,  but  no  internal  skeleton,  properly  so  called. 
They  breathe  by  means  of  gills  or  branchial  plates,  or  else  by 
the  skin.  The  breathing  apparatus  is  adapted  to  aquatic  rather 
than  aerial  respiration.  In  those  genera  in  which  the  head  is 
not  separated  from  the  thorax,  the  shield  protects  the  whole  of 
the  thorax.  Other  genera  have  the  head  distinct  from  the  body, 
which  is  divided  into  seven  segments,  to  the  lower  sides  of  which 


MALACOSTRACA.  G  43 

the  feet  are  attached  ;  these,  for  the  most  part,  have  a  tail,  con- 
sisting  of  many  segments.  The  limbs  vary  from  six  to  four 
teen,  each  having  six  articulations.  The  two  front  limbs,  and 
sometimes  even  three  on  each  side,  are  provided  with  pincers 
at  other  times  they  are  terminated  by  simple  hooks,  and  not  un- 
frequently,  they  have  appendages  which  fit  them  for  swimming. 
There  are  two  mandibles,  a  lip  below,  and  from  three  to  five 
pairs  of  jaws  ;  these  small,  leg-shaped  appendages  are  not 
adapted  to  locomotion,  but  being  placed  near  the  mouths,  assist 
in  the  operation  of  feeding. 

The  eyes  vary  in  number,  usually  being  compound,  seated  on 
peduncles,  which  are  sometimes  movable,  and  at  others  fixed. 
Some  of  the  parasitic  species  are  destitute  of  eyes  in  their  per- 
feet  state,  though  possessing  them  when  young  and  able  to  swim 
about.  The  Crustacea  have  the  senses  of  taste  and  hearing, 
probably  also  have  that  of  smelling,  though  the  precise  location 
of  its  organ  has  not  been  ascertained.  Some  of  them  have  the 
power  of  emitting  light  in  the  dark.  Others  are  able  not  only 
to  detach  one  of  their  limbs  when  seized  upon  by  an  adversary, 
but  can  reproduce  the  severed  limb.  This,  however,  is  always 
of  a  less  size  than  the  others,  until  it  has  once  or  twice  changed 
its  crust. 

The  Crustaceans  include  five  orders. 


FIRST  ORDER.       MALACOSTRACA,  (Gr.   /uahaxbg,   malakos,   soft  ; 
oaryuxov,  ostrakon,  shell;)  or  Decapoda,  (Lat.  ten-footed.) 

This  Order  is  divided  into  two  sections.  (1)  Brachyoura, 
(Gr.  short-tailed,)  including  the  CRABS,  the  species  of  which  are 
various  in  size,  color,  and  modes  of  living,  having  bodies  covered 
by  an  external  skeleton  or  calcareous  crust,  with  ten  articulated 
limbs,  adapted  for  swimming  and  for  walking  also,  (with  oblique 
stops.)  and  breathing  by  gills.  They  have  two  pincer-like  claws, 
and  jointed  antennae,  and  throw  off  their  crust  annually,  at  the 
end  of  spring.  When  they  have  lost  a  pincer  or  foot,  it  is  repro 
duced  with  the  new  shell,  and  also  at  other  times.  When  their 
legs  or  claws  become  injured  or  are  touched  with  a  hot  iron, 
they  themselves  cast  them  off.  The  material  out  of  which  the 
new  shell  is  hardened,  is  furnished  by  two  calcareous  con 
cretions,  called  Crabs'  eyes,  found  in  summer  on  both  sides 
of  the  stomach.  These  animals  live  on  dead  bodies,  pu 
trid  flesh,  and  all  descriptions  of  worms  and  insects  found  in 
water.  Our  references  to  species  must  be  confined  chiefly  to 
those  noticed  on  the  Chart.  The  EDIBLE  CRAB,  of  England  and 


644  MALACOSTRACA. 

Western  Europe,  Cancer  pagurus,  (Gr.  pagouros,  a  crab,)  some 
times  attains  a  large  size,  weighing  ten  or  twelve  pounds.  It 
casts  its  shell  between  Christmas  and  Easter. 

The  COMMON  EDIBLE  CRAB  of  the  United  States,  Lupa  has- 
tata,  (Lat.  from  hasta,  a  spear,)  is  of  smaller  size.  In  forty- 
eight  hours  after  the  old  shell  is  cast,  it  is  renewed  and  firmly 
consolidated.  In  the  interval,  these  Crabs  are  termed  "  Soft- 
shelled,"  and  eagerly  sought  after.  They  are  abundant  in  the 
muddy  shores  of  bays  and  inlets. 

LONG-TAILED  CRUSTACEANS. 

(2)  The  Macroura,  (Gr.  long-tailed.)  are  so  named  from  the 
large  and  well  developed  tail,  ending  in  a  fan-shaped  fin,  which 
assists  them  in  swimming.  They  walk  well,  but  are  best  adap 
ted  for  swimming,  shooting  backwards  through  the  action  of  the 
abdomen  and  the  tail  fin.  The  antennae  are  usually  long,  the 
first  pair  not  being  received  into  a  cavity  as  in  the  Crabs. 

The  Palinurus,  is  a  large  crab,  shaped  much  like  a  lobster, 
but  is  more  cylindrical  with  none  of  the  feet  cheliform  or  claw- 
like.  It  is  armed  with  a  very  hard  crust,  and  is  in  general  use 
when  in  season,  as  an  article  of  food.  Prof.  Dana,  (Silliman's 
Journal.)  speaks  of  two  gigantic  species  of  this  genus,  P.  vulgaris, 
of  the  Mediterranean,  (see  Chart.)  and  P.  lalandii,  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  each  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  independent  of  the  an- 
tennse.  The  COMMON  PRAWN,  Palamon  vulgaris,  found  near 
our  coasts  or  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
Prawn  of  England,  P.  serratus,  (Lat.  saw-shaped  ;)  these  are 
esteemed  a  great  delicacy  ;  also  allied  to  the  species  P.  squiUa,  (a 
prawn.)  of  the  European  continent.  The  Common  Prawn  is 
not  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length ;  but  the  RIVER 
Prawn  of  the  Carolinas  and  Florida,  P.  jluviatilis,  is  seven  or 
eight  inches  long. 

The  RIVER  CRAY  or  CRAW  FISH,  Astacus,  (Gr.  astakos,  a 
kind  of  lobster.  )fluvi  a  tills,  (Plate  XVI.  fig.  3,  with  explanation,) 
may  be  regarded  as  the  Fresh  Water  Lobster.  It  is  found  in 
the  fresh  waters  of  Europe  and  the  north  of  Asia,  placing  itself 
in  holes  of  the  banks,  or  under  stones,  where  it  lies  in  wait 
for  small  mollusks,  little  fishes,  the  larvse  of  insects  and  decom 
posed  animal  substances  upon  which  it  subsists.  It  is  said  that 
it  will  live  for  upwards  of  twenty  years,  and  becomes  large  in 
proportion  to  its  age.  The  eggs,  when  laid,  are  collected  under 
the  lower  part  of  the  body  or  tail ;  the  young,  which  at  birth  are 
very  soft,  take  refuge  under  the  tail  of  the  parent  for  some  days. 


TETRADECAPODA.  645 

Several  species  of  the  River  Lobster  are  found  in  the  United 
States. 

The  LOBSTER,  Astacus  marinus,  is  very  abundant  and  of  great 
commercial  value.  Good  sized  ones  are  four  and  a  half  inches 
long,  from  the  tip  of  the  head  to  the  end  of  the  back  shell.  The 
pincers  of  one  of  the  tail  claws  are  furnished  with  knobs,  and 
those  of  the  other  claw  are  serrated.  With  the  former  it  keeps 
firm  hold  of  the  stalks  of  sub-marine  plants,  and  with  the  latter, 
it  cuts  and  minces  its  food  very  dexterously.  The  fecundity  of 
the  Lobster  is  very  great.  Dr.  Baster  says  that  "he  counted 
12,444  eggs  under  the  tail  of  one  female  lobster,  besides  those 
that  remained  in  the  body  unprotruded."  In  a  boiled  lobster 
they  are  bright  red  and  called  the  coral.  Lobsters  are  very 
voracious,  and  are  caught  at  night  in  pots  or  traps  made  of  twigs 
baited  with  garbage,  (refuse  flesh,  entrails,  &c.,)  or  in  nets  let 
down  into  the  sea,  the  place  being  marked  by  a  buoy.  Some 
times  they  are  taken  by  torch  light,  with  a  pair  of  tongs  or  for 
ceps  of  wood.  Their  eyes  are  placed  so  that  they  can  see  in 
every  direction.  When  alarmed,  they  spring  to  a  surprising 
distance.  Usually  they  weigh  one  or  two  pounds,  but  sometimes 
four  or  even  six. 

The  COMMON  LOBSTER  of  this  country,  Homarus,  (Astacus,) 
Americanus,  (see  Chart.)  is,  however,  much  larger,  averaging  in 
weight  four  pounds,  and  sometimes  reaching  the  weight  of  fifteen, 
twenty,  and  even  thirty  pounds.  The  Common  Shrimp  of  Europe, 
Crangon,  (Gr.  krangon,  a  shrimp  )  vulgaris,  is  closely  allied  to 
the  shrimp  of  our  own  country  ;  it  is  of  a  pale  greenish  color, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  an  inch  and  three-fourths  in  length. 
The  C.  sept.emspinosus,  (Lat.  seven-spined.)  is  known  by  the 
name  of  Bait  shrimp,  and  extensively  used.  It  is  found  from 
Florida  to  the  Arctic  regions. 

(3)  Anomoura,  (Gr.  anomalous  tail.)  This  is  a  section  inter 
mediate  to  the  two  preceding,  including  crabs  having  the  front 
part  of  the  body  crustaceous;  the  lower  part  soft  and  rolled 
upon  itself.  They  are  in  the  habit  of  resorting  to  the  dead  shell 
of  a  univalve  mollusk,  which  is  exchanged  for  a  larger  one  as 
they  increase  in  size,  and  seem  to  prefer  the  shells  of  the  Tro- 
choida,  (see  Chart.)  Hence  they  are  called  HERMIT  CRABS. 

SECOND  ORDER.     TETRADECAPODA,  (Gr.  fourteen-footed.) 

This  includes  several  families  of  small  Crustaceans,  some  of 
them  marine  or  fresh-water  species;  some  of  them  terrestrial  or 
parasilic,  which,  from  the  number  of  their  feet,  may  be  referred 


646  TETRADECAPODA. 

to  the  present  order.  We  folbw  Prof.  Dana  in  placing  here 
(1)  the  WOOD-LICE,  OniscidcE,  (Gr.  oniskos.  a  wood-louse,) — 
sometimes  referred  to  the  order  Isopoda,  (Gr.  equal-footed.) 
These  have  fourteen  slender  feet,  adapted  to  walking,  and  the 
first  pair  of  antennae  rudimentary ;  the  second  pair  being  alone 
complete  and  conspicuous.  The  species  Oniscus  asettus,  (Lat. 
a  chee-slip  or  sow-insoct,)  (Plate  XVI.  fig.  2a,)  is  the  COMMON 
SOW-BUG,  found  under  stones  and  decaying  wood.  The  fourteen 
feet  gradually  increase  in  size  from  the  front;  the  antennae  have 
eight  articulations.  The  Sow. bug  feeds  upon  decomposed  veg 
etables.  It  carries  its  eggs  in  a  sac  beneath  the  body.  The 
color  is  dusky  brown  above ;  beneath  greyish  white.  The  Porcel- 
lio,  (Lat.  a  sow-bug  or  wood-louse,)  spinicomis,  (Lat.  spiny  horns,) 
is  very  similar  to  the  Oniscus,  but  its  antennae  have  only  seven 
articulations.  The  third  joint  of  the  antennae  is  armed  with  an 
acute  spine.  This  also  has  the  popular  name  of  Sow-hug,  and 
is  found  in  similar  situations  with  the  preceding.  The  species 
P.  granulatus,  (Lat.  granulated,)  or  Hog-louse,  is  black  and  un 
spotted.  .  It  is  roughened  with  small  elevated  grains, — whence 
the  specific  name. 

To  the  Sow-bugs  are  similar,  in  most  respects,  those  of  the 
genus  Armadillo,  which,  from  their  habit  of  rolling  themselves 
into  a  ball,  are  known  by  the  name  of  PILL-BUGS.  These  are  of 
dull  lead  color,  with  three  lines  of  large  yellowish  spots  on  the 
upper  part. 

The  WHALE-LOUSE,  Cyamus  ceti,  (see  Chart,)  referred  by  La- 
treille  to  the  order  L^EMODIPODA,  (Gr.  throat  or  jaw- footed,) — the 
Oniscus  ceti,  of  Linn.,  has  at  least  twelve  feet,  of  which  eight 
are  perfect,  and  the  others  in  the  form  of  slender,  jointed  append 
ages.  It  attaches  itself  to  whales,  and  occasionally  to  tunnies 
and  other  large  fish. 

(2)  The  SAND,  or  BEACH  FLEAS,  Gammarida, — sometimes  re 
ferred  to  the  order  AMPHIPODA,  (so  named  from  having  two  kinds 
of  feet,  cheliform  or  claw-like,  and  simple.)  The  family  in 
cludes  several  genera  and  species.  Orchestria,  (from  Gr. 
orchevo?)iai,  to  leap,)  longicornis,  (Lat.  long  horned,)  is  a  species 
having  the  lower  antennae  longer  than  the  body,  and  the  four 
front  feet  terminated  in  a  compressed  claw.  They  subsist  upon 
dead  animal  substances.  They  are  found  on  the  shores  of  Long 
Island,  where,  to  conceal  themselves,  they  dig  holes  in  the  sand. 
Other  Sand  or  Beach  Fleas  are  included  in  the  genus  Tulitrus. 
Of  this  is  the  species  T.  quadrifidus,  (Lat.  four-cleft,)  which 
have  a  body  composed  of  thirteen  segments,  exclusive  of  the 
head  ;  and  the  antennae  shorter  than  the  body.  The  tail  has 


ENTOMOSTRACA.  647 

three  appendages  terminating  in  four  spines, — whence  the  spe 
cific  name.  These  are  of  a  dark  horn  color,  and  frequently 
found  hidden  under  stones  and  sea-weed. 

The  genus  Gammarus  includes  FRESH-WATER  SHRIMPS,  which 
are  very  active,  and  common  in  running  streams.  They  may 
often  be  found  under  stones  and  pieces  of  wood.  These  have 
the  last  joint  of  the  antennas  composed  of  numerous  minute  ones  ; 
the  upper  antennae  are  as  long  as  the  lower,  and  sometimes 
longer,  with  four  articulations,  the  last  ending  in  a  bristle, — the 
lower  antennae  have  five  articulations  ;  the  tail  has  small,  bundle- 
like  spines. 

We  can  barely  name  the  parasitic  Cymofhoids,  (genus  Cymo- 
thoa,)  which  are  fourteen  footed, — formerly  arranged  with  the 
Isopoda,  most  of  which  attach  themselves  to  the  mouths  and 
gills  of  fishes, — and  of  which  the  Seriolis  has  been  thought  to 
present,  at  first  sight,  a  resemblance  to  the  extinct  form  of  the 
Trilobites. 

Ligia  is  another  genus  of  the  present  order,  having  an  oval, 
oblong  body,  with  transverse  segments,  and  two  short  append 
ages  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  two  outer  antennas  are  quite 
conspicuous.  (See  figure  of  L.  oceanica,  Plate  XVI.  fig.  2b.) 

Limnoria  is  another  marine  genus,  which  has  the  head  nearly 
as  large  as  the  first  segment;  the  tail  has  six  distinct  rings 
with  two  appendages  on  each  side.  The  species  L.  terebrans, 
(Lat.  boring,)  can  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball.  These,  and 
the  Ligia  oceanica,  both  in  great  numbers  sometimes  attack  the 
timbers  of  ships,  docks,  etc.,  and  soon  render  them  useless. 

THIRD  ORDER.     ENTOMOSTRACA,  (Gr.  ej>To,tm,  entoma,  an  insect; 
oor^axo*',  ostrakon,  a  shell,  i.  e.,  shell  insects.) 

This  term  is  applied  to  Crustaceans  for  the  most  part  inhabit 
ing  fresh-water.  In  these,  the  nervous  knots  which  supply  the 
place  of  the  brain,  consist  of  one  or  two  globules  merely.  The 
heart  assumes  the  form  of  a  long  vessel.  The  gills  are  com 
posed  of  hair-like  processes,  forming  a  portion  of  the  feet,  or  of  a 
certain  number  among  them,  and  sometimes  the  mandibles  and 
upper  jaws.  The  number  of  feet  varies,  and  in  some  genera  is 
said  to  be  over  a  hundred.  Nearly  all  have  a  shell,  consisting 
of  one  or  two  pieces,  generally  almost  membranous  and 
transparent, — the  coverings  are  like  those  of  the  insects,  rather 
horny  than  calcareous.  The  antennas,  varying  much  iw  form 
and  number,  serve  in  many  species  for  swimming. 

Dr.  Baird  says,  most  of  them   are  "essentially  carnivorous." 


G48  ENTOMOSTRACA. 

In  this  he  discerns  a  decided  fitness,  as  tending  to  prevent  the 
hurtful  effects  of  putrid  air  that  might  attend  the  decomposition 
of  the  amazing  number  of  these  animals  abounding  in  ponds  and 
ditches.  These  Crustaceans,  however,  in  their  turn,  become  the 
prey  of  other  animals.  They  form  a  considerable  part  of  the 
food  of  fishes;  and  it  is  thought  that  the  quality  of  some  of  the 
fresh-water  fishes,  of  which  a  species  of  trout  may  be  particularly 
mentioned,  may,  in  some  degree,  depend  upon  the  abundance  of 
this  portion  of  their  food.  Among  the  genera  belonging  to  this 
order,  we  refer  first  to  the  Cyclops,  (see  Chart,)  (Gr.  circular  or 
rounded  eye,) — a  fresh-water  genus,  in  which  the  body  is  pear- 
shaped,  and  the  upper,  or  larger  pair  of  antennce,  are  employed 
as  aids  to  locomotion.  Species  of  these  may  be  seen  jerking 
themselves  along  in  springs  and  stagnant  waters.  When  they 
lose  part  of  an  antenna,  it  reappears  as,  in  the  case  of  some  others 
of  the  class,  at  the  time  of  the  next  moult.  They  are  carnivo 
rous,  and  when  without  other  food,  even  eat  up  their  own  young. 
Some  of  the  kindred  marine  species  appear  to  be  phosphorescent. 
These  minute  Crustaceans  are  very  prolific.  They  are  tena 
cious  of  life,  reviving  after  having  been  frozen,  though  they  soon 
die  when  removed  from  water  and  dried.  Many  of  them  furnish 
food  to  the  water  larvae  of  insects. 

(2)  Daphnia,  (Gr.  a  laurel-berry,) — the  ARBORESCENT  WATER- 
FLEA.     In   this  genus  the  body  is  enclosed  in  a  bivalve  shell, 
though  the  head  is  exposed,  having  a  compound  and  somewhat 
movable  eye.      These  Crustaceans  are  found  in  stagnant  waters 
in  company  with  the  Cyclops,  which  they  resemble  in  their  move 
ments.      They  are  sometimes  so  numerous  in  water  as  to  give  it 
"a  muddy  hue,  like  the  red  dust  of  iron,  or  as  if  blood  had  been 
mixed  with  it."     On  the  back  of  the  shell  is  seen,  at  certain  sea 
sons,  a  black  saddle-shaped  appendage,  containing  two  eggs,  from 
which,  in  the  spring,  the  species  are  reproduced. 

(3)  Cypri.S)    (see  Chart.)      This   is   likewise    enclosed    in    a 
bivalve  shell,  with  a  dorsal  hinge.     The  antennse  are  four, — the 
second  pair  large,  and  fitted  to  aid  in  swimming.      Many  species 
may  be  seen  in  summer-time  swimming  about  in  stagnant  pools, 
and  they  often  show  beautiful  variations  of  color. 

(4)  Limulus  or  Polyphemus, — this  is  sometimes  referred  to  the 
order  XIPHOSURA,  (Gr.  sword-tail,) — a  name  referring  to  the  long, 
hard,  and  sharp  tail-spine  of  this  creature,  which,  in  some  places, 
is  used  for  pointing  spears.      The  body  is  covered  with  a  large 
carapace  shield,  (Plate  XVI.  fig.  1  :)  is  rounded  in  front,  having 
the  hind  part  smallest,  with  spines  on  the  sides,  and  deep  notches 
behind ;  the  gill-feet  are  appended  to  the  abdomen.     Six   feet, 


CIRRIPEDES.  649 

strongly  articulated  and  adapted  to  walking,  are  attached  to  the 
thorax.  The  common  name  of  these  Crustaceans,  is  the  King. 
Crab  or  Horse-foot.  The  first  name  refers  to  its  size,  the  last  to 
its  shape.  They  feed  on  animal  substances,  and  are  gathered  as 
food  for  hogs  and  poultry,  and  also  used  as  manure.  Lamarck 
calls  them  giant  branchiopods,  in  allusion  to  the  gigantic  stature 
of  SOMIH  of  the  species.  The  color  is  of  a  uniform  dark  brown. 
To  this  order  we  assign  the  TRILOBITES,  (sometimes  arranged  in 
a  separate  order,) — fossil  animals,  the  knowledge  of  which  is 
limited  to  the  shell  or  crust.  (Plate  XVI.  fig  2d.)  Feet  have 
not  been  found  in  connexion  with  their  remains,  so  that  it  cannot 
be  certainly  known  whether  or  not  they  possessed  these  mem- 
bers.  Agassiz  remarks,  "there  is  an  incompleteness  and  want 
of  development  in  the  form  of  their  body  that  strongly  reminds 
us  of  the  embryo  among  the  Crabs."  Their  food  is  supposed  to 
have  been  small  water  animals ;  their  habitat  the  vicinity  of 
coasts  in  shallow  waters,  where  they  lived  gregariously  in  vast 
numbers.  We  here  also  place  Fluvicola  Herricki,  a  singular 
Crustaceous  animal  which  has  been  found  adhering  to  rocks  in 
and  near  the  water  of  West  Canada  Creek.  "It  is  detached 
with  considerable  difficulty,  and  when  so  detached,  partially  rolls 
itself  up."  (DeKay.)  The  locality  in  which  they  are  found,  is 
noted  for  fossils  and  petrefactions ;  and,  as  De  Kay  intimates,  it 
is  a  singular  coincidence  that  it  should  furnish  animals  so  strongly 
resembling  the  extinct  trilobites,  see  Plate  XVI.  (fig.  1  and  2c,)  — 
which  presents  fi'gures  of  some  of  these  animals  that  were  found 
in  Clinton,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y.,  in  a  ravine  a  little  North  of 
Hamilton  College.  They  seem  to  be  allied  to  the  present  order. 

FOURTH  ORDER.     CIRRIPEDES,  (Lat.  cirri,   ringlets  or  tufts ; 
pedes,  feet) 

These  animals  were  ranked  by  the  earlier  naturalists  among 
the  Mollusks,  and  they  certainly  possess  many  characters  in 
common  with  rome  of  those  animals,  yet  exhibit  greater  sym 
metry  of  form.  The  body  is  prolonged,  and  from  each  side  pro 
ceed  long  and  slender  feet,  curving  together  into  a  kind  of  curl, — 
whence  the  name  Cirripedes,  curl  or  tuft  footed.  They  are  in- 
closed  in  a  shell,  which  is  more  or  less  conical.  These  animals 
are  subject  to  a  metamorphosis,  the  young  having  two  valves 
like  the  bivalve  Mollusks,  and  capable  of  swimming  about  until 
they  become  permanently  affixed.  In  this  state,  they  are  able 
to  protrude  the  limbs  from  the  fore  part  of  the  shell,  the  front 
pair  being  of  considerable  size,  and  furnished  with  a  sucker  and 

27 


£50  ROTATORIA. 

hooks  for  attachment  to  submarine  substances.  The  six  hind 
pair  of  limbs  are  used  for  swimming.  The  shell  is  not  made  up 
of  simple  layers,  as  in  the  Mollusks,  but  is  traversed  by  a  corn- 
plex  series  of  canals,  through  which  nourishment  is  conveyed. 

The  Cirripedes  are  divided  into  two  principal  groups, — the 
pedunculated  and  the  sessile,  both  of  which  are  widely  distributed 
by  ships,  floating  wood,  sea-weed,  mollusks,  turtles,  whales,  etc. 

I.  CAMPYLOSOMATA,  (Gr.  xaftnvkog,  kampulos,  curved ;  crwoa, 
soma,  body.)      The  division  contains  the    pedunculated  forms, 
that  is,  those  which   are  furnished  with  stems,  (Plate  XVI.  fig. 
4A,)  by   which  they  attach    themselves   to  wood  or   other  ob 
jects, — among  them  are  the  Anatifa,  (Lepas,)  COMMON  BARNA 
CLE,  consisting  of  five   pieces,  of  which  two  are  large   valves, 
somewhat  like  those  of  a  muscle ;  two  smaller  are  articulated  to 
those  near  the  point ;  and  one  unites  the  valve  along  the  back 
edge  ;  and  thus  they  envelop  the  whole  of  the  mantle.     Barna 
cles  often  adhere  to-the  bottoms  of  ships  in  such  numbers  as  to 
impede  their  sailing. 

II.  Acamptosoma,  (Gr.  &xaturcTog,  akamptos,  uncurved ;  crwwa, 
body.)    This  section  includes  the  sessile  or  unpedunculated  forms. 
It  is  represented  by  the  Balanus,  (Lat.  acorn,)  or  ACORN-SHELL, 
(Plate  XVI.  fig.  4B,)  so  named  from  its  resemblance  to  the  acorn, 
it  being  short  and  conical  in  form.     The  mouth  is  protected  by 
an  operculum,  consisting  of  two  or  more  valves.     These  animals 
are  found  in  great  numbers  on  rocks  and  piers  along  the  coast. 
The  species  B.  psittacus,  (a  parrot,)  is  quite  large;  it  is  eaten 
by  the  natives  of  Chili.     The  Coronula  attaches  itself  to  the  backs 
of  whales,  imbedding  itself  in  the  skin. 

FIFTH  ORDER.      ROTATORIA,  or  ROTIFERA.      Wheel-bearing 
Animalcules. 

This  order  includes  animalcules  not  to  be  distinctly  perceived, 
except  with  the  microscope.  They  receive  their  name  from 
peculiarities  of  structure,  and  are  wonderfully  minute, — some  of 
them  being  less  than  the  five-hundredth  part  of  an  inch  in  length. 
Nearly  all  of  them  are  aquatic  in  their  habits;  their  bodies  are 
transparent;  hence,  their  general  structure  can,  with  the  help  of 
the  microscope,  be  easily  recognised.  They  have  usually  an 
elongated  form,  similar  on  the  two  sides ;  and  at  the  front  ex 
tremity  are  one  or  two  rows  of  vibra-tile  cilia,  usually  arranged 
in  a  circular  manner,  which,  when  in  motion,  appear  like  re 
volving  wheels.  The  posterior  extremity  is  prolonged  into  a 
tail,  possessing  three  joints,  each  of  which  has  a  pair  of  prongs 


ROTATOEIA.  651 

or  points.  The  circular  arrangement  of  the  cilia  forms  what  are 
called  the  wheels.  By  the  successive  vibration  of  these,  the  ap 
pearance  of  a  continual  rotation  is  produced ;  and  their  action 
creates  rapid  currents  in  the  surrounding  fluid,  by  which  the 
supply  of  food  is  obtained, — consisting  of  other  animalcules  of 
still  smaller  size,  and  less  complex  structure.  Between  the 
wheels,  the  head  is  occasionally  protruded,  bearing  two  red  spots, 
supposed  to  be  eyes;  on  its  under  surface  there  is  a  projecting 
tubular  spike,  which  is  believed  to  act  as  a  syphon  conveying 
water  into  the  general  cavity  to  aid  perspiration.  The  vital 
power  of  some  specie*  is  extraordinarily  great,  they  having  been 
known  to  revive  after  being  kept  in  dry  sand  for  four  years. 
The  wheel-animalcules  do  not  propagate  by  spontaneous  division, 
but  by  eggs  inconceivably  minute,  so  that  they  can  be  raised  in 
the  air  with  vapor,  and  transported  in  every  direction.  Much 
diversity  of  opinion  has  existed  in  relation  to  the  proper  classifi 
cation  of  these  animalcules,  of  the  wonderful  structure  and  variety 
which  the  microscope  has  made  such  interesting  revelations;  but 
the  lengthened  form  of  their  bodies,  the  location  of  the  mouth  and 
eyes  at  one  extremity  ;  the  occasional  appearance  of  cross  or 
transverse  lines  shadowing  forth  a  division  into  segments ;  and 
especially  the  character  of  the  nervous  system,  so  far  as  it  can 
be  ascertained,  are  among  the  proofs  that  they  should  have  a  place 
with  the  Articulates.  With  these,  Dr.  Grant  was  one  of  the  first 
to  place  them.  Leydig  proposed  to  call  them  CILIATED  CRUSTA 
CEANS.  We  follow  the  suggestion  of  Prof.  Dana  in  placing  them 
next  the  Cirripedes. 

The  common  species,  Roiifa  vulgarls,  is  remarkable  for  the 
two  circles  of  vibratile  cilia  or  vibrillse,  referred  to  above,  and 
for  the  posterior  forceps  or  pincers.  One  species  (Melicerta 
ringens)  has  the  power  to  withdraw  itself  into  an  outward  case; 
and  has  the  vibratile  cilia  distributed  into  four  divisions. 


SEVENTH   BRANCH   OF    ZOOLOGY 


HELMINTHOLOGY.     (Gr.  "B^VS,  helmins,  a  worm ; 
a  discourse.) 


Class  ANNELIDANS  or  WORMS. 


This  lowest  division  of  the  ARTICULATES  is  arranged  by  Cu- 
vier  and  other  naturalists,  into  two  sections ;  the  one  embracing 
the  class  Annelidans,  or  Red-blooded  Worms,  and  ranked  with 
the  Articulates  ;  the  other,  including  the  Intestinal  or  White- 
blooded  Worms,  is  ranked  by  them  with  the  Radiates.  Agassiz 
considers  the  nervous  system  of  the  latter  Worms,  which  has 
been  made  a  ground  of  their  separation,  though  somewhat  differ 
ent,  as  yet  essentially  the  same  with  that  of  the  Articulates. 
We  follow  him  as  well  as  other  distinguished  naturalists,  in 
placing  all  the  Worms  in  this  latter  class. 

FIRST  DIVISION.     ANNELIDA,  (Lat.  annulus,  a  ring.)     RED- 
BLOODED  WORMS. 

These  always  have  their  bodies  formed  of  a  great  number  of 
small  rings  nearly  equal  in  size,  varying  in  number  from  twenty 
or  thirty  to  more  than  five  hundred,  according  to  the  length  of 
the  animals.  Their  skin  is  soft  and  pliable  ;  and  their  bodies, 
not  having  any  external  skeleton,  are  also  soft,  and  in  general 
more  or  less  cylindrical.  The  head  is  usually  distinct,  furnished 
with  two  or  four  eyes  ;  the  sides  have  attached  to  them  feet,  or 
rather  bristle-like  projections,  which  are  used  for  locomotion,  and 
vary  widely  in  different  species.  Most  of  the  anneiidans  are 
marine ;  but  some  live  in  fresh  water. 


TUBULIBRANCHIA.  653 


FIRST  ORDER.     TUBULIBRANCHIA,  (  Tubulicola,  dwelling  in  tubes, 
Cuvier.)     SEDENTARY  ANNELIDANS. 

These  are  characterized  by  having  their  branchiae  in  the 
form  of  plumes,  or  of  small  tree-like  figures,  attached  to  the 
head  or  fore  part  of  the  body.  Nearly  all  inhabit  tubes,  which 
are  calcareous,  sandy,  or  membranous.  The  order  may  be  ar 
ranged  into  two  families. 

First  Family  Serpulida,  (Lat.  serpula,  a  small  snake.) 

Worms,  the  tubes  of  which  are  calcareous  and  singularly 
twisted.  They  have  the  branchial  tufts  separated  into  two  dis 
tinct  parts  by  a  pendunculated  operculum,  or  else  protected  by 
a  solid  one  when  they  are  drawn  into  the  shell. 

1 .  Serpula.  This  genus  includes  worms  which  adhere  to  stones, 
shells,  and  other  sub-marine  substances.     The  branchiae  are  of 
a  beautiful  red,  or  variegated   with  yellow  and  violet,  and  used 
in  taking  the  minute  living  objects  upon  which  the  worm   sub 
sists.     They  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  European  seas. 
This  genus   has   been   estimated   to  embrace  sixty  or  more  re 
cent  and  fossil  species.     (Fig.  on  Chart.) 

2.  Vermilia, — Worms  so  named  from  the  red  line  on  each  side 
of  the  ridge  which  appears  upon  the  back.     (Plate  XVI.  fig.  5.) 

3.  Ditrupa, — Worms  free,  living  in  a  tubular  shell,  open   at 
both  ends,  with  twenty -two  branchiae,  in  two  sets,  and  feathered 
with  a  row  of  cilia.     These  are  nearly  allied  to  the  Serpula. 

SECOND  FAMILY,  Amphitritidce. 

Worms  which  have  around  the  mouth  numerous  thread-like 
tentacles ;  and  tubes  formed  by  a  mucous  secretion  to  which  are 
attached  fragments  of  shells,  etc. 

1.  Amphitrite.     These  have  the  thread  or  straw-like  processes 
in  the  form  of  a  comb  or  that  of  a  crown. 

2.  Sabella, — Worms  about  the  size  of  a  finger,  living  in  tubes 
composed  of  sand,  clay  or  fine   mud.     The  plumes  are  highly 
brilliant  and  delicate,  sometimes  of  a  rich  orange  color. 

3.  Terebella, — Worms  living  in  tubes  of  similar  composition 
with  the  preceding,  having  on  the  neck  arborescent,  not  fan-shaped 
gills. 


G54  ABRANCHIATA. 


SECOND  ORDER.    DORSIBRANCHIATA,  (Lat.  dorsum,  back ;  bran- 
chi<z,  gills.) 

These  Annelidans  have  their  organs,  and  especially  their 
branchiae,  distributed  nearly  equally  along  the  whole  or  a  part 
of  the  body.  All  the  species  are  aquatic  and  worm-like,  swim 
ming  with  facility  and  active  in  crawling.  The  head  is  distinct 
from  the  trunk  ;  they  are  furnished  with  two  pair  of  rudimen 
tary  eyes.  The  order  includes  the  Sea-Mice  and  the  Sea-Centi 
pedes,  arranged  into  several  families  or  groups. 

FIRST  FAMILY.      Aphroditida,   (Gr.   from   Aphrodite,   Venus.) 

SEA-MICE. 

These  include  species  oval  in  form,  some  of  which  are  su 
perbly  colored.  Usually  they  have  two  pairs  of  jaws.  The 
gills  are  concealed  under  two  rows  of  scales  covering  the  back, 
and  hidden  by  a  kind  of  flocky  down  or  tow,  from  which  issue 
brilliant  spines  or  bristles.  The  species  Aphrodite  aculeata, 
(Lat.  prickly,)  is  six  or  eight  inches  long,  and  two  or  three 
inches  wide.  Cuvier  says  that  these  Sea-mice  do  not  yield  in 
beauty  either  to  the  plumage  of  the  Humming-birds,  or  to  the 
most  brilliant  precious  stones. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     Eunitida.' 

These  are  represented  by  the  genus  Eunice.  This  is  fur 
nished  with  tuft-like  gills,  and  has  the  trunk  armed  with  three 
pairs  of  horny  jaws.  Each  of  the  feet  has  two  cirri  and  a  bun 
dle  of  bristles  ;  there  are  two  tentacles  on  the  head,  above  the 
mouth,  and  two  on  the  neck.  The  GIGANTIC  EUNICE,  E.  gigan- 
tea,  found  in  the  seas  around  the  Antilles,  is  sometimes  upwards 
of  four  feet  in  length,  being  the  largest  annelidan  known. 

THIRD  ORDER.     ABRANCHIATA,  (Lat.  a,  priv.  or  without;  Iran- 
chice,  gills.) 

The  Worms  of  this  order  are   without  branchiae,  respiration 

being  accomplished  by  means  of  the  skin.  The  order  includes 

two  principal  groups,  of  which  the  one  is  terrestrial,  the  other 
aquatic. 


ABEANCHIATA.  655 


FIRST  FAMILY.     Lwribricida,  (Lat.  lumbricus,  an  earth-worm.) 

The  EARTH  or  ANGLE  WORM  has  a  body  composed  entirely 
of  numerous  rings;  is  of  a  reddish  or  bluish  hue,  and  of  a  shin 
ing  aspect.  It  secretes  a  viscous  or  glutinous  substance  which 
protects  the  body  and  greatly  facilitates  its  progress  through  the 
earth.  This  worrn  is  enabled  to  creep  at  a  good  pace,  by  con- 
tracting  and  dilating  its  rings,  the  retractile  bristles  on  the  under 
side  of  each  ring  assisting  locomotion.  The  fore  part  of  the 
head  in  earth-worms  acts  as  an  awl  in  penetrating  the  earth, 
which  they  loosen,  enrich,  and  prepare  for  the  labors  of  the 
farmer  by  admitting  the  air  and  water.  By  their  castings,  which 
so  annoy  the  gardener,  they,  in  a  few  years,  cover  a  barren 
waste  with  vegetable,  or  rather  animal  mould.  Not  improbably 
every  particle  of  earth  in  old  pastures  has  passed  through  the 
intestines  of  worms.  They  are  known  as  coming  to  the  surface 
in  wet  weather  and  at  night.  The  power  of  reproducing  mu 
tilated  parts  is  very  great  in  this  entire  family,  of  which  more 
than  twenty  species  have  been  described.  The  eggs  are  in  cap 
sules,  or  membranous  cocoons.  Each  egg  produces  two  worms. 
The  species  Lumbricus  terrestris  (Plate  XVI.  fig.  7b,)  attains 
nearly  a  foot  in  length,  and  has  a  hundred  and  twenty  rings. 

SECOND  FAMILY.     Hirudinida,  (Lat.  hirudo,  a  leech.)     LEECHES. 

These  include  various  genera,  both  marine  and  fresh  water. 
All  are  without  limbs  or  bristles,  but  have  a  sucker  at  each  end 
of  the  body,  which  enables  them  to  move  about  and  to  adhere 
to  living  bodies,  penetrating  the  skin,  by  means  of  their  three 
jaws  and  teeth,  and  drawing  the  blood,  upon  which  they  were 
formerly  supposed  to  subsist.*  Two  species  of  Leech  are  al 
most  exclusively  medicinal  ;  the  GREEN  LEECH,  Hirudo  offici- 
nahs,  and  the  BROWN  LEECH,  (spotted  underneath,)  H.  medici- 
nalis.  Other  species  are,  however,  sometimes  used.  Fresh 
water  leeches  soon  die  after  having  been  removed  from  the 
water.  Many  leeches  have  eight  eyes.  There  are  several  ma 
rine  species  which  attach  themselves  to  Torpedoes,  Turtles  and 

*It  is  very  remarkable  that  blood  is  not  the  natural  food  of  the  Leech; 
and  that  the  fluid  which  it  so  greedily  swallows,  does  not  pass  into  the 
intestines,  but  remains  in  the  stomach  for  many  months,  and  what  is  still 
more  curious,  it  does  not  coagulate  during  the  whole  of  that  time,  as  it 
would  do  in  an  hour  if  exposed  to  the  air,  but  continues  to  retain  its  fluid 
ity.  (Gosse.) 


656  ENTOZOA. 

Fishes,  particularly  the  Skate.  Leeches  are  so  much  used  for 
medicinal  purposes  that  methods  have  been  adopted  for  cultivat 
ing  them.  Some  enterprising  Frenchmen  have  recently  leased 
marshes  in  Ireland,  and  sowed  them  broad  cast  with  leeches,  in 
the  hope  of  thus  deriving  large  profits.  The  value  of  those 
annually  used  in  France,  is  estimated  at  from  one  to  one  and  a 
half  million  of  dollars.  The  species  H.  geobdella,  (Gr.  earth- 
leech,)  frequently  leaves  the  water  to  pursue  earth-worms. 

FOURTH  ORDER.      ENTOZOA,  (Gr.   svrogy  entos,  within;    t&ov, 
zdon,  an  animal.] 

This  order  includes  the  various  minute  animals  which  are 
produced  and  developed  within  other  living  beings.  They  are 
exceedingly  various  in  form  and  organization,  having  but  one 
character  in  which  they  mostly  agree,  viz.  :  that  they  are  para 
sitic,  living  within  and  at  the  expense  of  the  bodies  of  other  ani 
mals. 

Some  species,  both  in  their  appearance  and  internal  structure, 
so  closely  resemble  individuals  placed  in  other  classes,  that  they 
can  be  said  to  differ  from  them  only  in  respect  to  the  localities  in 
which  they  are  found.  They  have  been  discovered  in  all  the 
Mammalia,  from  man  down  to  the  Cetacea  ;  and  they  are  even 
more  numerous  in  Birds,  Reptiles,  and  Fishes  than  in  the  Mam 
mals.  The  invertebrated  animals  have  also  parasites  peculiar 
to  themselves.  They  have  been  found  in  Insects,  Mollusks,  and 
even  the  Acalephs.  They  fix  themselves,  according  to  the  spe 
cies,  in  various  parts  of  the  bodies  which  they  infest,  such  as  the 
intestines,  brain,  liver,  kidneys,  muscles,  blood,  and  bones.  In 
some  cases,  the  same  species  are  found  in  water,  as  well  as 
within  animals. 


FIRST  SUB-ORDER.     NEMATOIDEA,  (Gr.  y^««,  nema,  a  thread  ; 
eidog,  eidos,  form.)     ROUND  WORMS. 

These  are  the  highest  in  organization  of  the  Entozoa,  having  a 
round,  long,  and  elastic  body,  and  a  complicated  structure,  there 
being  a  true  intestinal  canal.  The  mouth,  by  its  varieties,  af 
fords  generic  characters  ;  the  females  are  longer  than  the  males, 
and  for  the  most  part  oviparous.  They  have  been  divided  into 
eleven  genera.  We  have  room  to  notice  only  (1)  those  of  the 
genus  Ascaris,  which  include  the  COMMON  ROUND  WORM,  A. 
lumbricoides,  so  named  from  its  general  likeness  to  the  Lumbri- 
cus,  or  Earth-  Worm.  This  occurs  in  the  hog  and  ox  as  well  as 


ENTOZOA.  657 

in  man,  and  chiefly  inhabits  the  small  intestines.  The  male  is 
smaller  and  more  abundant  than  the  female.  This  worm  is 
white,  from  six  to  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  long.  It  is  frequently 
fatal  to  children,  in  which  it  penetrates  to  the  stomach,  and  even 
to  the  mouth.  Five  hundred  have  sometimes  been  passed  from 
a  child  in  the  course  of  seven  or  eight  days  ;  also  Pin-Worms  or 
Thread  Worms,  A.  vermicularis,  (Lat.  from  vermiculus,  a  little 
worm.)  These  are  very  minute,  the  male  seldom  exceeding 
two  lines,  and  the  female  five  lines  in  length,  and  being  propor 
tionally  slender.*  They  dwell  in  the  large  intestines,  sometimes 
in  immense  numbers  and  producing  great  irritation. 

2.  Filaria,  (including  the  GUINEA  WORMS,)  of  which  three 
species  inhabit  the  human  body.  Some  are  found  in  various 
animals  including  insects  and  their  larvae.  These  are  long  worms, 
smooth  and  thread-like,  and  of  a  somewhat  rigid  texture.  The 
GUINEA.  WORM,  F.  Medinensis,  occurs  in  Arabia,  Upper  Egypt, 
Guinea,  the  West  Indies,  and  other  hot  climates.  It  is  generally 
white,  but  sometimes  of  a  brown  color.  The  length  varies  from 
six  inches  to  twelve  feet,  and  it  is  about  as  thick  as  the  string  of 
a  violin.  It  infests  the  muscles  and  subcutaneous  tissues,  prin 
cipally  of  the  lower  limbs ;  sometimes  it  locates  itself  about  the 
eye  and  under  the  tongue.  Occasionally  it  makes  its  way  to 
the  surface  of  a  skin,  creating  a  pustule  or  sore,  when  it  may  be 
taken  hold  of  and  cautiously  and  gradually  extracted.  If  broken 
off,  however,  the  part  remaining  enclosed  produces  inflammation, 
and  may  render  amputation  indispensable.  Within  the  tropics, 
people  sometimes  seem  to  be  affected  by  it  almost  epidemically, 
nearly  half  the  men  in  a  regiment  of  soldiers,  having  at  the  same 
time  been  attacked  by  it.  It  seems  that  it  may  exist  under  the 
skin  many  months  or  even  a  year  without  being  detected.  The 
Guinea  worm  is  said  to  be  sometimes  seen  swimming  in  the  wa 
ters  of  the  countries  which  it  inhabits. 

Species  of  the  Filaria  have  recently  been  found  in  the  blood 
of  dogs.  The  HAIR-WORMS,  Gordius  aquations,  (see  Chart,) 
are  nematoids  found  in  free  water,  or  as  internal  parasites  of 
insects.  The  latter  swallow  the  eggs  of  the  Hair  Worm,  after 
they  have  been  deposited  in  water;  and  "in  this  position  the  egg 
is  hatched,  producing  the  Gordius,  which  becomes  impregnated, 
and  escapes  from  the  insect  into  waters  where  it  deposits  its  eggs." 
It  has  erroneously  been  supposed  to  be  developed  from  a  horse 
hair. 


*The  line  here  referred  to  is  the  twelfth  part  of  a  French  inch. 


653  ENTOZOAo 


SECOND    SUB-ORDER.      ACANTHOCEPHALA,  (Gr.    from  a 
akantha,  a  thorn  ;  xeqpa^,  kephale,  a  head.)     HOOKED  WORMS. 


This  order  contains  but  one  genus,  Echinorhynclms,  (Gr.  echi- 
nos<  a  hedge-hog  ;  rhunchos,  beak,)  with  numerous  species.  The 
generic  name  refers  to  the  chief  character,  which  is  a  straight, 
round  trunk,  armed  with  rows  of  recurved  tooth-like  hooks. 
These  Worms  are  generally  found  in  the  intestinal  canal  ;  some 
times  in  the  neck  under  the  skin.  They  occur  in  all  vertebrates 
except  man,  sometimes  boring  through  the  intestines  and  passing 
into  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  species  E.  gigas,  which  is 
from  three  to  fifteen  inches  long,  infests  hogs,  particularly  such 
as  have  been  shut  up  to  be  fattened. 


THIRD  SUB-ORDER.     TREMATODA,  (Gr.  from  T^«,  trema,  a  for 
amen  or  hole.)     FLUKE   WORMS. 

These  worms  have  a  soft  and  rounded  or  flattened  body.  The 
head  is  indistinct,  with  a  suctorial  foramen  ;  one  or  more  sucto 
rial  pores  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  furnishing  the  ba 
sis  of  their  subdivision  into  genera.  They  have  no  intestinal 
canal.  The  Fasciola,  (Lat.  a  small  bandage,)  hepaticum,  (Gr. 
hepaticos,  of  the  liver,)  is  a  representative  of  this  group,  —  a 
worm  that  infests  the  liver,  gall-bladder,  and  sometimes  the  con 
tiguous  veins  or  ducts  ;  is  frequently  found  in  numerous  rumi 
nant  and  other  animals.  It  is  particularly  common  in  sheep,  in 
the  disease  called  the  rot.  This  worm  has  sometimes  been  found 
in  the  gall-bladder  of  man.  Its  shape  is  considerably  like  that 
of  a  melon  seed,  (Plate  XVI.  fig.  8.)  These  worms  have  two 
pores,  one  in  front,  the  other  ventral  ;  hence  they  are  sometimes 
denoted  by  the  generic  term,  Distoma,  (Gr.  two-mouthed.) 

Some  Trematods  occur  in  birds  and  fishes. 

FOURTH    SUB-ORDER.     CESTOIDEA,    (Gr.   from   xsorog,  kestos,  a 
band  ;  eidog,  eidos,  form.)     TAPE  WORMS. 

Of  these  worms  eight  genera  have  been  described.  The 
head  varies  greatly  in  the  different  genera;  generally  it  has  two 
or  four  pits  or  suctorial  orifices,  and  sometimes  four  retractile 
tentacles.  There  is  no  trace  of  an  intestinal  canal,  unless  it  be 
connected  with  vessels  proceeding  from  the  suckers.  Two  gen 
era  contain  species  that  infest  the  human  body  : 

1.  Bothriocephalus,  (Gr.  bothros,  a  groove  ;  kepJiale,  head.) 
This  is  a  long,  flat,  jointed  worm,  with  two  longitudinal  grooves, 


ENTOZOA.  C59 

one  on  each  side  of  the  head  ;  infesting  birds,  fishes,  and  rep 
tiles.  The  species  B.  latus  is  common  in  the  intestines  of  man, 
in  Switzerland,  Russia,  parts  of  France,  &c.  It  is  distinguished 
from  the  Tania  by  the  form  of  its  segments,  which  are  broader 
than  they  are  long,  and  by  the  openings  of  the  ovaries,  which  are 
beneath  instead  of  at  the  sides. 

2.  Tania,  (Lat.  a  band.)  This  genus  also  has  the  body  flat,  long, 
and  articulated,  but  the  articulations  are  so  small  and  indistinct 
for  some  distance  from  the  head,  (Plate  XVI.  fig.  9a,)  that  its 
existence  was  for  a  long  time  unknown,  and  it  was  supposed  the 
worm  obtained  its  nourishment  through  the  lateral  pores.  The 
head  is  round,  with  four  suckers  forming  a  square  about  the 
mouth. 

The  COMMON"  TAPE  WORM,  T.  soHum,  inhabits  the  human 
intestines,  but  not  with  equal  frequency  in  all  countries.  It  is, 
however,  more  widely  distributed  than  the  B.  latus.  The  length 
to  which  this  worm  attains  is  considerable,  but  it  may  be  difficult 
to  assign  its  limit.  Sometimes  it  is  twenty  feet  and  even  more, 
in  length.  One  species,  T.  cateniformis,  (Lat.  chain-like,)  about 
an  inch  long,  infests  the  cat. 

FIFTH  SUB-ORDER.     CYSTICA,  (Gr.  xvang,  kustis,  a  bladder.) 

These  worms  are  either  flat  or  round,  terminating  behind  in  a 
transparent  cyst  or  bladder  filled  with  a  perfectly  clear  fluid ; 
the  head  is  retractile  and  provided  with  two  or  four  pits,  or  four 
suckers  and  a  circle  of  small  hooks,  or  with  four  unarmed  ten 
tacles.  This  is  the  lowest  group  of  the  class,  nothing  is  known 
of  its  nutritive  and  some  other  organs.  They  are  represented  by 
the  Hydatida,  or  Hydatid,  which  consists  of  a  globular  bag, 
composed  of  condensed  albuminous  matter,  of  a  laminated  or 
plate-like  texture,  and  containing  a  clear  and  colorless  fluid. 

The  young  are  developed  between  the  layers  of  the  parent 
cyst,  and  thrown  off  internally  or  externally,  according  to  the 
species.  Some  have  doubted  whether  it  be  an  animal.  Its  struc 
ture  resembles  that  of  the  lowest  forms  of  Alga,  or  Sea- weed, 
as  the  Red  Snow,  (Protoccecus  nivalis,)  of  the  arctic  regions. 
Acephalocysts  have  been  found  in  almost  .every  structure  and 
cavity  of  the  human  body.  Some  species  live  in  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  of  sheep,  and  in  the  brain  of  oxen,  giving  rise  to  the 
disease  called  "  staggers." 


GOO  ENTOZOA. 

What  is  the  position  of  theMYRiAPODA?  In  what  respects  do  they  agree 
with  the  ANNELIDANS,  and  how  do  they  differ?  In  what  respects  do  they 
resemble  and  how  differ  from  Insects?  Into  how  many  OHDKKS  are  they 
divided?  Describe  their  characteristics.  Into  how  many  families  is  the  1st 
ORDER  arranged?  Name  and  describe  the  CENTIPEDES  referred  to.  Also 
those  of  the  2nd  ORDER.  What  is  the  3d  class?  Why  separated  from 
Insects  ?  State  how  they  differ.  Describe  the  characteristics  and  habits 
of  SPIDERS.  Which  is  the  1st  ORDER?  Repeat  what  is  said  of  the  Common 
S.  What  is  said  of  the  Mason  or  Trap-door  S.  ?  Of  the  Tarantula?  How 
do  the  Pedipalpi  differ  from  the  Spiders  proper  ?  What  family  forms  the 
largest  part  of  this  division?  What  is  said  of  them  ?  Which  is  the  2nd 
ORDER  ?  What  forms  does  it  include  ?  Kepeat  what  is  said  of  the  Mites. 
Of  the  Ticks.  Of  the  Shepherd  Spider.  What  other  sp.  are  referred  to  ? 

What  is  the  6th  BRANCH  of  ZOOLOGY?  Describe  their  characteristics 
and  habits?  How  many  orders  do  they  include  ?  What  is  the  1st  ORDER? 
Give  the  characters,  &c.,  of  the  Crabs,  or  Short-tailed  Crustaceans.  What 
sp.  are  mentioned  and  what  is  said  of  them  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Long- 
tailed  or  Second  Section  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Shrimps  ?  Of  the  River 
Prawn?  Of  the  Cray  or  Craw-fish?  Of  the  Lobster,  Astacus  marinus? 
How  does  the  Common  American  Lobster  compare  with  it  in  size  ?  What 
sp.  of  Shrimps  are  mentioned?  What  Crabs  are  included  in  the  8rd  Sec 
tion,  and  what  is  said  of  them?  What  is  the  2nd  ORDER?  What  families 
does  it  include  ?  Which  is  first  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  it  ?  Name 
and  describe  the  sp.  referred  to  ?  What  is  the  2d  family  mentioned  ?  What 
gen.  and  sp.  are  named  ?  What  is  said  of  them  ?  What  is  the  3rd  ORDER  ? 
What  are  its  characteristics,  &c.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Cyclops  ?  Of  the 
Daphnia  ?  Of  the  Cypris  ?  What  is  said  of  the  King  Crab,  or  Horse-foot  ? 
What  of  the  Trilobite  ?  What  singular  Crustacean  is  next  spoken  of;' 
What  is  the  4th  ORDER  ?  How  ranked  by  the  earlier  Naturalists  ?  Give 
their  characters,  &c.  Into  what  two  groups  are  they  divided?  What  is 
said  of  the  Barnacles?  Of  the  Acorn-shells?  What  is  the  5th  ORDER? 
What  is  said  of  them?  Name  the  sp.  referred  to. 

What  is  the  7th  BRANCH  of  ZOOLOGY  ?  How  was  the  class  Annelidana 
arranged  by  Cuvier  and  others ?  How  again  by  other  naturalists?  Give 
the  characters  of  Red-blooded  Worms.  Which  is  the  1st  OKDER?  How 
distinguished?  What  Family  is  first  named?  How  distinguished?  What 
gen.  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  them?  What  Family  is  next  men 
tioned?  Repeat  what  is  said  of  it.  Also  of  the  2nd  Family.  What  is  he 
3d  ORDER?  What  leading  character  is  noticed?  How  is' the  Order  di 
vided?  What  is  said  of  the  Earth  Worms?  What  of  the  Leeches?  What 
is  the  5th  ORDER?  Give  the  general  account.  What  is  the  1st  Sub-order? 
Repeat  what  is  said  of  Round  Worms.  What  is  said  of  Hooked  Worms? 
What  of  the  Fluke  ?  Of  the  Tape-worm?  What  of  the  Cystica,  or  Hyda- 
tids?  Name  the  White  and  Red-blooded  worms  found  upon  the  Chart? 
By  what  forms  are  they  distinguished?  Where  do  they  live? 


PL.  XVII. 


0 


5 


S.P. 


A  imp 


Plaits 


N 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XVII. 

1,  2,  3.  Round  or  Hard  Clam,  Venus  Mercenaries,  showing  the  different 
parts  of  a  bivalve  shell. 

U.  Umbones  or  bosses.  The  swelling  part  of  bivalve  shells  near  the  beaks. 
The  highest  points  of  the  beaks  are  the  summits. 

L.  Lunule,  a  crescent-like  mark  or  spot  near  the  anterior  or  posterior  slopes 
in  bivalve  shells,  sometimes  called  areola. 

D.  D.  Dorsal  or  superior  border,  near  the  bosses  or  beaks. 

V,  V.  Ventral  or  inferior  border,  or  border  lip,  at  the  base  of  the  shell,  oppo 
site  the  beaks. 

A.  Anterior  or  oral  extremity,  the  part  in  which  the  ligament  is  not  placed. 
la  a  univalve  it  is  the  greatest  distance  from  the  apex. 

P.  Posterior  or  anal  extremity,  that  side  of  the  bosses  containing  the  ligament. 

Le.  Length  in  bivalves  is  taken  horizontally,  or  from  the  posterior  to  the  an 
tenor  margin ;  in   univalves  it  is  takea  perpendicularly  or  from  the 
apex  to  the  base. 

Disk,  the  middle  part  of  the  valves. 

H.  Heighth.     T.  Thickness,  through  the  shell  from  disk  to  disk. 

Lig.  Ligament,  an  external  substance,  uniting  the  two  valves,  and  which  in 
fact  is  the  true  hinge ;  the  internal  or  cartilaginous  part  is  often  contin 
ued  between  the  teeth. 
The  hinge  is  composed  of  the  ligament,  the  cartilage  and  the  teeth. 

C.  Cardinal  teeth,  i.  e.  the  serratures  or  dentations  beneath  the  bosses. 

Lat.  Lateral  teeth,  at  the  sides  of  the  cardinal  teeth. 

A.  imp.  Anterior  muscular  impression.  P.  imp.  Posterior  muscular  im 
pression  ;  these  indented  marks  upon  the  shell  show  where  the  adductor 
muscles  are  attached. 

Pal.  imp.  The  Pallial  or  marginal  impression  formed  by  the  mantle  of  the 

animal. 


4.  A  Multivalve  Shell,  one  composed  of  many  pieces,  as  the  CJtiton. 

5.  Fusus.  A  spindle-5jhaped  UNIVALVE  SHELL,  showing  the  different  parts. 
Ap.  Apex,  or  posterior  part  of  a  univalve  shell,  the  point  or  nucleus  of  a 

shell,  the  top  of  Limpets  and  all  univalves,  and  the  bosses  or  beaks  of 

bivalves. 

Sp.  The  Spire  includes  all  the  volutions  except  the  body  whorl. 
S.  W.  Spiral  whorls;  each  complete  turn  is  termed  a  whorl  or  volution. 

B.  W.  Body  or  basal  whorl,  is  the  last  and  usually  much  the  largest. 

S.  Suture,  the  line  where  the  whorls  of  spiral  shells  meet  or  tit  into  each 

other.     When  grooved  or  furrowed  it  is  said  to  be  canaliculated. 
Col.  Columella  or  Pillar,  the  internal  support  round  which  the  whorls  wind. 

C.  Lip.  Columella,  inner  or  pillar  lip,  folds  over  the  lower  part  of  the  columella. 
0.  Lip.  The  outer  lip  is  the  external  edge  or  termination  of  the  last  whorl. 

A.  or   M.  Aperture,   mouth  or  front,   from  which  the  body  can  protrude. 
Ca.  Canal,  groove,  or  furrow  in  the  beak  as  in  Fums,  Murex,  &c. ;  in  the 

Buccinum,  Harpa,  &c.,  it  is  only  a  notch,  as  in  fig.  8. 

B.  Beak,  or  rostrum,  the  continuation  of  the  body  whorl. 
B.  or  A.  The  base  or  anterior  part. 


6.  A  Turbinated  Shell,  (Paludina  vivipara,)  with  the  young  shells. 

7.  The  OPERCULUM,  (door  or  cover,)  closing  the  mouth,  found  in  nearly  all 
predaceous  univalves,  and  always  attached  to  the  foot  of  the  live  animal. 

8.   Tiara,  showing  a  turreted  shell,  with  plaits  or  folds  on  the  pillar;  S,  striae ; 

N.  notch  at  the  base,  R.  ribs,  and  T.  tubercles. 
9.  Physa,  showing  the  reverse  or  sinistral  aperture. 
10.  Snail,  (Helix  anastoma  depressum,)  showing  the  reflexed  lip  and  the  teeth. 


EIGHTH   BRANCH   OF   ZOOLOGY. 


MALACOLOGY.     (Gr.  (ialax6$,  malakos,  soft  ;  Afyo?,  logos, 
discourse.) 


THIS  is  the  science  of  the  structure  and  habits  of  soft  animals, 
or  Mollusks.  Many  of  these,  from  the  number,  variety,  and  beauty 
of  their  shells,  invited  attention  at  an  early  period,  under  the 
name  of  CONCHOLOGY,  (Gr.  konche,  a  shell  ;  logos,  a  discourse;) 
but  in  order  to  a  natural  classification,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
habits  of  the  class,  it  was  found  that  the  entire  animal  must  be 
known ;  hence,  Conchology  has  been  merged  in  MALACOLOGY. 

THIRD  SUB-KINGDOM.    MOLLUSC  A,  (Lat.  mollis,  soft.)   MOLLUSKS. 

The  Mollusks  are,  as  a  whole,  inferior  to  the  Articulates  in 
their  organization  and  faculties,  but  yet  are  superior  to  the  Ra 
diates,  thus  ranking  as  the  third  series  in  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

In  their  external  form,  they  are  exceedingly  various.  Their 
internal  parts  are  always  soft,  fleshy,  moist,  and  cold ;  although 
a  small  number  of  them  have  some  solid  internal  pieces  intended 
for  the  protection  of  certain  organs.  The  nervous  system,  in 
stead  of  being  developed  in  the  form  of  a  spinal  cord,  is  com 
posed  of  ganglia  and  nerves,  which  are  dispersed,  more  or  less 
irregularly,  in  different  parts  of  the  body.  A  few  species  have 
organs  analogous  to  the  ear;  many  are  furnished  with  eyes;  but 
it  is  not  certain  that  they  possess  any  sense  of  smell.  Many  of 
them  appear  to  have  no  other  organs  than  those  subservient  to 
touch  and  taste.  The  sense  of  feeling  is  probably  most  acute  in 
the  tentacula.  The  organs  of  sense  and  locomotion  are  generally 
arranged  with  symmetry.  The  muscles  are  attached  to  the 
skin ;  and  by  the  alternate  elongation  and  contraction  of  certain 
parts,  the  animals  crawl  on  the  ground,  swim  on  the  water,  and 
lay  hold  of  objects;  but,  as  their  limbs  are  not  supported  by 
bones  or  other  solid  parts,  their  motions  are  usually  very  slow. 
They  are  never  furnished  with  feet  arranged  in  series  on  each 


MALACOLOGY.  6G3 

side  of  the  body,  as  in  the  vertebrates  and  insects ;  but  many 
possess  a  fleshy  tongue-like  appendage,  called  a  foot,  which  is 
used,  in  some  cases,  either  for  progression,  as  in  the  snail,  or 
adhesion,  as  in  the  limpet  and  chiton,  (see  Chart,  and  Plate 
XVII.)  Thr  location  of  this  organ,  on  the  lower  part  of  the  body 
of  univalve  Mollusks,  (see  figures  of  Harpa,  Buccinum,  and  a 
Haliotes,  on  the  Chart,)  suggested  the  distinctive  term  for  the 
order,  GASTEROPODA.  The  organs  of  respiration  are  always  dis 
tinct,  and  present  the  form  of  gills,  i.  e.,  blood-vessels  dividing 
into  parallel  branches,  which  are  brought  into  contact  with  the 
air  contained  either  in  the  atmosphere  or  in  the  water. 

The  blood  of  the  Mollusks  is  white,  bluish,  or  limpid.  There 
is  always  a  heart  in  them,  but  it  is  singularly  placed;  indeed, 
some  of  them  seem  to  have  several  hearts.  In  no  other  animals 
is  the  circulation  more  unequal  ;  but  always,  however,  there  are 
blood-cavities  into  which  the  blood-vessels  open,  and  from  which 
other  vessels  arise  and  diffuse  again  the  blood  into  the  organs. 
The  stomach  is  sometimes  simple ;  sometimes  divided  into  sev 
eral  parts ;  there  is  always  a  large  liver. 

In  some,  the  sexes  are  separated  ;  and  in  others  united  ;  all 
of  them  produce  eggs, — which,  in  some  cases,  are  deposited  ex 
ternally  ;  in  others,  hatched  within,  so  that  Mollusks  are  either 
oviparous  or  ovoviviparous.  The  young  of  all  have,  from  the 
first,  nearly  the  form  which  they  present  when  mature. 

The  soft,  and  usually  sensitive  skin,  frequently  forms  plaits  or 
folds  enveloping  the  body  either  wholly  or  in  part.  The  portion 
of  covering  thus  formed,  is  termed  the  mantle.  It  is  often  almost 
entirely  free,  presenting  two  large  laminse  or  lobes,  which  cover 
the  rest  of  the  animal,  as  in  the  Cyprsea;  or  the  two  laminse 
unite  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  tube,  as  in  the  Solen  or  Razor- 
Shell.  Sometimes  the  mantle  forms  a  sort  of  disk,  of  which  the 
margins  only  are  free ;  or  it  surrounds  the  body  in  the  form  of 
a  bag. 

In  a  large  number  of  Mollusks,  the  soft  skin  is  protected  by  a 
sort  of  calcareous  crust,  which  is  secreted  from  the  mantle,  in 
deposits  of  successive  layers,  composed  of  a  kind  of  glutinous 
substance,  mixed  with  carbonate  of  lime, — differing,  as  Prof. 
Dana  has  shown  in  his  admirable  work,  (see  Narrative  of  Ex- 
ploring  Expedition,)  from  the  Polyps,  (Radiates,) — in  which  the 
limestone  portions  form  a  part  of  the  animal,  and  are  not  mere 
excretory  matter,  resembling  shell.  Sometimes  the  whole  shell 
appears  to  be  horny,  but  most  commonly  the  calcareous  portion 
predominates,  and  the  inner  surface  is  more  compact  than  the 
other. 


668  MALACOLOGY. 

In  some  cases,  the  shell  is  internal,  or  lodged  in  the  skin,  but, 
generally,  it  is  external,  and  affords  complete  protection  to  the 
animal. 

Mollusks  which,  like  the  Cuttle-fish,  (see  Chart,)  have  no 
outer  shell,  are  said  to  be  naked;  those  having  a  shell,  are 
called  Testaceous  or  Conchiferous.  The  shell  varies  in  form, 
the  shape  being  determined  by  the  animal  itself.  Sometimes 
it  resembles  a  shield  that  covers  the  back  of  the  Mollusk, 
but  more  frequently  it  is  like  a  conical  tube  spirally  twisted; 
or  it  may  be  composed  of  two  distinct  pieces  united  by  a  joint ; 
hence,  the  arrangement  of  these  animals  into  Univalves  and 
Bivalves.  The  first,  or  the  MOLLUSCA  CEPHALATA,  have  a  dis 
tinct  head,  bearing  lips  or  jaws,  and  are  furnished  with  eyes 
and  tentacula;  the  Bivalves,  or  the  MOLLUSCA  ACEPHALA,  have 
a  more  simple  organization.  These  have  no  distinct  head, 
and  are  destitute  of  jaws,  and  other  hard  parts  of  a  mouth. 
The  shells  are  often  ornamented  with  colors  variously  dis 
posed,  the  animals  themselves  being  furnished  with  the  materials 
for  beautifying  as  well  as  constructing  their  outward  cover 
ings.  The  skin  is  full  of  pores,  containing  colored  fluids,  which, 
penetrating  the  calcareous  substance  before  it  hardens,  form  its 
variegated  tints.  The  regularity  of  the  markings  is  admirable. 
It  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact,  that  the  pores  containing  the  col 
ored  matter  are  arranged  in  the  skin  of  Mollusks  with  undeviating 
order,  as  the  spots  upon  the  leopard,  or  the  stripes  upon  the  tiger. 
When  the  liquid  exudes,  it  stains  the  shell;  and  the  uniformity 
of  pattern  in  the  shell  results  from  the  order  in  which  the  pores 
are  placed  in  the  mantle.  The  numerous  spines  or  digitations 
found  in  many  of  the  shells,  (see  Murex  and  Pteroceras,  on  the 
Chart,)  are  formed  by  the  prolongations  of  the  mantle  bearing 
upon  its  edges  the  material  for  this  calcareous  deposit. 

The  parts  of  a  univalve  shell,  are  (I)  the  body  or  lower  part; 
(2)  the  spire  or  tapering  portion;  (3)  the  turns  or  whorls', 
(when  the  lower  whorls  of  the  spire  are  pressed  into  the  body 
whorl  or  turn,  they  are  said  to  be  refuse;}  (4)  the  suture  or  line 
of  junction  of  the  turns;  (5)  the  columellar  or  pillar,  the  axis  of 
the  shell ;  (6)  the  mouth  or  aperture  with  its  peristone  or  margin, 
which  may  be  complete  or  not,  and  may  be  described  as  forming 
an  outer  lip,  and  an  inner  lip;  (7)  the  lid  or  operculum,  (from 
operior,  to  cover,) — the  plate  or  door  with  which  some  species 
close  the  aperture.  The  spiral  turns  may  be  smooth,  or  vari 
ously  marked  with  striae,  laminae,  ribs,  nodosites,  or  spines,  the 
markings  being  longitudinal  or  transverse.  In  its  natural  posi 
tion,  the  mouth  is  beneath  and  forward,  the  spire  painting  back- 


MALACOLOGY.  G67 

wards  and  to  the  right  side.  Some  shells  have  the  mouth  on  the 
left  side  and  are  called  sinistral ;  those  of  the  ordinary  form  have 
the  mouth  on  the  right  side,  and  are  called  dextral. 

BIVALVE  shells  are  composed  of  two  pieces,  kept  together  by 
a  sort  of  hinge.  When  the  two  valves  are  equal,  the  shell  is  said 
to  be  equivalve ;  when  unequal,  unequivahe.  They  may  be 
round,  elliptical,  ovate,  linear,  or  of  various  forms.  The  more  or 
less  prominent  part  of  the  valve  at  the  joint,  is  the  umbo.  When 
the  umbo  is  nearly  in  the  middle,  the  shell  is  said  to  be  isomeral 
or  equilateral ;  when  not,  anisomeral  or  inequilateral.  The 
hinge  may  be  plain,  but  it  generally  presents  various  promi 
nences,  called  teeth,  with  depressions,  the  teeth  of  one  valve  filling 
the  depressions  of  another.  The  valves  are  farther  kept  together 
by  aa  elastic  fibrous  ligament,  which  tends  to  throw  them  open. 
They  are  brought  near  to  each  other  by  a  pair  of  strong  muscles 
extended  internally  from  one  valve  to  the  other,  and  leaving 
strong  impressions  on  the  inner  surface.  The  teeth  are  distin 
guished  into  cardinal  or  central,  and  lateral.  The  surface  may 
be  convex  in  various  degrees;  concentrically  striate,  laminate,  or 
rugose,  or  radiated  from  the  um bones  (or  bosses)  with  striae, 
ridges,  grooves,  ribs  or  spine.  In  the  natural  position,  the  hinge 
is  uppermost  on  the  back ;  that  end  of  the  shell  to  which  the  lig 
ament  is  nearest,  is  above,  and  is  called  the  posterior  end  ;  the 
other  or  lower,  toward  which  is  the  head  of  the  animal,  is  the 
anterior  end  ;  the  thin  edges  of  the  valves  are  their  ventral  mar 
gins.  On  the  inner  surface  of  the  valves  are  seen  the  impres 
sions  made  by  the  muscles,  and  that  left  by  the  mantle.  (See 
figures  of  Plate  XVII.  together  with  the  explanations  of  the 
same.) 

Some  shells,  as  the  Pearl  Oyster,  Avicula  margarilifera,  the 
Pinna  and  the  Modiola,  (see  Chart,)  fix  themselves  by  silky  fila 
ments  called  a  byssus;  some  by  a  sort  of  cement,  as  the  Oyster, 
(Oslrea ;}  others  by  forming  a  vacuum,  as  the  'Patella  or 
Limpet,  and  still  others  attach  themselves  to  rocks  by  the 
same  substance  as  that  of  which  the  shells  are  made,  as  the 
Vermetus.  The  shells,  which  by  any  of  these  means  are  ren 
dered  stationary,  are  called  fixed  shells,  subsisting  upon  the 
little  animals  which  are  brought  near  by  the  motion  of  the 
water;  the  other  shells  are  called  free.  Mollusks  are  also  (1) 
terrestrial.  These  feed  on  vegetables,  have  always  four  ten- 
tacula,  and  their  eyes  placed  at  the  tip  of  these  organs;  (2) 
fluviatife  or  fresh-water  shells,  that  have  only  two  tentacula, 
which  are  flat,  and  have  eyes  at  the  base  ;  (3)  Marine,  which  are 
most  numerous,  most  beautiful,  and  most  highly  prized.  We 


603  MAL:  OOLOGY. 

find  the  shell  and  the  habits  of  the  Mollusks  wisely  adapted  to  the 
situations  which  they  occupy. 

Some  that  belong  to  rapid  streams,  have  an  exceedingly  hard 
and  substantial  shell,  adapted  to  contend  with  the  most  boisterous 
elements.  Others,  by  their  very  levity,  are  enabled  to  float  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  offering  no  resistance,  are  carried 
alonsr  on  the  surface  of  the  waves.  The  Pinna  anchors  itself  by 
its  byssus  to  rocks,  and  thus  is  secure  against  all  dangers.  Oth 
ers,  as  the  Nautilus  and  Argonaut,  by  adding  to  the  weight  of 
their  bark,  can  descend  and  seek  a  shelter  in  the  ocean's  bed. 
There  are  numerous  and  beautiful  contrivances  for  their  pre 
servation.  Breaches  will,  however,  sometimes  be  made  in  the 
outer  coverings ;  but  these  they  have  the  power  to  repair,  by  ex 
uding  a  calcareous  matter  similar  to  that  with  which  the  shell 
was  first  constructed.  They  are  peculiarly  abundant  in  warm 
climates;  being  larger  and  more  brilliantly  colored,  the  greater 
the  light  and  heat  to  which  they  are  subjected.  Including  the 
soft,  naked  species,  as  well  as  those  protected  by  a  hard  calcare 
ous  shell,  it  is  believed  the  number  of  species  will  not  fall  short 
often  or  twelve  thousand,  and  this,  exclusive  of  the  fossil  species, 
which  are  thought  to  be  still  more  numerous.  It  is  said  there 
are  scarcely  eight  hundred  living  shells  found  in  the  Mediterra 
nean,  or  on  the  French  shores  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  but  more 
than  twelve  hundred  fossil  shells  have  been  found  in  that  stratum 
of  limestone  in  which  the  city  of  Paris  is  built,  and  of  which 
such  extensive  deposits  exist  in  the  neighborhood.  "  In  that 
single  stratum  is  found,  at  this  day,  one  third  more  fossil  shells 
than  live  on  the  whole  extent  of  the  French  shores."  (Agassiz.) 

We  had  designed  to  follow  this  general  description  of  the 
Mollusks,  with  explanations  of  the  various  sub-divisions,  after  the 
manner  adopted  in  the  preceding  sub-kingdoms;  but  already 
this  volume  has  swelled  far  beyond  the  limits  originally  assigned 
to  it.  Hence,  we  are  constrained  to  close  our  account  of  shells 
here,  referring  to  the  Plates  found  in  this  work,  and  to  the  Chart, 
with  its  numerous  figures  and  explanations,  for  further  illustra 
tions;  also  to  Manuals  of  Conchology,  already  published,  until, 
if  circumstances  should  hereafter  warrant,  we  may  be  able  to 
prepare  a  volume  in  which  the  Articulates,  Mollusks,  and  Radi 
ates,  shall  be  presented  in  a  manner  corresponding  in  fullness  to 
the  view  herein  presented  of  the  VERTEBRATES. 

What  is  the  Eighth  Branch  of  Zoology  ?  Of  what  does  it  treat  ?  Fnder 
what  name  was  the  science  of  shells  formerly  known?  Why  was  it 


MALACOLOGY. 

changed?  Which  is  the  THIRD  SUB-KINGDOM?  What  is  said  of  their  ex 
ternal  form?  Of  the  internal  parts?  What  of  the  nervous  system?  Of 
their  organs  of  sense  ?  To  what  are  the  muscles  attached  ?  How  are  the 
animals  enabled  to  crawl,  swim,  &c.  ?  Why  are  their  motions  very  slow? 
What  is  said  of  the  organs  of  respiration  ?  Of  the  blood,  stomach,  £c.  ? 
What  is  meant  by  the  mantle  ?  How  does  it  vary  ?  How  is  the  skin  in 
many  Mollusks  protected  ?  Is  the  shell  always  external  ?  Wl  at  are  those 
called  which  have  no  shell?  What  those  which  have  a  shell?  How  is  the 
shape  of  the  shell  determined?  Whence  the  divisions  into  UNIVALVES  and 
Bivalves'?  What  other  names  have  these  divisions  received?  What  is 
said  of  them  ?  What  is  said  of  the  coloring  of  shells  ?  Name  the  parts  of 
a  Univalve  Shell,  &c.  Give  the  explanation  of  Bivalve  shells  as  furnished 
by  the  text  and  Plate  XVII?  What  are  fixed  shells?  What  are  free 
shells  ?  What  other  division  of  the  Mollusks  are  given  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  adaptation  of  the  shell  and  habits  of  Mollusks  to  their  respective  situa 
tions  ?  In  what  climate  are  they  most  abundant  and  most  brilliantly  col 
ored?  What  is  said  of  the  number  of  species? 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XVIII. 

CLASS  ECHINODERMS. 

Fig.  1.  Sea-Slug   or  Sea-Cucumber,    Cucitmaria  frondota,  a  Holothurian 

eaten  by  the  Chinese ;  a,  the  branching  tentacula  which  surround  and 

fringe  the  mouth  ;  b,  the  five  rows  of  perforations  for  the  sucker-like 

feet ;  c,  the  vent. 
Fig.  2.  Sea-egg  or  Sea-urchin;  the  vent  at  the  apex.    The  mouth  is  beneath 

and  central.     The  large  tubercles  in  wide  rows  support  the  large  spines ; 

the  small  perforations  are  for  the  passage  of  the  sucker-like  feet  which 

assist  in  locomotion. 
Fig.  3.  Five-finger,  radiated  Star-fish,  or  Cross-fish,  Anterias  (Ur aster)  san- 

guiiiolenta  ;  a,  the  eye  spots  at  the  extremity  of  each  ray. 
Fig.  4.  Axterias  ( If  raster)  rubcns  ;  a,  both  mouth  and  vent  on  the  under  side. 
Fig.  5.  Pentagonal  Star-fish,  Axterias  tesselata. 
Fig.  6.  Medusa's-head,    Gorgonocephalus,   or   Euryah,  having  five    arms, 

which  in  some  individuals  branch  off  into  5,000  filaments. 
Fig.  7.  Pentacrinus  Briareux, — a,  shows  the  head  and  arms;  b,  the  upper 

part,  half  the  natural  size,  with  the  arms  entwined  around  the  plated 

integument  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  which  terminates  above  by  a  sort 

of  proboscis. 
Fig.  8.  Stone  Lily,  Lily  Encrinite,  Encrinus  liliiformis. 

CLASS  ACALEPH. 

Fig.  9.  Rhizostoma  Cuvieri ;    a  common  jelly-fish  of    European  seas;  a, 

pedunculated  mass  depending  from  four  roots  in  the  center. 
Fig.  10.  Lymnorea    triedra  ;  a,  side  view;  b,   view  from  above;  c,  eight 

finely  divided  appendages  surrounding  the  long  center  proboscis. 
Fig.  11.  Rhodophysa  helianthus  ;  a,  the  short  bladder-like  body ;  b,  rib-like 

gelatinous  bodies,  from  which  filamentous  processes,  c,  depend. 
Fig.  12.   Callianira  triploptera  ;  a,  wing-shaped  appendages  fringed  with 

a  double  row  of  vibrating  cilia;  b,  a  pair  of  long,  branched,  tentacu- 

lar-like  appendages ;  c,  tubular  body. 

CLASS  PHYTOZOA,  OR  POLYPS. 

Fig.  13.  Sea  Anemone,  Actinia. 

Fig.  14.  Hydra  fusca,  a  common  fresh  water  polyp,  highly  magnified. 

Fig.  15.  CaryophyUeO)  Avith  two  series  of  numerous  tentacula  putting  forth 
from  multiradiate  cells. 

Fig.  16.  Warty  Gorgonia,  or  Warted  Sea-Fan,  Gorgonia  verrucosa  ;  a,  rep 
resents  the  sucker-like  feet ;  b,  the  same  magnified. 

Fig.  17.  Sea-pen,  Pennatula  grisea.  The  branches  put  out  on  each  side  of 
the  central  axis,  like  the  barbs  of  a  feather ;  on  these  branches  the 
Polyps  are  situated,  and  by  their  tentacula  its  course  seems  to  be  di 
rected. 

Fig.  18.  Madrepora  abratanoidcs ;  a,  twelve  tentacles  protruding  from  deep 
cells. 

Fig.  19.  Thick  tentacled  Fungia,  swarming  with  numerous  tentacula,  all 
belonging  to  one  animal. 

Fig.  20.  Fungia  patellaris,  Mushroom  coral. 

CLASS  PROTOZOA. 

Fig.  21.  Rkizopods,  Low  forms  allied  to  mollusks  by  their  shells,  as  Fora- 

minifera,  &c. 

Fig.  22.  Polygastrica,  (Animalcules,  or  microscopic  animals.) 
Fig.  23.  Sponges  Spongia ;  a  and  b,  sponges  of  commerce;  c,  tube  sponge. 


ECH  I  NO  D  ER  M  S 
a. 


FOURTH   SUB-KINGDOM 

RADIATES.  (Lat.  radius,  a  ray.) 


THIS  includes  animals  so  named  from  the  arrangement  of  the 
parts  round  an  axis  somewhat  as  in  plants  ;  hence  they  were 
called  by  Cuvier,  ZOOPHYTES,  Plant-like  animals.  These  intro 
duce  us  to  the 

NINTH  BRANCH  OF  ZOOLOGY. 


ACTINOLOGY,  (Gr.  uxTlv,  aktin,  a  ray  ;  koy6g,  logos,  a  discourse. 

RAY-LIKE  ANIMALS. 

The  terms  which  are  here  employed  are  not,  by  any  means, 
equally  applicable  to  all  the  beings  included  in  this  last  sub-divis 
ion  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  While  in  some  of  them  the  radiated 
arrangement  of  the  parts  is  very  easily  seen,  in  others  it  can 
be  traced  only  by  a  close  microscopic  examination.  Agassiz  says 
it  can  be  perceived  in  all  with  "sufficient  observation."  Such 
are  the  differences  of  form  and  in  the  degree  of  organization 
among  the  Radiates,  that  instead  of  undertaking  to  present  addi 
tional  characters,  describing  them  as  a  whole,  we  shall  at  once 
proceed  to  consider  the  four  classes  into  which  they  are  divided. 


I.  ECHINODERMS,  (Gr.  e/ZVo?,  echinos,  a  sea-urchin  ; 
derma,  skin.) 

These  are  all  marine,  and  characterized  by  having  a  well  or 
ganized  skin,  under  which  or  attached  to  which  are  often  found 
plates  of  solid  matter,  forming  a  kind  of  skeleton,  and  some 
times  joined  together  like  the  stones  of  a  pavement.  They 
have  a  digestive  and,  vascular  system.  A  circular  nervous  sys- 


674  HOLOTHURIDEA. 

tern  has  been  detected  in  many  of  the  species.  Some  of  them 
have  the  bodies  raised  upon  a  footstalk,  the  base  of  which  is 
fixed  ;  others  have  no  pedicle,  and  can  move  freely,  though 
slowly  along  the  bottom.  Of  the  latter  kind  the  Star-fish,  Aste- 
riast  is  an  example,  which  drags  its  slow  pace  along  with  the 
aid  of  more  than  eight  hundred  sucker-like  feet.  In  these,  at 
the  extremity  of  the  rays  are  dots,  which,  according  to  Ehren- 
burg,  are  eyes.  The  Echinoderms  usually  have  the  mouth 
armed  with  hard  bony  teeth.  Both  the  mouth  and  the  gullet  are, 
in  the  Star-fish,  extremely  dilatable,  and  admirably  fitted  for  se 
curing  the  Crustaceans  and  Shell-fish  upon  which  they  feed. 
When  the  prey  is  over  large,  the  gullet,  together  with  part  of  the 
stomach,  can  be  protruded  and  turned  over  so  as  to  draw  the  de 
sired  food  into  the  cavity.  In  this  way,  shell-fish  are  swallowed 
whole  by  these  animals ;  living  specimens  have  sometimes  been 
taken  out  of  the  cavity. 

The  sudden  and  violent  dismemberment  by  which  rrnny  of  the 
Echinoderms  save  their  central  disk  at  the  expense  of  their  rays 
or  arms,  is  a  striking  peculiarity  ;  the  length  of  time  during 
which  these  severed  parts  still  continue  to  be  endowed  with  mo 
tion,  is  also  remarkable.  These  animals  have  great  power  of 
reproducing  lost  parts,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  be  able  to  increase 
individuals  by  gemmation,  as  in  the  Acalephs  and  Protozoa. 

FIRST    ORDER.     HOLOTHURIDEA,   (Gr.   oloOotQiov,   Tiololhourion.) 
SEA-SLUGS,  or  SEA-CUCUMBERS. 

These  animals  have  a  more  or  less  lengthened  and  sometimes 
worm-like  body ;  it  i»  soft,  leathery  and  contractile,  with  earthy 
matter  deposited  about  the  mouth,  but  without  any  outer  shell. 
When  irritated,  the  contractile  power  of  the  body  seems  to  be 
increased.  The  general  form  is  quite  variable.  Over  the  body 
are  spread  numerous  pores  for  the  secretion  of  mucus,  and  per 
forations  for  the  exit  of  the  sucker-like  feet.  When  not  generally 
distributed,  these  latter  organs  are  arranged  in  five  rows  or  fur 
rows,  representing  what  are  fancifully  termed  ambulacra  or  ave 
nues.  The  mouth  is  bordered  with  tentacles  which  can  be 
withdrawn.  Mariners  have  named  these  animals  Sea-Cucum 
bers,  from  the  resemblance  of  their  form  and  prickly  surface  to 
the  garden  cucumber.  Of  the  genus  Cucumaria,  there  are  sev 
eral  species,  differing  in  quality,  known  among  the  Malays  un 
der  the  name  of  Trepang,  or  Biche-de-mer.  Commodore  Wilkes, 
(Exploring  Expedition.)  says  "  the  most  esteemed  kinds  are  found 
on  the  reefs  in  water,  one  or  two  fathoms  deep,  and  are  caught 


ECHINI  DBA.  07  3 

by  diving.  The  natives  also  fish  the  Uche-de-mer  on  rocky  co 
ral  bottom  by  the  light  of  the  moon  or  of  torches,  for  the  animals 
keep  themselves  drawn  up  in  holes  by  day,  and  come  forth  by 
night  to  feed,  when  they  may  be  taken  in  great  numbers.  The 
motions  of  the  animal  resemble  those  of  a  caterpillar,  and  it 
feeds  by  suction,  drawing  in  with  its  food  much  fine  coral  and 
some  small  shells. 

The  prepared  article  finds  a  ready  sale  in  the  China  market, 
where  it  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  soups.  When  brought  on 
shore,  the  animals  are  placed  in  bins  where  they  remain  the  next 
day  ;  the  entrails  are  then  removed  ;  the  larger  kinds  are  cut  along 
the  under  part  for  three  or  four  inches  to  make  them  dry  more 
rapidly ;  then  thrown  into  pots  of  the  form  of  sugar  boilers,  con- 
taining  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  gallons,  and 
boiled  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  after  which  they  are  thoroughly 
dried  in  a  large  building.  This  process  makes  the  slug  lose 
two-thirds  of  its  weight  and  bulk.  When  cured  it  resembles 
smoked  sausage.  The  biche-de-mer  is  sometimes  taken  to  Can 
ton,  but  more  usually  to  Manilla,  whence  it  is  shipped  to  China." 

Sometimes  it  is  as  much  as  two  feet  in  length,  and  from  seven 
to  eight  inches  in  circumference;  but  a  span  long,  and  two  or 
three  inches  in  circumference  is  the  ordinary  size. 

SECOND  ORDER.     ECHINIDEA,  (Gr.  e/rvo,,  echinos,  a  sea-urchin  ; 
eldoz,  eidos,  form.)     SEA-URCHINS  OR  SEA- EGGS. 

These  furnish  complete  examples  of  the  type  of  radiated  ani 
mals.  Their  hard  covering  and  habits  of  living  in  the  sand  have 
preserved  them  in  many  rocky  strata,  so  that  in  their  fossil  as 
well  as  living  forms,  they  are  objects  of  interest  to  the  naturalist. 
Their  usually  oval  or  circular  form  has  suggested  for  them  the 
name  of  Sea-eggs.  Their  more  or  less  rounded  form,  without 
any  arms,  distinguishes  them  from  other  Echinoderms.  Within 
their  integument  calcareous  matter  is  deposited,  forming  a  series 
of  regular  plates,  studded  with  tubercles  which  are  jointed  with 
spines  varying  in  form  and  size,  according  to  the  genus  to  which 
they  belong.  These  spines  "  have  a  beautiful  microscopic  struc 
ture,  being  composed  of  cells  which  are  arranged  around  a  com 
mon  center,  almost  in  the  same  manner  as  the  zones  of  wood  in 
a  tree."  The  plates  run  in  vertical  rows  or  avenues,  twenty  in 
number,  two  of  which  are  wide  and  two  narrow,  alternately,  the 
tubercles  of  the  wide  pair  supporting  the  larger  spines  ;  the  nar 
row  ones  have  vertical  rows  of  minute  perforations,  which  allow 
the  passage  of  the  sucker-like  feet,  that  in  addition  to  the  spines, 


676  ASTERIDEA. 

perform  the  office  of  locomotion.  The  ovarium-holes  are  situ 
ated  on  the  apex,  and  from  these  the  eggs  are  extruded.  The 
forms  of  this  order  vary  from  that  of  the  CAKE-URCHINS,  ScutcUa, 
(Lat.  a  salver,)  slightly  convex  above,  to  the  sub-globular 
Echinus,  (Plate  XVI II.  fig.  2.)  This,  with  other  genera  having 
large  spines,  is  found  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea  ;  while  the  Cake- 
Urchins,  having  short,  bristly  spines,  burrow  in  sand. 

The  HEART- URCHIN,  Spatangus,  (Gr.  spatangos,  a  kind  of  sea- 
urchin,)  has  a  thin,  delicate  shell,  of  a  lengthened,  gibbous  form, 
with  the  vent  posterior  and  placed  upon  the  upper  surface,  (see 
Chart.)  The  structure  of  the  mouth  in  the  Sea-urchin  deserves 
special  notice.  It  is  formed  of  ten  series  of  hard  plates,  fur 
nished  with  teeth  which  are  moved  by  very  distinct  muscles,  and 
put  in  motion  by  a  complicated  nervous  system ;  armed  also 
with  five  jaws  so  arranged  as  to  correspond  with  the  ten  series  of 
plates.  So  powerful  are  these  jaws  that  they  are  able  to  crush 
shell-fishes  and  the  hardest  bodies.  According  to  Agassiz,  a 
more  complicated  organization  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  the 
Animal  Kingdom.  The  mechanism  of  these  five  jaws,  with 
their  singular  array  of  arched  teeth,  Aristotle  compared  to  a 
lantern  ;  hence  the  Echinus  has  been  called  "Aristotle's  Lan. 
tern." 

Professor  Forbes  informs  us  that  "in  a  modernte  sized  urchin, 
there  are  sixty-two  rows  of  pores  in  each  of  the  ten  avenues; 
and  as  there  are  three  pairs  of  pores  in  each  row,  the  total  num 
ber  of  pores  is  3720  ;  but  as  each  sucker  occupies  a  pair  of  pores 
in  each  row,  the  total  number  of  suckers  is  I860."  He  says 
also  that  "there  are  above  three  hundred  plates  of  one  kind,  and 
nearly  as  many  of  another,  all  dovetailing  together  with  the 
greatest  nicety  and  regularity,  bearing  on  their  surface  above 
four  thousand  spines,  each  spine  perfect  in  itself  and  of  a  com 
plicated  structure,  and  having  a  free  movement  in  its  socket." 
"  Truly,"  he  adds,  "  the  skill  of  the  Great  Architect  of  Nature 
is  not  less  displayed  in  the  construction  of  a  sea-urchin,  than  in 
the  building  of  a  world." 

THIRD  ORDER.      ASTERIDEA,    (Gr.  «tn%  aster,  a  star;  ettfos, 
eidos,  a  form.)     STAR-FISHES. 

This  order  o.f  Radiates  is  distinguished  by  having  the  body- 
more  or  less  lobed,  and  the  lobes  chaneled  beneath  for  cirrhi, 
which  act  as  suckers,  and  are  organs  of  motion.  In  some 
genera  the  arms,  instead  of  having  lateral  cirrhi  or  filaments, 
separate  into  branches.  The  Euryale  or  Gorgonocephalus,  (Gr. 


CRINOIDEA.  677 

gorgon -headed,)  (see  Chart,)  is  remarkable  for  its  five  arms  divid 
ing  into  pairs  of  branches,  which  terminate  in  curled  filaments, 
and  form  a  sort  of  net  work.  So  numerous  are  these  branches, 
it  is  said,  they  may  number  eight  thousand  in  one  individual. 

The  STAR-FISH,  Asterias,  has  almost  innumerable  perforations 
through  which  the  cupping-glass  feet  protrude,  enabling  the  ani 
mal  to  crawl  up  a  surface  as  smooth  as  glass,  and  also  assisting 
it  to  hold  its  prey.  The  rays  are  so  much  enlarged  as  to  become, 
on  that  account,  less  flexible,  and  not  so  well  fitted  for  locomo 
tion,  but  for  this  the  animal  is  compensated  by  numerous  per 
forations. 

The  SCUTELLATED  STAR-FISH,  A.  scutellata,  has  an  angular 
body,  the  lobes  or  rays  of  which  are  short,  not  exceeding  the 
diameter  of  the  disk ;  other  species  have  a  body  furnished  with 
elongated  rays,  whose  diameter  exceeds  the  diameter  of  the  disk. 
The  genus  Ophiura,  (Gr.  ophis,  a  serpent;  owra,  a  tail,)  in  its 
long,  slender  arms,  shows  a  resemblance  to  the  tail  of  a  serpent, 
(see  Chart.)  These  arms  are  flexible;  and  by  giving  them  a 
waving  motion,  the  animal  is  able  to  swim.  A  number  of  spe 
cies  of  Star-fish  are  found  on  our  coast, — some  of  which  have 
proved  very  destructive  to  the  oyster  beds.  The  Providence 
(R.  I.)  Journal,  in  reference  to  some  in  that  vicinity,  says,  "It  is 
impossible  to  estimate  the  injury  that  has  been  done  by  the  Star 
fish  ;  probably  not  less  than  twenty  thousand  bushels  of  oysters 
have  been  destroyed, — and  unless  it  disappears,  oystermen  will 
hardly  be  willing  to  plant  their  beds." 

FOURTH  ORDER.     CRINOIDEA,  (Gr.  x£»Z>ov,  krinon,  a  lily ;  eldos, 
eidos,  form.)     ENCRINITES. 

This  order  includes  species  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  which 
are  extinct,  but  which  are  found  abundantly  in  limestone  or  the 
lower  rocks.  In  the  fossil  state,  they  are  known  by  the  name 
of  Encrinites, — a  name  suggested  by  the  stony  stem,  and  a 
crown  of  rays  bending  in  sigmoid  curves,  like  the  Greek  letter 
sigrna,  (o^)  resembling  "the  stalk  and  elegant  bell-shaped  blossom 
of  a  liliaceous  flower."  The  living  species  are  very  rare.  The 
form  of  the  body  is  oval  or  cup-like,  protecting  the  internal  soft 
parts,  and  composed  of  numerous  plates.  The  arms  are  five  or 
more  in  number,  simple  or  branched,  with  lateral  jointed  append 
ages,  and  situated  around  the  upper  margin  of  the  body,  the 
mouth  being  placed  between  them.  It  is  when  the  arms  are 
closed  that  some  of  the  species  assume  a  lily-like  appearance. 
(See  Encrinus  liliiformis,  on  the  Chart.)  The  joints  composing 

28 


678  ACALEPHS. 

the  rounded  stem  have  perforations  in  their  cavities  by  which 
they  can  be  strung  as  beads,  ''which,"  says  Dr.  Buckland, 
(Bridgewater  Treatise,)  "caused  them  in  ancient  times  to  be 
used  as  rosaries."  In  the  northern  parts  of  England,  they  are 
still  called  "St.  Cuthbert's  beads."  They  are  also  known  by 
the  name  of  Wheel  Stones. 

The  Pentacrinus  Europaus,  found  in  the  Irish  coast,  is  now 
considered  to  be  the  young  of  the  Rosy-  feathered  Star-fish,  Com- 
atula.  (See  Chart.) 

The  P.  Briareus,  (see  Chart,)  is  a  fossil  species,  having  great 
length  of  stem  and  numerous  side-arms,  —  whence  the  specific 
name.  It  is  frequently  found  in  contact  with  masses  of  drifted 
wood.  (See  PI.  XVIII.) 

The  PEAR-SHAPED  ENCRINITE,  Apiocrinites,  (Gr.  apion,  a  pear,) 
rotundus,  is  so  named  from  the  form  of  its  body.  The  figures 
on  the  Chart  represent  it  with  its  expanded  and  closed  arms.  It 
is  fixed  by  a  jointed  peduncle.  The  surfaces  of  the  joints  of  the 
vertebral  column  are  striated  with  rays. 

The  Pentacrinites  have  pentagonal  stems,  and  are  found  in  the 
more  recent  strata.  Besides  the  species  found  in  the  Bay  of 
Cork,  above  referred  to,  a  larger  one,  Holopus,  (Gr.  holos,  whole  ; 
pous,  foot,)  rangei,  is  found  in  the  West  Indian  seas. 


SECOND  CLASS.     ACALEPHS,  (Gr.  axa^cp^,  akattplie,  a  nettle.) 

This  class  derives  its  name  from  the  stinging  power  possessed 
by  a  large  portion  of  the  animals  composing  it,  and  sometimes  in 
so  high  a  degree  as  to  be  a  terror  to  bathers.  They  are  known 
by  the  names  SEA-NETTLES,  MEDUSA,  SEA-JELLIES,  &c.  Having 
the  power  of  free  motion,  they  float  in  all  seas,  especially  those 
of  the  warmer  latitudes.  They  are  not  like  the  Echinoderms, 
enclosed  in  a  thick  integument  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  one  of 
their  most  striking  peculiarities  is  their  extreme  softness.  Some 
of  them  attain  considerable  size,  but  almost  all  are  without  any 
internal  support  or  skeleton.  Their  soft  tissues  give  them  the 
appearance  of  a  mass  of  jelly,  —  a  mere  net  work  of  animal  fila 
ments,  the  intermediate  spaces  of  which  are  filled  up  with  sea- 
water.  Hence,  although  some  of  the  largest  reach  the  size  of 
two  feet,  and  a  weight  of  fifty  or  sixty  pounds,  yet,  when  they  are 
dried,  the  pounds  become  grains.  Many  of  the  Medusae  are  ex 
tremely  beautiful,  reflecting  the  prismatic  rays.  DeBlainville 
represents  their  form  as  "nearly  always  circular,  sometimes  dis- 
coidal  or  spheroidal,  but  most  frequentlv  hemispherical." 
They  quite  commonly  have  a  form  like  that  of  our  umbrellas  ; 


PULMONIGRADES. 


679 


the  central  pa.it  being  thickest,  and  the  under  surface  concave. 
In  some  cases,  cirri  or  tentacles,  varying  in  length,  form,  and 
number,  are  attached  to  the  circumference.  Some  of  the  tenta 
cles  have  a  colored  spot  (thought  to  be  an  eye)  at  their  base.  It 
is  quite  certain  that  they  are  sensible  to  light.  Some  of  the 
smaller  Medusse  have  been  "  known  to  shun  a  bright  light,  and 
to  sink  into  deep  water  to  avoid  it."  The  chief  seat  of  touch 
seems  to  be  in  the  tentacula  or  cirri,  which  are  also  capable  of 
wonderful  expansion  and  retraction.  Many  of  these  Medusse 
make  no  sign  when  wounded  in  the  umbrella  or  disk.  The  food, 
consisting  of  small  fishes  and  marine  animals,  is  conveyed  to  the 
mouth,  not  by  the  tentacles  and  cirri  alone,  but  also  probably 
by  contractions  in  the  disk.  These  animals  appear,  in  most  cases, 
to  be  bisexual,  i.  e.,  the  two  sexes  are  often  united  in  the  same 
individual.  Like  some  other  lower  organizations,  they  have 
the  power  of  producing  their  offspring  by  gemmation.  "  Fancy," 
says  Prof.  Forbes,  "an  Elephant  with  a  number  of  little 
Elephants  sprouting  from  his  shoulders  and  thighs, — bunches 
of  tusked  monsters  hanging  epaulette-fashion  from  his  flanks  in 
every  state  of  advancement.  The  comparison  seems  grotesque 
and  absurd,  but  it  really  expresses  what  occurs  among  our 
Naked-eyed  Medusse." 

The  phosphorescent  or  luminous  appearance  of  the  sea,  and 
which  is  shown  in  Southern  latitudes  with  such  brilliancy  and 
beauty,  is  to  be  chiefly  ascribed  to  multitudes  of  these  animals. 

FIRST  ORDER.     PULMONIGRADES.     Lat.  pulmo,  a  lung ;  gradior, 
to  advance.)     MEDUSAE  or  JELLY-FISH. 

The  name  of  this  order  above  given,  refers  to  the  contractile 
and  expansive  power  of  the  umbrella-shaped  disk  belonging  to 
the  animal  which  it  includes,  and  which  in  the  exercise  of  this 
power,  resembles  the  breathing  lungs.  The  order  is  also,  with 
reference  to  the  umbrella  or  disk,  named  DISCOPHORA,  (disk- 
bearing.)  As  illustrating  this  order,  we  simply  refer  to  the 
genera  and  species  noticed  on  the  Chart,  with  the  figures  and 
explanations  there  given. 


680  PHYSOGRADA. 

SECOND  ORDER.  PHYSOGRADA.  (Gr.  (pvv&co,  plmsao,  to  inflate ; 
Lat.  gradior,  to  advance;)  or  SiPHONornoRA,  (Gr.  OKpuv, 
siphon,  a  pipe  or  sucker,  cpoytw,  phoreo,  to  bear.) 

This  order  is  composed  of  animals  which  are  supported  and 
capable  of  moving  in  the  water,  by  the  possession  of  one  or  more 
bladders,  which  they  inflate  with  air  at  will.  With  reference  to 
this  means  of  support,  Cuvier  called  them  Hydrostatic  Acalephs. 
When  several  air-bladders  exist,  instead  of  a  single  large  one, 
they  are  usually  affixed  to  the  same  stalk,  like  currants  upon 
the  stem,  and  rise  out  of  the  tentacular  apparatus. 

The  PORTUGUESE  MAN-OF-WAR,  Physalis,  (Gr.  water-bubble,) 
pelagica,  (Physalia  pelagica.  Linn.)  This  noted  Acaleph  (for 
which  see  Chart,)  has  a  very  large  air-vessel,  beneath  which  the 
digestive  apparatus  is  arranged.  The  sac  is  surrounded  by  a 
sort  of  crest  or  sail,  which  is  usually  elevated  entirely  above  the 
water,  when  the  animal  is  floating  at  the  surface.  It  has  a 
small  orifice  at  each  end,  from  which  the  air  can  be  expelled 
when  the  animal  wishes  to  sink,  and  it  is  distended  when  it 
wishes  to  rise.  From  the  under  side  of  the  air-sac  hangs  a  mass 
of  flask-shaped  tentacular  appendages  terminated  by  suckers,  and 
sometimes  hanging  down  like  fish-lines,  to  an  extent  of  fifteen  or 
sixteen  feet.  This  creature  possesses  an  active  stinging  power, 
and  is  also  very  contractile,  so  that  it  is  able  to  draw  up  its  prey. 
It  would  seem  the  short  suckers  are  attached  to  the  bodies  of  the 
entrapped  animals,  and  that  the  Physalis  derives  its  nourishment 
by  imbibing  their  juices  through  the  pores  of  its  numerous  cirri. 

The  Physophora,  (Gr.  bladder-bearer,)  Muzonema,  has  two 
series  of  vesicles,  and  very  numerous  tentacles  and  filaments. 
(See  Chart.) 

The  RHIZOPHYSA,  (Gr.  root-bladder,)  has  a  very  contractile 
body  with  an  aid-bladder  at  one  extremity,  and  is  provided 
throughout  its  length  with  tentacular  appendages  covered  or 
mingled  with  filaments.  (See  Chart  for  figure  of  R.  filiformis.} 

The  Apolcmia  Urania  has  an  elongated  worm-like  body  pos 
sessing  in  the  fore  part  two  rows  of  numerous  swimming  organs, 
and  behind  solid  scaly  organs,  between  which  come  forth  tenta 
cle-like  cirri  furnished  with  vermiform  suckers. 

The  Rliodophysa,  (Gr.  rhodon,  a  rose;  phusa,  a  bladder,)  Jieli- 
anthus,  (Gr.  sun-flower,)  has  a  short  cylindrical  and  fleshy  body, 
swollen  above  into  an  air-bladder,  and  having  below  a  number 
of  gelatinous  rib-like  formations  with  appended  filaments.  (See 
Chart  and  PI.  XVIII.fig.il.) 


CILIOGRADA — CIRRIGRADA.  681 

THIRD  ORDER.  CILIOGRADA.  (Lat.  cilia,  eye-lashes,  or  vibratile 
hairs ;  gradior,  to  advance,)  or  CTENOPHORA,  (Gr.  XT:EI$,  kieis, 
a  comh ;  (pogeut,  to  bear.) 

This  order  is  named  from  its  flat  phosphorescent  vibrillse  or 
rows  of  cilia,  arranged  lengthwise  upon  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  by  means  of  which  it  is  propelled  through  the  water.  It  is 
supposed  by  some  that  the  cilia  are  organs  of  breathing  as  well 
as  of  locomotion.  The  genus  Beroe  varies  in  form  from  globular 
to  cylindrical ;  the  cilia  also  vary  in  length  and  position.  The 
species  B.  ovata,  (Lat.  egg-shaped,)  exhibits  the  greatest  celerity 
in  the  movement  of  its  delicate  organs,  and  the  most  beautiful 
variety  of  colors,  (see  Chart,)  as  these  organs  play  to  and  fro  in 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  oval-shaped  body  is  open  at  the  large 
end,  transparent,  and  of  a  firm  gelatinous  consistence;  easily 
contracting  and  widening,  but  always  open  and  expanded  when 
in  motion.  The  species  Beroe,  (Cydippe,)  pihus,  (Lat.  a  cap  or 
hat,)  has  a  regular  body  divided  into  eight  sections  by  rows  of 
cilia.  From  an  internal  cavity  issue  a  pair  of  long  retractile 
appendages,  (see  Chart,)  furnished  with  vibratory  cilia.  These 
beautiful  forms  are  said  not  often  to  exceed  three  inches  and  a 
half  in  length,  and  two  inches  and  a  half  in  the  transverse 
diameter.  Callianyra  triploptera,  (Gr.  triple-winged,)  seems  in 
its  structure  and  general  character,  not  far  removed  from  Beroe. 
It  has  two  pair  of  winged-shaped  appendages,  fringed  with  a 
double  row  of  filaments  upon  the  edges.  (Plate  XVIII.  fig.  12.) 

The  GIRDLE  OF  VENUS,  Cesium  Veneris,  has  a  ribbon -shaped 
body,  (see  Chart,)  sometimes  six  or  eight  feet  long,  its  breadth 
not  being  as  many  inches.  The  margins  are  fringed  with  beau 
tifully  colored  phosphorescent  cilia,  which  at  night  gives  it  the 
appearance  of  a  band  of  flame  in  motion  along  the  water.  Some 
naturalists  add  a 

FOURTH  ORDER.     CIRRIGRADA.     (Lat.  cirri,  locks  or  tufts ;  gra 
dior,  to  advance.) 

In  this  order  the  form  is  discoidal,  and  there  is  an  internal  dis- 
coidal  skeleton  distinguishing  these  animals  from  the  Pulmoni- 
grades.  They  are  named  from  the  cirri  which  are  attached  to 
the  disk  upon  which  the  organs  are  arranged.  Some  of  the  cirri 
are  tubular  and  furnished  with  suckers.  The  Velella,  (Lamarck,) 
in  addition  to  the  oval,  sub-cartilaginous  skeleton,  is  surmounted 
by  a  vertical  and  oblique  crest.  This  form  is  widely  diffused. 
The  animals  are  met  with  far  out  at  sea,  often  in  considerable 
masses.  Sailors  are  said  to  fry  and  eat  them. 


C82  PHYTOZOA. 

THIRD  CLASS.     PHYTOZOA,  or  ZOOPHYTA.     (Gr.  yvwv,  phuton,  a 
plant;  £  wo  v,  zo  on.)     PLANT-LIKE  ANIMALS. 

The  larger  part  of  the  animals  composing  this  class  are  ma 
rine, — some  species  are  fixed  to  the  soil.  None  of  them  are 
properly  free,  swimming  animals,  although  some  of  them  can 
move  at  will  from  their  location.  Portions  of  them  are  uncon 
nected  with  others, — independent  and  single  ;  others  are  joined  in 
large  societies,  having  the  base  of  the  stems  in  union.  Some 
have  no  hard-support ;  others  secrete  a  stony  skeleton,  termed 
coraU.um,  (coral,)  thus  constructing  the  well-known  coral  reefs 
and  islands, — modifying  "the  shades  of  the  ocean's  depth,  and 
forming  whole  mountain  ranges."  The  corals  cannot  properly 
be  regarded  as  the  shells  with  which  the  animals  cover  them 
selves,  the  hard  parts  being,  in  reality,  a  part  of  the  internal 
structure.  Prof.  Dana,  in  his  magnificent  and  standard  work 
on  the  Zoophytes, — says  "the  corallum  is  entirely  concealed 
within  the  polyp,  as  completely  as  the  skull  of  an  animal  beneath 
its  fleshy  covering.  All  corals  are  more  or  less  cellular,  and 
through  the  cellules,  the  animal  tissues  extend."  In  some  in 
stances,  however,  the  coral  is  exposed,  i.  e.,  when  the  increase 
occurs  from  a  terminal  secretion  upon  a  separate  stem.  As  the 
stem  increases  in  length  above,  the  part  below  dies.  This  in 
crease  and  disappearance  of  vitality  above  and  below  are  com 
mon  ;  and  thus  are  formed  the  huge  masses  of  coral.  The  most 
common  species  engaged  in  the  production  of  coral  banks,  are 
the  Meandrina  labyrinthica,  (Brain  Coral,)  the  Caryophyllia, 
Madrepora,  Forties,  and  Astrea,  especially  the  latter.  (See 
Chart.)  A  solid  dome  of  the  Astrea,  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  has, 
according  to  Prof.  Dana,  a  living  exterior  not  more  than  a  half  or 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  "It  is  a  well-known  fact," 
he  says,  (Silliman's  Journal,  Jan.,  1837,)  that  corals  cannot  grow, 
above  the  surface  of  the  water;  and  that  reef-building  corals 
cannot  grow  at  a  greater  depth  than  from  ten  to  twelve  fathoms, 
or  above  the  surface  of  the  water  at  low  tide ;  therefore  a  coral 
reef  cannot  be  more  than  sixty  or  seventy  feet  thick."  As  a 
condition  of  coral  growth,  "the  sea-water  must  be  pure  and 
transparent.  Corals  will  not  grow,  therefore,  on  muddy  shores, 
or  in  water  upon  the  bottom  of  which  sediment  is  deposited." 

Some  of  the  Polyps  increase  both  by  eggs  and  buds ;  but  not 
all  of  the  latter  can  in  their  turns  produce  eggs.  They  seize 
their  food  with  their  tentacles;  their  whole  surface  is  covered 
with  vibratory  cilia  so  exceedingly  minute  as  to  be  discernible 
only  through  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  These  minute  hairs  are 


ACTINOIDA.  683 

perpetually  in  motion,  producing  a  continuous  current  of  water. 
They  are  not  under  the  animal's  control  from  the  period  of  its 
escape  from  the  egg.  Even  in  the  egg,  and  when  the  animal  is 
at  rest,  these  cilia  are  in  motion,  —  their  action  wafting  small  por 
tions  of  organic  matter  to  the  mouth  of  the  animal,  itself  incapa 
ble  of  going  after  other  food,  and  thus  supplying  its  wants.  By 
means  of  their  tentacles,  however,  Polyps  are  able  to  seize  upon 
larger  prey. 


FIRST  ORDER.     ACTINOIDA,  (ACTINOIDS,)  (Gr.  dxrij/,  aktin,  a  ray, 
Ray-like,)     SEA-ANEMONES  and  CORALS. 

The  name  given  to  these  animals  refers  to  the  radiated  dispo 
sition  of  the  tentacles,  which,  when  expanded,  sometimes  resem 
ble  the  petals  of  a  flower  ;  when  contracted,  the  mass  assumes 
a  lemon-like  shape.  The  order  includes,  however,  not  these 
actiniae  or  flower-shaped  genera  alone,  which  do  not  secrete  a 
coral,  but  others  also,  which  are  coralligenous. 

The  exterior  surface  of  the  Actinoids  is  either  fleshy  or  leath 
ery,  —  slimy,  and  exceedingly  sensitive.  The  mouth  is  simple 
and  bordered  with  tentacles,  —  it  is  situated  above,  while  in  the 
Star-fish,  it  is  beneath.  Each  of  the  tentacles  is  a  tube,  the  walls 
of  which  are  formed  of  longitudinal  muscular  fibres.  By  the 
contraction  of  these  fibres,  the  animal  can  shorten  the  tentacles 
in  all  directions.  Around  the  entire  tube  are  circular  fibres. 
These  pull  the  tentacles  in  succession,  so  as  to  elongate  it  to  three 
or  four  times  its  usual  length,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  seize 
its  larger  prey.  The  interior  cavity  or  stomach,  is  a  simple  sac, 
which  the  animal  contracts  or  shuts  at  pleasure.  The  digestive 
power  is  great  and  rapid,  commencing  to  act  as  soon  as  the  food 
is  within  the  cavity.  Fish,  Crabs,  and  Shell-fish,  are  speedily 
assimilated,  the  harder  parts  being  ejected  in  the  course  of  ten  or 
twelve  hours;  and  the  juices  produced  by  the  influence  of  the 
walls  of  the  stomach,  are  diffused  in  the  lower  cavity,  into  which 
the  water  which  came  in  with  the  food  is  also  poured.  The 
Actinoids  have  "  no  blood,  no  vessels,  no  respiration  proper, 
though  the  contact  of  water  produces  a  sort  of  respiration." 

(Ag-) 

The  reproduction  is  both  by  division  and  by  eggs.  At  first, 
the  "young  have  but  five  or  ten  tentacles,  but  these  steadily  in 
crease  until  they  become  almost  innumerable,  though  uniformly 
"multiples  of  five."  Lost  parts,  especially  the  tentacles,  are 
soon  replaced.  If  the  body  be  cut  into  several  parts,  each  may 
survive  and  become  a  complete  animal.  Actiniae  can  endure 


684  ACTINOIDA. 

water  hot  enough  to  blister  the  hand ;  they  can  be  thawed  out 
alive  after  having  been  frozen ;  though  to  dip  them  in  fresh- 
water  is  said  to  kill  them  immediately.  "A  strong  light  incom 
modes,  noise  startles  them,  and  they  are  affected  by  odors." 
Recorded  facts  show  that  the  duration  of  life  in  these  inferior 
forms,  is  often  quite  considerable.  Gosse,  in  a  note  found  in 
"  Life  in  its  Lower  forms,"  speaks  of  one  that  was  living  in 
1856,  which  attained  the  age  of  thirty. five  years. 

The  Actiniae  are  "found  in  every  sea — some  suspended  from 
the  walls  of  sub-marine  cliffs  ;  others  covering  the  more  exposed 
sides  of  rocks  with  a  flower-like  tapestry,  and  some  confining 
themselves  to  the  smooth  sands,  on  the  surface  of  which  they 
spread  out  their  tentacula,  and  even  slowly  withdraw  under  the 
sand  when  danger  threatens.  Some  of  them  have  a  stinging 
quality.  Many  are  used  for  food  in  tropical  countries,  on  the 
coasts  of  which  they  are  more  numerous  than  in  cold  climates. 
The  order  ACTINOIDA  is  divided  by  Prof.  Dana  into  the  Sub 
orders,  1.  ACTINARIA  ;  2.  ALCYONARIA.  We  refer  first  to  gen 
era  and  species  figured  on  the  Chart  belonging  to  the  first  (non- 
coralligenous)  family,  Actinidce. 

The  lluanthus  (Gr.  mud-flower,)  Scoticus,  has  a  round  mouth 
surrounded  by  numerous  filiform  tentacula.  The  body  tapers 
to  a  point  which  is  probably  buried  in  the  soft  mud  in  which  it 
lives. 

The  SUN-FLOWER  ANEMONE,  Actinia  heliantlius,  has  the  mouth 
encircled  by  tubulous  tentacula,  giving  it  somewhat  the  appear 
ance  of  a  sun-flower. 

The  PURPLE  SEA  ANEMONE,  or  ANIMAL-FLOWER,  A.  equina, 
has  a  soft  skin,  finely  striated,  usually  of  a  beautiful  purple, 
often  clouded  with  green.  The  tentacula,  which  number  one 
hundred,  vary  much  in  color. 

The  WHITE  SEA-ANEMONE,  A.  plumosa,  (A.  dianthus,)  Plate 
XVIII.  fig.  13,  is  four  or  more  inches  broad ;  it  has  the  margins 
of  the  mouth  expanded  into  lobes,  all  furnished  with  innumerable 
tentacula.  There  is  an  inner  row  of  these,  still  larger. 

The  LARGE  LEATHERY  SEA-ANEMONE,  A.  senilis,  (A.  crassi- 
cornis,  thick  horned,)  is  three  inches  broad,  with  a  leathery,  un 
equal  envelope,  of  an  orange  color.  The  tentacula  are  in  two 
ranges,  usually  marked  with  a  rose  colored  ring.  Its  abode  is 
commonly  in  the  sand.  This  species  occasionally  masters  and 
swallows  a  victim  even  much  larger  than  itself.  Dr.  Johnston, 
in  his  "History  of  British  Zoophytes,"  thus  remarks:  "I  had 
once  brought  to  me  a  specimen  of  Actinia  crassicornis,  that  might 
have  been  originally  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  that  had  some- 


ACTINOIDA.  685 

how  contrived  to  swallow  a  valve  of  the  great  scallop,  Pecten 
maximus,  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  saucer.  The  shell  fixed 
within  the  stomach,  was  so  placed  as  to  divide  it  completely 
into  two  halves,  so  that  the  body  stretched  tensely  over,  had  be 
come  thin  and  flattened,  like  a  pancake.  All  communication 
between  the  inferior  portion  of  the  stomach  and  the  mouth  was 
of  course  prevented,  yet,  instead  of  emaciating  and  dying  of  an 
atrophy,  the  animal  had  availed  itself  of  what  undoubtedly  had 
been  a  very  untoward  accident,  to  increase  its  enjoyments  and 
its  chance  of  double  fare.  A  new  mouth,  furnished  with  two 
rows  of  numerous  tentacula,  was  opened  upon  what  had  been 
the  base,  and  led  to  the  under  stomach  ;  the  individual  had,  in 
deed,  become  a  sort  of  Siamese  twin,  but  with  greater  intimacy 
and  extent  in  its  unions." 

The  SEA  ANEMONE,  Edwardsia  vestita,  (Lat,  clothed,)  is  one 
of  the  last  discovered  species,  named  after  a  distinguished  natu- 
ralist.  It  forms  for  itself  a  shell  or  clothing,  into  which  it  can 
retire  at  pleasure,  or  when  in  shallow  water  the  tide  recedes, 
leaving  it  exposed  to  the  air.  (Plate  II.  fig,  3.) 

The  genus  Lucernaria,  (Lat.  the  plant  verlascum,}  includes 
animal  flowers  which  are  bell-shaped,  free  or  fixed  to  sea-weeds 
by  a  narrow  disk  or  stalk,  from  which  they  expand  to  a  broad, 
eight-sided  disk,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a  quadrangular  mouth, 
arid  at  each  angle  a  bundle  of  tentacula  ;  surrounding  the  mouth 
are  festoons  of  ovaries.  The  largest  are  about  an  inch  in  height. 
They  are  of  various  colors,  but  usually  pink.  The  species  fig 
ured  on  the  Chart  is  L.  auricula,  (Lat.  the  ear-lap.) 

The  other  genera  of  the  sub-order  noticed  on  the  Chart  are 
nearly  all  coralligenous.  The  forms  which  the  corals  assume 
are  extremely  various,  such  as  those  of  trees,  shrubs,  leaves, 
obelisks,  domes,  etc.  Their  substance  consists  principally  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  The  surface  is  usually  "  covered  with  radi 
ated  cells,  each  of  which  marks  the  position  of  one  of  the  polyps ; 
and  when  alive,  animals  appear  like  plants  on  every  part  of  the 
Zoophyte."  The  frame  work  or  skeleton  is  called  Polyparium, 
or  Polypary,  (Polyp-structure.)  It  should  be  remembered  it  is 
made,  not  as  the  bee  constructs  its  cell,  but  by  secretions  of  the 
animal  tissues,  increasing  without  the  consciousness  of  the  polyp, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  bones  and  other  structures  in  the 
higher  orders  of  animals. 

FAMILY  ASTILEIDJE.  These  Actinoids  have  the  corolla  calca 
reous  with  marginal  tentacula,  excavated  cells,  and  circumscribed 
stars.  Of  these  are  the  AstrcKa  ananas,  PINE- APPLE  CORAL,  (see 
Chart.)  Prof.  Dana  says  :  "  calculating  the  number  of  polyps 
that  are  united  in  a  single  astrsea  dome  of  twelve  feet  in  diam- 


f>  SO  ACTINOIDA. 

eter,  each  covering  a  square  inch,  we  find  it  exceeding  100,000  ; 
and  in  a  Porites  of  the  same  dimensions,  in  which  the  animals 
are  under  a  line  in  breadth,  the  number  exceeds  five  and  a  half 
millions.  There  are  here,  consequently,  five  and  a  half  millions 
of  mouths  and  stomachs  to  a  single  zoophyte,  contributing  to- 

f  ether  to   the  growth   of  the  mass,  by  eating,  and   growing  and 
udding,  and  connected  with  one  another  by  their  lateral  tissues 
and  an  imperfect  cellular  or  lacunal  communication." 

The  BRAIN  CORAL,  Meandrina  labynnthica,  (see  Chart,)  is  of 
this  family.  Recent  species  belong  to  the  South  Atlantic  and  In 
dian  Oceans.  Fine  specimens  have  been  received  from  Bermuda. 

Family  Fungida,  (Lat.  fungus,  a  mushroom.)  These  have 
the  tentacles  short  and  scattered ;  when  aggregate,  the  disks 
are  confluent.  The  surface  of  the  coral  is  without  proper 
cells  and  stellate.  There  are  nine  recent  species,  mostly 
from  the  Indian  seas,  and  as  many  fossil  ones.  One  spe 
cies  is  the  MUSHROOM  CORAL,  (see  Chart,)  Fungia  patellaris, 
(F.  fungites,  Linn.,)  a  circular  coral  with  radiating  plates 
like  the  under  surface  of  som3  mushrooms.  The  Thick-tentacled 
Fungia,  F.  crassitentacula,  shows  the  animal  on  the  external  sur 
face,  (Plate  XVIII.  figs.  19  and  20,)  with  the  protruding  tentacles. 

Family  Caryophyllida,  (genus  Caryophylha.}  These  have  the 
radiating  cells  or  plates  striated  externally  and  collected  into  a 
solid  conical  polyparium  fixed  at  the  base,  (Plate  XVIII.  fig.  15.) 
See  Chart  for  figure  of  C.  cyathus,  (Gr.  kuathos,  a  cup  or  ladle.) 
The  Oculma,  a  white  coral,  is  of  this  family. 

Family  Zoanthidce,  (Animal  flowers.)  These  have  the  exte 
rior  of  a  somewhat  leathery  consistence,  and  short  marginal  ten 
tacles,  in  two  or  three  species,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  mouth  is 
situated.  For  the  Animal-flower,  Zoanthus  Solanden,see  Chart. 
This  family  is  not  coralligenous. 

Family  Madreporida,  (Fr.  madre,  spotted,  and  pore,  from  Gr. 
poros.)  These  have  deep  cells  extending  to  the  center  of  the  coral- 
lum,  which  is  very  porous  and  fixed.  The  tentacles  are  twelve. 
The  species  Madrepora  abrotanoides,  (Gr.  southern  wood-like,) 
Lamarck,  or  M.  muricata,  Linn.,  is  an  example — see  Chart  and 
Plate  XVIII.  fig.  15.  (The  figure  on  the  Plate  gives  this  species 
in  magnified,  that  on  the  Chart  in  diminished  size.) 

The  Chart  names  several  other  Madreporic  corals,  living  and 
fossil,  which  we  have  not  room  to  notice  particularly.  The  fos 
sil  genus  Catenipora,  (chain  coral,)  is  found  in  transition  rocks. 
The  animal  is  unknown,  contained  in  tubular  cells  united  later- 
ally  in  a  calcareous  polypary,  of  a  conical  form.  (For  figure 
of  C.  e.sr.hnro'flp.s  latticR-like.  SP«  Chart. ^ 


ACTINOIDA*  687 


SUB-ORDER  ALCYONARIA. 

Family  Pennatulida.  SEA  .PENS.  This  interesting  family  of 
Corals  is  represented  on  the  Chart  by  Pennatula  phosphored* 
which  has  a  stony  axis  and  is  free  or  has  the  base  sunk  in  the 
mud.  From  the  axis  a  series  of  lateral  branches  passes  off  on 
each  side,  resembling  the  barbs  of  a  feather,  whence  the  generic 
name.  On  these  branches  the  polyps  are  situated.  This  spe 
cies,  when  disturbed,  emits  a  phosphorescent  light.  By  the 
movement  of  the  eight  tentacles,  the  animal  seems  to  have  power 
to  direct  its  course. 

Family  Gorgonidce.  SEA-FANS.  These  have  the  polyp  mass 
rooted  and  tree-like,  consisting  of  a  central  axis  backed  with  a 
polypiferous  crust.  The  axis  is  horny  or  fasciculate,  but  not  cal 
careous.  These  include  many  beautiful  fixed  corals.  Some  Gorgo- 
nias  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  when  stripped,  have  the  appearance 
of  Whale-bone.  The  WARTY  SEA-FAN,  G.  verrucosa,  is  somewhat 
fan- shaped,  and  when  dry,  backed  with  a  white  warted  crust. 
The  species  G.flabellum,  (Lat.  a  small  fan,)  is  reticulated  with 
the  branches  inwardly  compressed.  It  is  found  in  the  warm  seas 
of  India  and  America,  and  three  feet  in  length. 

The  RED  CORAL,  Coralium  rubrum,  (see  Chart,)  has  the  entire 
stem  converted  into  a  stony  axis ;  the  flesh  is  external,  and  in 
this  alone  are  the  polyp  cells.  This  species  is  branched,  one 
foot  high,  varying  from  a  deep  red  to  a  beautiful  rose  color.  It 
takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  employed  for  purposes  of  ornament. 

Our  limits  render  it  necessary  to  omit  details  of  other  families 
of  Corals,  some  of  which  are  found  in  American  seas ;  also  many 
particulars  respecting  the  wonders  wrought  by  the  Coral-insects. 
The  statements  of  Prof.  Dana  contained  in  our  general  remarks, 
preclude  the  idea  that  the  coral  islands,  of  which  so  much  has 
been  said,  are  exclusively  the  work  of  these  insects.  In  many 
instances  the  coral  extends  to  a  much  greater  depth  than  these 
animals  are  known  to  live  ;  in  other  instances  it  presents  a  sur 
face  considerably  elevated  ;  but  corals  "  cannot  grow  above  the 
surface."  Com.  Wilkes,  (of  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,)  and 
others,  regard  them  as  in  part  at  least,  of  volcanic  origin.  Some 
subterranean  movement  must  have  lifted  these  islands  from  the 
bed  of  the  ocean  ;  the  coral  being  in  some  instances  not  less  than 
eight  or  nine  thousand  feet  high.  Agassiz,  it  is  said,  has  for  the 
first  time  succeeded  in  preserving  alive  in  this  country,  some  co 
ral  insects.  They  were  kept  in  water,  carefully  and  frequently 
changed.  Lady  Wortley,  (see  her  "  Travels  in  the  United  States," 


688  HYDROIDS, 

1851,)  says  she  "hardly  dared  to  breathe  while  looking  nt  them, 
for  fear  she  should  blow  away  their  precious  lives  ;  it  was  most 
interesting  to  watch  them  as  they  flung  about  what  seemed  their 
fire-like  white  arms,  like  microscopic  opera  dancers  or  wind 
mills  ;  and  most  curious  to  mark  their  complexions  and  contor 
tions,  all  the  twistings  and  twirlings,  and  flingings  and  wringing^ 
of  these  curious  little  creatures/' 

THIRD  ORDER.     HYDRO-IDS,  (Gr.  'vdga,  hydra.) 

This  order  contains  animals,  some  of  which  have,  and  others 
have  not  the  coralline  matter.  In  these  the  internal  cavity  is  tu 
bular  ;  some  of  them  have  the  power  of  moving  from  place 
to  place.  The  coral  or  hard  material  varies  in  different  genera, 
sometimes  merely  showing  itself  in  calcareous  granules  diffused 
through  the  body. 

The  eggs  of  the  Hydroids  hang  in  bunches  externally  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  upper  cavity,  in  graceful  forms  and  sometimes 
beautifully  colored.  Prof.  Dana  divides  this  order  into  four  fam 
ilies.  1.  Hydrides,  not  coral ligenous ;  2.  Sertu/andce,  with  cor 
neous  coralla ;  3.  Campanularida,  with  corneous  bell-shaped 
corolla ;  4.  Tubularidce,  with  coralla  tubular  and  corneous. 

I.  Hydrida.  It  will  be  noticed  that  hitherto  our  attention  has 
been  given  to  marine  radiates.  This  family  comprises  minute 
fresh  water  polyps  which  are  soft  and  naked.  Numbers  of  them 
are  seen  often  in  stagnant  pools  and  ditches,  clustering  upon 
aquatic  plants,  etc.  Their  structure  consists  of  a  fleshy  tube, 
the  aperture  of  which  serves  as  a  mouth  to  receive  and  exclude 
food  ;  it  is  bordered  with  from  six  to  eighteen  extremely  flexible, 
thread-like  arms.  These  are  so  fine  as  to  appear  like  gossamer, 
and  may  be  stretched  six  or  eight  inches.  The  Chart  names  the 
Green  Polyp,  H.  viridis,  (Plate  XVIII.  fig.  14,)  and  the  Yellow 
Polyp,  H.fusca.  When  in  search  of  prey,  the  Hydra  permits 
its  arms  to  float  loosely  through  the  water,  and  thus  succeeds  in 
obtaining  a  supply  of  food.  If  any  of  the  minute  crustaceans 
or  aquatic  insects  but  touch  one  of  these  tentacles,  the  thread  is 
suddenly  "thrown  into  cork-screw  coils,"  other  threads  are  also 
coiled  around  the  victim,  and  it  is  soon  borne  quite  motionless,  to 
the  mouth.  At  the  bottom  of  the  fleshy  sac  is  a  saucer-shaped 
body,  "in  the  center  of  which  is  a  small,  oval,  solid  body,  bear 
ing  on  its  summit  a  calcareous  dart,  pointed  ai  the  extremity,  and 
bifid,  or  sagittate  at  its  base."  The  darts  are  thrust  out  with 
force,  ejecting,  as  is  thought,  a  subtle,  poison  at  the  same  time ; 


PROTOZOA.  639 

and  hence  "  worms  and  the  larvae  of  insects  die   suddenly  from 
the  touch  of  these  gelatinous  threads." 

The  Hydridse  increase  by  minute  gemmules  or  buds  developed 
from  the  common  substance  of  the  body ;  but  unlike  some  of  the 
Zoophytes,  the  point  of  union  becomes  more  and  more  tender, 
and  they  are  finally  detached.  These  polyps  may  be  artificially 
increased.  If  the  body  be  divided,  each  segment  will  become  a 
new  animal,  and  even  "  a  small  portion  of  the  skin  soon  grows 
into  a  polyp.  If  cut  off  pieces  be  placed  in  contact,  and  pushed 
together  with  a  gentle  force,  they  will  unite  and  form  a  single 
one."  One  species,  it  is  said,  "can  be  actually  turned  inside  out 
like  a  glove,  and  yet  perform  all  the  functions  of  life  as  before, 
though  that  which  was  the  coat  of  the  stomach  is  now  the  skin 
of  the  body,  and  vice  versa."  (Gosse.)  This  power  of  repro 
duction  gave  to  this  polyp  the  name  of  Hydra,  in  allusion  to  the 
fabled  monster  whose  heads  sprouted  as  often  as  they  were  cut 
off  by  Hercules. 

FOURTH  CLASS.  PROTOZOA,  (Gr.  Ttg&iog,  protos,  first,  or  lowest ; 
£wov,  zoon,  animal.)  INFUSORIA.  FORAMINIFERA.  RHIZO- 
PODS. 

The  above  several  names  are  applied  to  minute  animals  which 
have  been  observed  and  studied  since  the  discovery  and  improve 
ment  of  the  microscope.  Leeuwenhoek,  in  1675,  first  observed 
them  in  standing  water,  though  he  was  not  then  certain  as  to  their 
animal  nature.  They  are  termed  PROTOZOA,  because  regarded 
as  the  first  manifestations  of  animal  life.  Being  found  in  infu 
sions  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  they  are  called  INFU- 
SORIES,  though  infusion  is  not  essential  to  their  production.  Some 
of  them  are  minute  shells,  consisting  of  one  or  more  chambers, 
united  by  a  small  perforation  or  foramen,  and  are  hence  named 
FORAMINIFERA.  The  term  RHIZOPODS,  (Gr.  rhiza,  a  root ;  pous, 
a  foot,)  is  also  applied  to  these  latter  animals. 

The  Infusories  have  been  divided  into  the  "illoricated  "  and 
the  "  loricated,"  the  former  composed  of  a  single,  homogeneous, 
soft  substance,  analogous  to  fine  membrane  and  unshielded  or 
naked  ;  the  later  covered  by  a  siliceous  or  calcareous  lorica,  or 
external  shield,  in  which  the  animal  is  enclosed.  The  pellucid 
membrane  of  the  animal  contains,  according  to  Ehrenberg,  a 
long  curved  intestine,  with  numerous  globular  bodies  suspended 
to  it  somewhat  like  grapes.  These  he  regarded  as  so  many 
stomachs,  and  therefore  called  the  animals  POLYGASTRICA,  (many- 
stomached,)  dividing  them  into  two  legions  :  1.  ENTERODELA, 


690  PROTOZOA. 

(with  the  intestines  apparent,)  and  2.  ANENTERA,  (without  intes 
tines,)  each  legion  including  both  naked  and  coated  species. 

These  Polygastrica  seem  to  be  universally  diffused,  one  set  of 
forms  inhabiting  salt  water,  another  fresh.  Every  mineral  fount 
has  its  peculiar  inhabitant.  They  are  found  with  the  red  snow 
of  the  Alps  and  the  poles,  and  in  the  waters  of  hot  springs.  In 
a  word,  wherever  organic  matter  exists  in  a  decomposing  state, 
there  they  abound,  "  acting  as  scavengers  in  devouring  in  the  state 
of  comminution  and  decay,  those  particles  of  decomposing  veg 
etable  matter,  which,  if  left  to  be  diffused  throughout  the  atmos 
phere,  might  be  productive  of  the  most  pernicious  malaria." 

Of  the  Enterodela  an  example  is  had  in  Bursaria  truncatella. 
This  is  found  in  ditch  water,  and  is  so  large  as  to  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye,  resembling  an  egg  in  shape,  with  one  end  deeply  hol 
lowed  ;  and  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  a  line  long.  (N,  B. 
The  line  employed  in  Natural  History  is  the  twelfth  part  of  a 
French  inch.)  Of  the  Anentera  we  name  of  the  genus  Monas, 
the  species  M.  crepusculum,  the  TWILIGHT  MONAD,  one  of 
the  most  minute  and  most  simple  of  all  the  living  beings  made 
known  by  the  most  powerful  microscopes,  resembling  a  mere 
ciliated  cell,  and  in  size  only  the  twelve  thousandth  part  of  an 
inch.  If  a  few  stalks  of  hay  be  tied  together  and  suspended  in 
a  jar  of  water,  the  contents  remaining  untouched,  the  second  day 
after,  there  will  appear  a  sort  of  scum  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  that  has  become  turbid  and  slightly  tinged  with  green. 
When  a  minute  drop  of  this  liquid  is  examined  with  a  micro 
scope  having  a  magnifying  power  of  about  two  hundred  diame 
ters,  the  water  is  found  to  swarm  with  immense  multitudes  of 
minute  round  or  oval  atoms,  which  move  rapidly  with  a  gliding 
action.  These  are  MONADS. 

All  infusions  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances  are  found  to 
be  speedily  filled  with  animals  resembling  these  or  others  of  the 
genus  Vibrio,  the  latter  bearing  some  likeness  to  an  eel,  (now 
placed  among  the  Intestinal  Worms.)  Upon  these  minute  crea 
tures  strong  poisons  seem  to  have  no  immediate  effect,  though  a 
few  drops  of  alcohol  suffice  to  strike  dead  the  five  millions  of 
living  beings  found  in  a  barrel  of  vinegar. 

All  the  Infusoria  seem  to  be  provided  with  a  mouth,  generally 
terminal,  but  sometimes  placed  near  the  middle  of  the  body.  The 
breathing  organs,  so  far  as  known,  are  simple  openings.  The 
sense  of  feeling  perhaps  has  its  appropriate  organs  in  the  mouth 
and  the  vibratile  cilia  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  The  eyes  are 
supposed  to  be  the  dark  red  or  black  stigmas  which  the  micro 
scope  reveals  as  situated  in  front,  on  the  upper  side.  Most  of 


PROTOZOA.  C9] 

the  Polygastrica  have  a  single  stigma ;  some,  as  the  Distigma, 
have  two.  They  never  sleep,  and  are  most  tenacious  of  life. 
The  reproduction  occurs  by  spontaneous  division  and  by  gem 
mation  or  budding.  The  division  goes  on  with  wonderful  rapid 
ity,  either  transversely  or  lengthwise,  each  half  forming  an 
independent  animal.  Ehrenberg  asserts  that  the  Hydatina  seta, 
increased  in  twelve  days  to  sixteen  millions,  and  another  species 
in  four  days  to  one  hundred  and  seventy  billions. 

The  Infusoria  are  generally  colorless  and  translucent;  but 
some  are  green,  some  yellow,  and  a  few  red.  The  colored  spe 
cies  give  their  peculiar  tinge  to  the  water.  The  shape  is  globu 
lar,  oval,  spindle-like,  cylindrical,  or  vermiform.  Some  are 
continually  changing  their  form,  as  those  of  the  genus  Amceba 
or  Proteus,  belonging  to  the  ANENTERA.  This  **  consists  of  a 
mass  of  clear  jelly-like  matter,  with  a  few  granules,  two  or  three 
supposed  stomachs,  and  a  contractile  bladder,"  and  from  its 
power  of  changing  its  form,  has  "long  been  celebrated  among 
naturalists. " 

The  term  FORAMINIFERA,  or  RHIZOPODS,  is  restricted  to  ani 
mals  of  low  organization,  "consisting  of  a  slimy,  transparent 
jelly,  invested  with  a  hard,. usually  calcareous  shell."  They 
are  found  in  sea-sand,  and  amongst  marine  refuse  dredged  up 
from  deep  water.  Owing  to  the  spiral  form  of  many  of  their 
shells,  these  creatures  were  long  erroneously  regarded  as  mol- 
lusks,  and  as  allied  to  the  Nautilus.  Ehrenberg  thought  them  to 
be  allied  to  the  Bryozoa  or  Moss- corals,  (minute  animals  aggre 
gated  in  great  numbers  like  the  coralligenous  Zoophytes,  having 
a  distinct  stomach,  and  an  intestine  curved  upon  itself,  with  an 
outlet  near  the  mouth,  "  the  tentacles  of  which  are  covered  with 
vibrilla3,  and  covered  with  a  membranous,  horny,  or  calcareous 
tube  ;  now  referred  to  the  Tunicates  or  lowest  classof  Mollusks.") 
But  the  true  position  of  the  Foramimfera  is  probably  between  the 
Ama3ba  on  the  one  hand,  and.  the  sponges  on  the  other.  The 
Foraminifera  in  the  calcareous  shell,  present  various  appear, 
ances.  Sometimes  they  are  comparatively  large  and  conspicu 
ous ;  at  others  so  small  that  their  existence  can  be  shown  only 
by  means  of  high  magnifying  powers.  Through  the  foramina, 
long  delicate  processes  of  the  soft  animal,  termed  pseudopodia, 
(or  false  feet-like.)  are  protruded.  These  are  probably  used  to 
some  extent,  "  for  tactile,  prehensile,  and  locomotive  purposes,  or 
for  the  imbibition  of  nutritive  fluid." 

The  Foraminifera  have  peculiar  interest  for  the  geologist. 
Recent  strata  owe  their  origin  to  the  long  continued  accumula 
tion  of  these  minute  atoms.  White  chalk  rocks  are  mainly  com- 


692  PROTOZOA. 

posed  of  them.  Below  these  their  numbers  decrease.  They 
exist,  however,  in  every  formation  from  the  Silurian  to  the  Ter 
tiary.  In  most  countries  Silicious  infusorial  shells  abound  in 
salt-marshes  and  the  superficial  marls  which  are  associated  with 
peat.  The  fertilizing  power  of  the  guano  is  in  part  attributable 
to  the  silicious  shells  of  infusorial  Diatoms  with  which  it  is  filled. 
Their  remains  constitute  the  Berg-mehl,or  Mountain  meal,  which 
in  Swedish  Lapland  is,  in  seasons  of  scarcity,  used,  mixed  with 
flour,  for  sustaining  life.  With  the  silicious  shields  of  the  Dia 
toms  are  also  found  the  calcareous  shields  of  Foraminifera. 

Prof.  Bailey  has  described  a  bed  of  infusorial  earth  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y.  Thirteen  or  more  similar  deposits  have  been  discov 
ered  in  other  states,  sometimes  fifteen  feet  in  thickness.  These 
American  fossils  are  mostly  found  under  banks  of  peat.  The 
forms  of  this  country  are  similar  in  character  to  those  of  Europe. 

The  true  position  of  Sponges,  Spongia,  is  not  easily  fixed. 
Like  many  of  the  Polypifera,  they  have  a  firm  horny  or  stony 
skeleton,  immersed  in  a  soft  gelatinous  living  mass.  If  they  be 
long  to  the  Animal  Kingdom,  they  are  at  the  very  lowest  point, 
showing  no  sensation  when  pierced,  torn,  burnt,  or  acted  on  by 
acids  ;  so  that  in  respect  to  sensitiveness,  they  are  surpassed  by 
some  kinds  of  plants.  The  species  of  Spongia  are  very  numer 
ous,  one  hundred  and  fifty  having  been  described  by  Lamarck. 
Their  forms  are  also  exceedingly  various,  (see  Chart  and  Plate 
XVIII.  fig.  23a,  b,  c.)  They  are  mostly  marine,  though  some 
are  found  in  fresh  water.  The  best  known  species  and  the  one 
seen  in  shops,  S.  officinahs,  is  found  attached  to  rocks  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  gathered  by  divers.  The  cup-shaped  sponge, 
S.  usitissima,  is  found  in  American  seas. 

Agassiz,  in  his  recent  work,  expresses  the  decided  opinion  that 
the  division  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  called  PROTOZOA,  differing 
from  all  other  animals  in  producing  no  eggs,  does  not  exist  in 
nature ;  and  that  the  beings  which  have  been  referred  to  it, 
might  be  divided  and  scattered,  partly  among  plants  and  partly 
among  animals.  It  would  however  be  premature  to  suppress  the 
entire  class  until  further  results  have  been  attained. 

What  is  the  4th  and  last  Sub-Kingdom  ?  What  does  it  include  ?  What 
is  the  9th  branch  of  Zoology  ?  How  is  this  term  derived  ?  Is  the  radiated 
form  equally  manifest  in  all?  Into  how  many  classes  are  the  Radiates  di 
vided?  Name  the  first.  Give  the  general  characteristics  of  the  Class. 
What  is  the  1st  Order?  What  are  its  leading  characters?  Why  have  the 
animals  been  called  Sea-cucumbers?  What  does  Com.  Wilkes  say  of  them? 
How  large  are  they?  What  is  the  2nd  Order?  Give  its  characters.  How 
do  the  forms  vary?  What  is  said  of  the  Cake  and  Heart  Urchins  ?  What 


CONCLUSION.  GC3 

of  the  mouth  ?  Repeat  the  remark  of  Prof.  Forbes.  What  is  the  3rd  Or 
der  ?  How  distinguished  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Gorgon-headed  Star-fish  ? 
Of  Asterias  ?  Of  Ophiura  ?  To  what  mollusks  are  Star-fish  peculiarly  des 
tructive  ?  What  ia  the  4th  Order  ?  Are  there  many  living  sp.  of  this  or 
der?  What  are  the  fossils  called?  What  is  said  of  the  body,  arms,  &c.  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  joints  of  the  rounded  stem?  For  what  were  they  an 
ciently  used?  What  are  they  still  called?  What  sp.  are  mentioned  and 
what  is  said  of  them  ?  What  is  the  2nd  Class  of  Radiates  ?  Why  is  it  so 
called  ?  What  are  their  common  names  ?  Give  their  characters  and  habits. 
Which  is  the  1st  Order?  To  what  does  the  name  refer?  Has  it  any  other 
name?  What  gen.  and  sp.  are  noticed  on  the  Chart?  What  does  it  say 
of  them?  What  is  the  2nd  Order?  What  animals  does  it  include?  What 
did  Cuv.  call  them  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Portuguese  Man  of  War?  What 
other  Radiates  of  this  order  are  mentioned?  What  is  said  of  them?  What 
is  the  3rd  Order?  Why  so  named?  What  are  the  uses  of  the  cilia?  What 
sp.  are  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  them  :  What  4th  Order  is  added  by 
some  naturalists?  What  is  said  of  it?  What  is  the  3rd  Class?  Give  the 
substance  of  what  is  said  respecting  it.  Which  is  the  1st  Order?  Des 
cribe  their  characteristics,  &c.  Into  what  Sub-orders  does  Prof.  D.  divide 
it  ?  What  sp.  of  the  family  Actinidae  are  mentioned  ?  Give  particulars 
respecting  them.  What  is  said  of  the  forms  assumed  by  Corals,  &c.  ?  What 
2nd  family  is  mentioned?  What  does  Prof.  D.  say  of  the  Astraea  dome, 
&c.  ?  What  3rd  family  is  named?  What  is  said  of  it?  Name  the  other 
families  of  this  Sub-order.  What  families  of  the  2nd  Sub-order  are  men 
tioned?  What  is  said  of  them?  Are  the  Coral  islands  entirely  the  work 
of  the  Coral  insects  ?  What  has  been  said  of  these  islands  by  Com.  Wilkes 
and  others?  Have  the  Coral  insects  been  kept  alive?  Repeat  the  extract 
from  Lady  Wortley's  Travels.  What  is  the  2nd  Order?  What  is  said  of 
it  ?  Into  what  families  does  Prof.  D.  divide  it?  Give  the  substance  of  what 
is  said  of  the  Hydridse.  What  is  the  4th  Class?  What  several  names  have 
been  applied  to  these  animals?  Why  termed  Protozoa?  How  have  the 
Infusories  been  divided  ?  Of  what  are  the  former  composed  ?  How  are 
the  latter  protected  ?  Why  did  Ehrenberg  name  them  Polygastrica  ?  Into 
what  two  legions  did  he  divide  them?  What  example  is  given  of  the  first? 
What  gen.  of  the  second  is  mentioned  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Twilight  Mo» 
nad?  Of  the  Vibrio?  What  are  the  breathing  organs  of  the  Infusoria? 
What  is  said  of  their  senses,  reproduction,  &c.  ?  .  To  what  is  the  term  For- 
aminifera  restricted?  What  is  said  of  them?  What  of  the  Sponges? 
Give  a  general  view  of  these  animals  as  presented  on  the  Chart. 


CONCLUSION. 

We  thus  terminate  our  sketch  of  "  Nature  in  Living  Forms." 
The  reader  or  student  of  this  volume,  while  surveying  these 
1  Forms/'  in  their  structure,  their  organs,  and  their  variations 
from  a  common  type,  beginning  with  MAN,  who  stands  in  high 
pre-eminence  at  the  head,  and  passing  downward  until  reaching 
the  group  we  have  last  contemplated,  in  which  are  discoverable 
but  the  faintest  traces  of  animal  existence,  and  marking,  too,  in 
his  progress  the  adaptation  of  all  to  the  stations  and  offices  for 


G94  CONCLUSION. 

which  they  were  severally  designed,  has  been  presented  with 
developments  of  a  plan  of  being,  beautiful  and  harmonious  in  its 
various  parts  and  gradations,  essentially  unaffected  by  lapse  of 
time  or  changes  of  locality  and  climate,  and  having  its  origin  in 
the  far-reaching  intelligence  and  unbounded  goodness  of  the  In 
finite  Creator. 

We  have  in  this  volume  but  attempted  to  lift  from  the  face  of 
"Nature"  a  portion  of  its  mysterious  veil.  May  those  who 
are  induced  to  examine  the  present  work,  not  only  derive 
from  it  motives  for  still  further  research  in  the  interesting  depart 
ment  of  Natural  History,  but  also  for  increased  diligence  and 
fidelity  in  performing  their  own  incumbent  offices  as  parts  of  the 
wondrous  whole,  cultivating  towards  each  other  feelings  of  true 
affection  and  brotherhood,  and  above  all,  binding  themselves  by 
cords  of  supreme  love  and  obedience  to  the  one  common  Father, 
extolling 

"Him  first,  Him  midst,  and  without  end." 


INDEX. 


Aard-Vark,                115  Antelopes,                  231  'Batrachians, 

528 

Aard-Wolf,                    70 

"     of  the  Desert,  240  Bears, 

80 

Abdominales,             667 

"    of  the  Fields,  232  Beaver, 

133 

Abranchiates,             654 

Ant-Lion,                    615  Bee-Eaters, 

308 

Acalephs,                    656 

Apes,                            32  Bees, 

621 

Acanthocephala,         658 

Aphides,     604,  620-626  Beetles, 

607 

AecipitrhicB,                 287 

Aphrodita,                   654  Bell-Bird, 

323 

Acanthopterygii,        560 

Aphariiptera,               631  Beroe, 

679 

Acipenser,                   584  Apiocrinites,               678  Banana, 

21 

Acorn-shell,                650 

Apodes,                      676  Birds,  (Gen.  desc.) 

268 

Actiniae,                      684 

Apple-tree  Blight,      626  Bison  or  Buffalo, 

212 

Actinoids,                    683 

Aptera,                        632  Bittern,  Botaurus, 

397 

Actinology,          13,  671 

Apteryx,                      388  Bivalve  Shells, 

067 

Adjutant,                     399 

Aquatic  Birds,            391  Black-Bird,         316 

,  332 

Agouti,                        138 

Aquilinae,                     281  Blennies  Blennidae, 

565 

Albatross,                   432 

Arachnida,                  636  Blind-Fish,  '        551 

,  568 

Alcidae,                        424 

Archer-fish,                 663  Blister  Beetles, 

611 

Alcedinidae,(Alcedo)  302 

Articulates,           14,  598  Boa,  Boidaa, 

516 

Alligator,                   478 

Ardeidae,                    395  Boat  tails, 

332 

A.  Gar,                        583 

Argali,                         226  Boobies, 

443 

A.  Tortoise,                466 

Argonaut,                    668  Bos  taurus, 

217 

Alaudinae,                    343 

Armadillos,                 1  1  6  •  Bo  vidae, 

216 

Alpaca  Llama,            189 

Arctomydae,                127'Bos  moschatus, 

222 

Amoeba,                       691 

Ass,                             169  Bottle-h'd  Dolphin, 

664 

Anentera,                   690 

"    Wild,                   170  Box  Tortoises, 

464 

Amblyopsis,       551,  568 

Astacus,                       644  Brahmin  B  ull, 

218 

American  Goldfinch,  341 

Asterias,                      677  Branchiostoma, 

657 

American  Monkeys,     39 

Asteridea,                    676  Brush  Turkey, 

375 

Ampelidae,                   322  Astrseidae,                    685  Bucerotidse,  " 

347 

Amphibia,  (mammals)  91 

Auchenia,                   187  Bufoidae, 

532 

"  (Batrachians)525 

Auks,                           424  Bugs, 

628 

Amphioxidas,              591 

Avicula,                      665:  Bull  Frogs, 

530 

Amphisbaena,              501 

Axis,                           205  Bull-heads, 

567 

Amphiuma,                637 

Axolotl,                       639  Buntings, 

338 

Amydce,                      649 

Aye-  Aye,                       48:Bursaria, 

690 

Anabassidae,               563 

Baboons,                        36  Butcher  Birds, 

324 

Anaconda,                   517 

Babyroussa,                152  Buteoninae, 

285 

Anatifa,                       650 

Badger,                          86  Buzzards, 

285 

Anchovy,                    672 

Balamidae,                   255  Butterflies, 

623 

Annelidans,         598-652 

Balloon-fish,                578  Cachalot, 

254 

Anemones,                  6S4 

Baltimore  Oriole,       332  Caducibranchiates, 

526 

Anguillidae,                  576 

Banca  Tarsier,              48  Caddis-flies, 

614 

An.  King,  how  dir'd    11 

Bandicoots,                  105  Caeciliidae, 

527 

Anoplotherium,          165 

Barnacles,                    650  Cepolidce 

564 

Ants,                            615 

Basilisk,                       490  Cake-Urchins, 

676 

Ant-Eaters,                 113 

Bats,                              60  Callianira, 

681 

090 


INDEX 


Ciilosoma,                   608 

Cicadidae,                    627 

Crotalus, 

622 

Camel  Camelid®,        180 

Ciliated  Crustaceans,  651 

Crows,  Corvidae, 

327 

Camelopards,               192 

Ciliograda,                   681 

Crustaceans, 

642 

Canary  Bird,                276 

Cinnyridae,                   353 

Crustaceology, 

13 

Canis,  Canidae,              63 

Cirrigrada,                   681 

Ctenoids,             557, 

560 

Cantharidas,                 611 

Cirripedes,                   649 

Ctenophora, 

681 

Capercaillie,                 380 

Cinosternoidae,            465 

Cuckoos,  Cuculidae, 

367 

Capridoe,                       227 

Civets,                            62 

Culex, 

629 

Caribou,                       211 

Classification  of 

Curassows, 

374 

Carnivora,                      50 

Fishes,  555 

Curlews, 

404 

Carrier  Pigeon,           371 

Cliff  Swallow,             308 

Cursores, 

384 

Cartilaginous  fishes,  548 

Climbers,                     360 

Cuttle-fish, 

666 

556,  583 

Climbing  Perches,      563 

Cyclops, 

648 

Caryophyllsea,             686 

Clupeidas,                     572 

Cyclostomi, 

556 

Cashmere  Goat,          228 

Coati-mondi,                   85 

Cycloids, 

667 

CastoridEe,                    1  33 

Cobra,                           620 

Cydippe, 

681 

Cassowary,                  387 

Coccinella,                   608 

Cypris, 

648 

Caterpillar-Hunters,  608 

Coccus  Cacti,               623 

Cvprinidae, 

568 

Cats,                               56 

Cockatoo,                     364 

Cynocephalus, 

575 

"     Domestic,            61 

Cock  of  the  Plains,    380 

Cystica, 

659 

"     Tiger,                   60 

Cockroaches,                612 

Daddy-long-legs, 

630 

"     Spotted,               60 

Cod-Fish,                     573 

Darter, 

442 

"     Wild,                   60 

Cold-blood'd  Anim'ls451 

Dasypodidse, 

116 

Catadontidae,               253 

Ccleoptera,                  607 

Decapoda,           389, 

643 

Caviadye,  Cavies,        137  Colics,  Coliadae,          344 

Death  Watch, 

610 

Cebidae,  Cebus,             41  Colubridse,                    512 

Deer  Family, 

202 

Cephalata,                   666  Columbidaj,                  370 

Delphinidaa, 

247 

Cephaloptera,             589  Colymbidae,                 423 

Demoiselle, 

396 

Cerastes,  H'd  Snake,  521  Comatula,                    676 

Dentirostres, 

312 

Cercopithecus,              39|Conchology,                664 

Desman, 

99 

Certhiadae,                   357  Condor,                        290 

Didunculus, 

389 

Cervidae,                       202  Condylura,                    101 
Cervine  Antelopes,     237  j  Cone-billed  Birds,       326 

Digitigrada, 
Dinornis, 

56 
388 

Cestum  Veneris,         68  1 

Coney,                          163 

Distoma, 

656 

Cetacea,                       244 

Conirostres,                  326 

Divers, 

423 

Chaetodons,                  562 

Copper-head,               523  Dizigguetai, 

170 

Chalcidce,                      499 

Coralium,                     687  Dodo, 

389 

Chameleons,                484 

Coral,                           687  Dog  Family, 

63 

Chamois  or  Gems,       238 

Cormorants,                440 

"     Domestic, 

64 

Charadriadse,               392 

Coronula,                     650 

Domestic  Poultry, 

378 

Chatterers,                   322 

Corvidse,                      327 

Dolphins, 

247 

Cheetah,                         60 

Coryphaena,                564 

Dormouse, 

132 

Cheiroptera,                  50 

Cougar,                          58 

Dorsibranchiates, 

654 

Chelonians,                  456 

Cracidae,                      874 

Dotterel, 

394 

Chelyoidae,                   467 

Cranes,                          395 

Double-Walkers, 

501 

Chevrotain,                  201 

Cray  or  Craw-fish,      644 

Dragon, 

492 

Chilognathi,                 635 
Chilopoda,                   634 

Creepers,                     357 
Crested  Red-bird,       342 

Dragon  Fly, 
Dromedary, 

614 
183 

Chiniaeridie,                 583 

"       Triton,           536 

Ducks, 

417 

Chimpanzee,                 32 

Crickets,                      613 

Dugong, 

265 

Chinchilla,                   132  Crinoidea,                    677 

Eagles, 

281 

Chionidse,                    119  Crocodile,                    479 

Earth-worm, 

655 

Chondropterygii,        583 
Chuck-will's-Widow^  304 

Crossbills,                    345 
Crotalidaj,                    522 

Earwig, 
Echidna, 

612 

109 

INDEX 


697 


Echinidea,                   675 

Gibbons,                      34 

Heart  Urchin,             676 

Edentata,                     112 

Giraffe,                          192 

Hedge-hogs,                  98 

Eel,                                576 

Glires,                           122 

Helminthology,     13,  652 

Elk  or  Moose,             209 

Globe  Fish,                578 

Hemiptera,                  625 

Elephant,                      142 

Glutton,                         87 

Herbivero's  Cetacea,  261 

Elcutheropomi,           583 

Glutinous  Hags,  557-590 

Herrings,                      572 

fcncrinites,                   677 

Gnats,                           629 

Herons,                         395 

£nterodela,                  689 

Gnathodon,                 889 

Herpetology,        13,  451 

Entomology,         13,  600 

Gnu  or  Gnoo,              240 

Hessian  Fly,                630 

Entomostraca,            647 

Gnawers,                       122 

Hippopotamus,           159 

Entozoa,                      656 

Goat  Family,              227 

Hirudinidae,                  665 

Ermine  or  Stoat,           72 

Goat-like  Antelopes,  238 

Hirundinidae,               305 

Falconidas,                   280 

Goat-suckers,               302 

Hog,  Domestic,           150 

Fallow  Deer,               208 

Gobies,  Gobidae,         565 

Holothuridee,               674 

Felida?,                            56 

Golden  Eagle,             281 

Honey-eater,               356 

Ferret,                   0        76 

Goldfinch,                    341 

Hooked  Worms,         658 

File-Fishes,                 578 

Gold  Fish,                   568 

Hoofed  Animals,         150 

Finches,     '                   333 

Goosander,                  422 

Hoopoe,                       352 

Fire  Flies,                    610 

Gorgonia,                     687 

Horn-bill,                     347 

Fish-Hawk,                  283 

Gorgoriocephalus,       676 

Horned   Horse,          240 

Fissirostres,                  302 

Grallatores,                 391 

"        Monkey,         42 

Fishes,                         544 

Grampus,                      251 

"         Owl,     '         295 

Flamingo,                     413 

Grass-hopper,              613 

Hornet,                        619 

Fiat-Fishes,                  574 

Great-foots,                 375 

Horse,                          166 

Fleas,                           631 

Great  Auk,                  425 

Horse-foot,                  649 

Fluke  Worms,             658 

Grebe,                          424 

Howlers,                         39 

Fluvicola,                     649 

Greenlets,                     320 

Humming  B.                354 

Flies,                            630 

Greenland  Whale,      256 

Hump-b'd  Whales,     258 

Fly-catchers,               318 

Green  Turtle,              470 

Hvrcnas,                         62 

Flying-Fish,                 571 

Grizzly  Bear,                 81 

Hydride,                       68S 

Flying  Squirrel,          126 

Grosbeaks,                   342 

Hydraspidaa,                467 

Foraminifera,               689 

Ground  Puppy,           637 

Hymenoptera,               67 

Fossil  Cervidae,           215 

Grouse,                         379 

Hyrax,                          163 

Marine  Lizards,  481 

Guacharo,                     304 

Hystricidae,                 134 

Crocodiles,        480 

Guanaco,                       189 

Ibex,                            230 

Geosaurus,        494 

Guinea-Fowls,             378 

Ibis,                             401 

Megatherium,   119 

"      Pig,                 138 

Ichneumon,                    63 

Ichthyosaurus,  481 

"      Worm,            655 

Ichthiology,                   13 

Fr  gate  Bird,               443 

Gulls,                            434 

Icthyosaurus,               481 

Fringillidae,                  333 

Gurnards,                     661 

Iguanidae,                     488 

Frogs,                           528 

Gypaetus,                       292 

Iguanodon,                  483 

Frog  or  Toad  Fish,    666 

Gyratores,                    370 

Infusories,                   689 

Fungia,                         686 

Haddock,                     574 

Insects,                        600 

Gadidaj,                       673 

Hair-Worm  or  Sn'ke,  657 

"     General  descrip 

Galagos,                         47 

Hair-fin'd  Blepharis,  564 

tion,  598 

Gallinaceas,                  369 

Halibut,                       575 

Insectivora,                   98 

Gannets,                       443  Haliffitus,                      282 

Insessores,                   298 

Ganoids,                      582 

Hand  drinker,               43 

Jabiru,                          400 

Gar-fish,                        683 

Hare  Family,               138 

Jackals,                           69 

Gavials,                        480 

Harp  Seal,                     94 

Jay,                               329 

Gazelle,                        233 

Harpy  Eagle,              283 

Jelly-Fish,                   679 

Geckos,                        486 

Harriers,                       284 

Jerboa,                        128 

Genets,                           63 

Harvest-flies,               627 

Jer-falcon,                   287 

Geese,                         421;  Hawks,                        287 

Jumping  Mouse,         137 

698 


INDEX. 


Kanchil,                      20 

Man,                              21 

Myrmeleon,                615 

Kangaroo,                    107 

Mandril,                         36 

Myxines,                      557 

Kestrel,                        287 

Marine  Snakes,           518 

Nat.  History,                  9 

King  Fishers,             30^ 

Marmot,                       127 

Narwhal,                      249 

King  Crab,                  649 

Marsupialia,                 103 

Natatores,                   416 

Kites,                           284 

Marten,  (Mammals)     74 

Nautilus,                       668 

Kivi-Kivi,                    288 

Martin,  (Birds)           305 

Nectarinidas,                353 

Kudoo,                         242 

Mastodon,                     149 

Nematoidea,                656 

Labridae,                       567 

Megapodiidoe,              375 

Neuroptera,                 614 

Lacertidae,                    497 

Megatheriadae,            119 

Newts,                          534 

Lanimergeyer,            292 

Meliphagidae,               356 

Nightingale,                314 

Lampreys,                    590 
Lancelot,                     657 

Mendoles,                    662 
Mephitic  Weasels,       72 

Night-jar,                    802 
Nylghau,                     242 

Land  Tortoises,          460 

Mergansers,                422 

Nymphalidaa,               624 

Land  Birds,                 28C 

Merlin,                         287 

Ophidians,                   5o7 

"     Newts,               534 

Meropidae,                    308 

Opossums,                   105 

Laniadae,                       824 

Merulidae,                     316 

Orang  Outang,              33 

Lantern-flies,              627 

Mice  Family,               136 

Orioles,                         332 

Lapwing,                     892 

Milvinae,                        284 

Ornithology,         13,  268 

Larks,                          343 

Mink,                           1    75 

Orthoptera,                 612 

Leathery  Turtle,         472 

Mino  Bird,                   833 

Oryx,                           237 

Leech,                          655 

Moa,                             388 

Osprey,                        282 

Leaf-rollers.                 625 

Mocking  Bird,             317 

Osseous  Fishes,          560 

Lemurs,  Lemuridae,      44 

Mohr,                           234 

Ostrich,                         384 

Leopards,                       60 

Mole,                            100 

Otter,                             76 

Lepas,                          650 

Mollusks,               14,  664 

Ovidae,                          224 

Leporidae,  (Lepus)     138 

Monad,  Monas,            690 

Oxen,                           216 

Lily  Encrinite,            677 

Monkeys  Am.,        39-44 

Oysters,                      667 

Limulus,                       648 

Monotremata,              109 

Owls,                            293 

Linnet,                          340 

Moose  Deer,                209 

Paco,                            188 

Lion,                              67 

Moschidae,                   196 

3achydermata,            142 

Lizards,                       497 

Moths,                          624 

r'alaeotherium,            164 

Limnoria,                    647 

Mother  Carey's  Chick 

•5anda,                             89 

Llama,                         187 

ens,  432 

3angolin,                     115 

Lobster,                       645 

Motmot,                       311 

^anther,  Puma,            58 

Locusts,                       613 

Moufflon,                     226 

:*apilioiudae,                 623 

Long-armed  Ape,         34 

Mud  &  Musk  Tort'ses,  465 

'aradiseadae,               329 

Lophidoe,  (Lophius)  566 

Mud  Lampreys,          590 

Carrots,                        362 

Lophobranchia,          577 

Mule,                           170 

Cartridge,                    380 

Loris,                               46 

Mule-Deer,                  206 

'assenger-Pigeon,      372 

Loxiadae,                      845 

Mullet,  Mugilidse,        565 

'asserine  Birds,         298 

Lumbricidae,                655 

Muntjack,                    214 

5eacocks,(Pavonma5)376 

Lump-fishes,                575 

Murida?,  (Mus)             136 

'eccaries,                    154 

Lynx,                              60 

Muscicapidse,               310 

'ediculus,                   632 

Macaw,                         364 

Muscidae,                      630 

'eechi,                         171 

Mackerel  Family,       563 

Vfusk-Deer,                  196 

'elicans,  Pelicanidae,438 

Macropidae,                  107 

"     Ox,                     222 

'enguins,                    425 

Madagascar  Gate,         45 

"     Hat,                    134 

'entatoma,                  628 

Malacology,           13,  664 

[usophagidae,             348 

'erches,  (Percidae)    560 

Malacopterygii,  547-567 

[usquetoes,                629 

'erching  Birds,           298 

Malacostraca,              643 

[ustelidae,                     71 

'erennibranchiata,     537 

Mammalogy,                 13  Mylodon,                     121 

'etrels,                         429 

Mammalia,                     19  Myriapoda,                  633lPhalanger,                   106 
Mammoth,                  149lMyrmecophagada3,     HSiPhalarope,                  408 

INDEX. 


699 


Pharaoh's-Rat,             63 

Rattle  Snakes,            622 

Sea  Egg,                    675 

Phasianidae,                 376 

Raven,                         328 

Fan,                      687 

Pheasants,                    376 

Rays,  Raidae,              588 

Horse,                  677 

Phebe  Bird,                 320 

Red  Bird,                     343 

Jellies,                 678 

Phocidae,                        91 

Red-blood'd  Worms,  652 

Lampreys,           690 

Physograda,                680 

Red  Deer  or  Stag,      207 

Mice,     '               654 

Physophora,                680 

Red  Poll,                     340 

Monsters,             683 

Phytozoa,                    682 

Reed  Warblers,          314 

Nettles,                678 

Pichiago,                     119 

Rein  Deer,                  211 

Otter,                    78 

Pigeon,                       370 

Reptiles,                       451 

Pie,                      393 

Picidae,                         365 

Rhinoceros,                 155 

Porcupine,          678 

Pikes,                          570 

Rhinolophina,                55 

Slugs,                   674 

Pilot-Fish,                   563 

Rhodophysa,               680 

Spider,                 636 

Pipe  Fishes,                577 

Ribbon-fish,                 664 

Turtles,                469 

Plagiostomi,                 556 

River  Tortoise,           468          Urchin,                675 

Planidae,  Pleuronec- 

River  Cray-Fish,         644  Seals,                              91 

tidse,  574 

River  Horse,                159 

Secretary  Vulture,     292 

Plantain  Eaters,         348 

Robin,                          317 

Semnopithecus,            37 

Plantigrada,                  80 

Robin-Red-breast,      315 

Serpula,                       653 

Plectognathi,               677 

Roe-buck,                   206 

Serpents,                     507 

Plesiosaurus,               482 

Rodentia,                     122 

Shad,                           673 

Plover,                         392 

Rollers,                        309 

Sharks,                         685 

Polar  Bear,                    82 

Rorquals,                     259 

Sheath-bill,                  381 

Polygastrica,               689 

Kostridae,                     400 

Sheep,                          224 

Polyp,                  682-685 

Root-Eaters,               108  |Shore  Finches,           340 

Porcupine,                   134 

Rotatoria,  Rotifera,    650 

Shrews,                          98 

Porpoise,                     250  Ruff  &  Reeve,          '    407 

Shrikes,                        324 

Portuguese  Man  of 

Ruffed  Lemur,               46 

Shrimps,                      647 

War,  680 

Ruminantia,         175-243 

Silk-worm,                   625 

Pouched  Rat,              137 

Runners,                       384 

Siluridaa,                      567 

Prairie  Dog,                127 
"      Hen,               380 

Sajou,                             41 
Salamanders,               634 

Silver-sides,                 565 
Simiadse,                         31 

Prawn,                          644  Sand-pipers,                 407 

Siphonophora,            6SO 

Proboscidae,                 142 

Sapajou,                         39 

Slunk,  (Scincus)         502 

Procellaridae,               429 

Sauria,                           475 

Skunk,                           73 

Proteidaa,                     537 

Saw-fish,                      588 

Sky-lark,                      344 

Protozoa,                      689 

Scale  of  Birds'  brains, 

Slender-tongued 

Pterodactylus,             483 

278 

Lizard,  497 

Puffins,                          >26 

Scansores,                    360 

Sloths,                          112 

Pythons,                      516 

Scsenidae,                      562 

"      Fossil,             119 

Pulmonigrades,           679 

Sciuridce,                      124 

Snake-Birds,                442 

Quadrumana,                31 

Scolopacidse,               403 

Snapping  Turtle,         466 

Quagga,                       172 

Scolopendra,               634 

Snipes,                         403 

Quail,                           380 

Scomberesox,              670 

Soft-shelled  Tort'ses,  468 

Quesal,                         311 

Scorpions,                     638 

Solitary,                       390 

Rabbit,                         140 

Scratchers,                   369 

Spermaceti  W.            254 

Racoon,                          83 

Sea  Anemones,           683 

Spectre  Insects,          612 

Radiates,               14,  673 

"    Bear,                       95 

Spiders,                        636 

Rails  or  Coots,            413 

"    Breams,               662 

"         Monkeys,       40 

Rallidre,                       412 

"    Cow,                      261 

>7piny  Dog-fish,           587 

Ramphastidae,             361 

"    Cucumbers,         674 

Split-billed  B'ds,  302-312 

Ranid;B,                        528 

"    Pens,                    687 

Spongia,                      692 

Raptoi-es,                    280 
Rats,                           137 

"    Ducks,                  419  Spoon-bill,                   400 
"    Eagle,                  283lSqualidse,                    680 

730 


INDEX 


Squirrel, 
"        Monkeyj, 

124 
42 

Tiger,                           69  1  Venus-girdle,             681 
Cats,                   60  Vermetus.                    667 

Star-fishes, 

676 

Tinamous,                    882 

Verrnilia.                      653 

Sticklebacks, 

561 

Titlarks,  Titmice,       315  Vertebrates,                 14 

Stingers, 

618 

Toad-fish,                     560  VespertilionidEe,           55 

Stoat, 

72 

Toads,                           532  'Vibrio,                          690 

Stilt-Birds, 

391 

Todies,  Todidfe,          8i)9i  Vicugna,                      191 

Stonechats, 

314 

Tooth-billed  Birds,     312  Vinegar  Eel,               690 

Storks, 

89S 

Toothed  Whales,        253  |viperidae,  (Vipers)     619 

Strepsiptera, 

611 

Torpedoes,                   589  Vivcrrida-,                      62 

Strigida!, 

293 

Tortoise,  Shell  T.       471 

Vulturidae,                   2S9 

Struthionidae, 

384 

Toucans,                      361 

Waders,                       391 

Sturgeon, 

583 

Touracos,                     349 

Wag-tails,                   315 

Sturnidte,                 831-3 

Trachearia,                  638 

Walking-leaf,              613 

Sub-brachials, 

573 

Trematoda,                  658 

Walrus,                          95 

Sucking-Fishes, 

676 

Tribolites,                    647 

Wapiti,                        205 

Suidae, 

150 

Tringa,                         404 

Warblers,                    313 

Sun  Birds,* 

353 

Trionychidae,              468 

Wasps,                         618 

Sun-fish, 

678 

Triton,                          635 

Water-Hen,                 412 

Surgeon-fish, 

665 

Trochilidse,                  354 

"     Measurer,         628 

Surinam  Toad, 

633 

Trogons,  Trogonidse,31<> 

"     Ouzel,               317 

Swallows, 

305 

Troglodytes,                  32 

"     Shrew,                99 

Swans, 

418 

Tropic  Birds,               444 

Waxwings,                  322 

Swift, 

306 

Trout  Family,    550,  548, 

Weasel  tribe,                71 

Swimmers, 

416 

671 

Weak  Fish,                 651 

Sword-fish, 

663 

True  Antelopes,         233 

Weavers,                      337 

Silviadae, 

313 

"     Parrots,              863  Weeper,                         41 

Syngnathus, 

650 

"     Whales,             255  Web-footed  Birds,     416 

Syrian  Goat, 

229 

Trumpet  Fish,             57  1|  Weevils,                      610 

Tailor  Bird, 

314 

Trunk  Fishes,              682  Whale  Tribe,               244 

Tantalidae, 

401 

Tubulibranchiata,       653 

Whalebone  W.            255 

Tape-Worm,  Taenia, 

658 

Turbot,                         675 

White  W.  (Beluga)    250 

Tapir,  Tapiridae, 

161 

Turkey,                        377 

Whip-poor  Will,         304 

Tarantula, 

637 

Turnstone,                   393 

White  Ants,                615 

Tardigrada, 

112 

Turtles,                        456 

White-fish,                   571 

Tarsiers, 

47 

Turtle  Dove,               872 

Widow-Birds,              337 

Tatlers, 

405 

Twilight  Monad          690 

Wild  Ass,                    170 

Teal, 

419 

Unguiculata,                140 

Wild  Boar,                  150 

Teidae,  Teguixins, 

495 

Ungulate,                     142 

Worms,                        652 

Tenrec, 

98 

Univalve  Shells,         666 

Xiphias,                        563 

Tenuirostres, 

351 

Upupidse,                     352 

Xvphosura,                  648 

Termites, 

615 

Urchin,                         675 

Yak,                              222 

Tern, 

436 

Urodela,                       534 

Yellow  Bird,               314 

Terrapin, 

464 

Ursine  Howler,             40 

Zebra,                          171 

Testudinina, 

460 

Ursida?,                           80 

Zebra  Wolf,                 104 

Tetraonidae, 

379 

Vampire,                       55 

Zebu,                            218 

Tetradecapoda, 

645 

Varans,                         493 

Zerda,                            67 

Thin  Billed  Birds, 

351 

Varieties  of  the 

Zeuglodon,                  265 

Three-toed  Gulls, 

434 

Human  Race,    28  Zoanthus,                    686 

Thrushes, 

316 

Velella,                       681  Zorilla,                          73 

Ticks, 

636 

/               OF  THE     ] 

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;ERSTTY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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STAMPED  BELOW 

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SEP  14  1915 


Sept.  14' 15 


West  wood.          *, 


QLSO 


